THE 


Smithsonian 


Institution 


1846-1896 


IBANCROFT    LIBRAW 


The  . 


en 

,^/rOTTTTTIT8Vn  VLAr/lOP.Wm^S  HHT  'ECO  aaai^TTO'^T 


JAMES    SMITHSOK 

FOUNDER  OF  THE  SMITHSONIAN  TNSTITT^TTON. 


THE 


SMITHSONIAN 

INSTITUTION 

1846 — 1896 


The  History  of  its  First  Half  Century 


Edited  by 

George  Brown  Goode 


CITY  OF  WASHINGTON 

1897 


PREFACE 

In  iyg6,  George  Washingto7t,  m  his  farewell  address  to  his 
fellow-countrymen,  said :  "■Promote,  then,  as  an  object  of  pri- 
mary importajice,  institutiojts  for  the  general  diffusion  of 
knowledge.  In  proportion  as  the  structure  of  a  government 
gives  force  to  public  opinion,  it  is  essential  that  public  opiiiion 
should  be  enlightened^  Thirty  years  later  an  E7iglishma7i, 
James  Smithson,  as  though  influenced  by  these  words,  be- 
queathed the  whole  of  his  property  to  the  Uitited  States  of 
America  in  trust  ''  to  foicnd  at  Washington  an  establishment 
for  the  increase  a7id  diffusion  of  knowledge  among  meny  John 
Quincy  Adams,  in  pre s editing  to  the  Natio7ial  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives the  first  report  of  the  Select  Committee  on  the  mes- 
sage of  the  President  announcing  the  Smithson  Bequest,  ex- 
horted his  colleagues  in  these  woi^ds:  ^^  Let  the  trust  of  James 
Smithson  to  the  United  States  of  America  be  faithfully  exe- 
cuted by  their  representatives  in  Congress ;  let  the  result  ac- 
complish his  object :  '  the  increase  and  di^usion  of  knowledge 
among  men!  " 

The  Act  of  Congress  establishing  the  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion was  sighted  by  President  Polk  on  Atcgtist  lo,  18^6,  and 
on  September  7  the  Board  of  Regents  held  its  first  meetijig. 
The  past  year  marks  the  close  of  the  first  half  century  of  the 
operatiofis  of  the  Institution.  This  volume  presents  the  sto7y 
of  the  realization  of  one  of  the  desires  of  Washington,  through 
the  will  of  Smithson,  the  wise  legislation  of  Congress,  and  the 
devotion  of  those  upon  whom  the  management  of  the  Smithso- 
nian Institutio7i  has  devolved. 

WILLIAM  MCKINLEY. 

The  Executive  Mansion, 
Washington,  June  22,  i8gy. 


INTRODUCTION 

The  law  establishing  the  Smithsonian  Institution  luas  signed 
by  President  Polk  on  August  lo,  18^6,  and  the  first  organic 
act  of  the  histitution  was  a  meeting  of  the  Board  of  Regents, 
held  on  Septe^nber  7  of  that  year.  As  far  back  as  i8gj,  in 
viezv  of  the  approaching  completion  of  the  first  half  ce7itu7y,  I 
discussed  with  the  Executive  Committee  of  the  Regents  the 
best  method  of  celebi^ating  this  event. 

It  seemed  quite  impracticable  to  arrange  for  a  gathering  of 
delegates  from  other  scientific  institutions,  such  as  is  ofte^i  held 
on  similar  occasions  by  institutions  aiid  learned  bodies,  and  the 
simplest  and  most  efiective  means  of  commemorating  it  ap- 
peared to  be  the  publication  of  a  sici table  volume,  which  would 
give  an  acco7i7it  of  the  history,  achievements,  and  present  con- 
dition of  the  Smithso7iia7i  l7istitutio7i. 

Doctor  G.  B7VW71  Goode,  zvhose  acquai7ita7ice  with  its  history 
was  unrivaled,  drew  7ip  a  C077ip7^ehe7isive  pla7i  for  the  vohmie, 
a7id  071  its  app7'oval,  Doctor  lames  C  Welli7ig,  a  Rcge7it, 
agreed  to  U7ide7^takc  its  edito7Hal  supe7^visio7t.  Doctor  Well- 
ing s  death  sce7ned  to  put  a  stop  to  the  pivposed  work,  for  there 
appeared  to  be  710  07ie  S2cfficie7itly  acquainted  zuith  the  history 
of  the  histitution  who  had  the  ability,  the  willi7ig7iess,  a7id 
the  leisu7^e  to  assu77ie  this  ve7y  co7iside7^able  task.  It  was  the7i 
that  Doctor  Goode  told  me  of  his  great  desire  to  imdertake  the 
work.  K7iozvi7ig  how  ittmierotis  his  duties  already  were,  I  at 
first  refused,  a7id  it  was  07ily  at  his  ear7test  solicitatio7i  that  I 
agreed  to  his  request. 

The  77ianuscript  was  so  fa7^  advanced  at  the  ti77ie  of  his  death 
as  to  render  possible  its  co77ipletio7t  for  the  press,  a7id  its  publi- 
cation tip07i  the  li7ies  he  laid  dow7i.  He  had  7iot  07ily  writte7i 
many  of  the  chapters,  but  had  77tade  ain'a7ige77ie7its  for  the  illus- 


vi  Introduction 

tratioiis  and  other  details  of  the  book.  ThoiLgJi  this  lamejited 
event  has  delayed  its  appearance,  I  have  been  enabled  to  sec2ire 
the  aid  of  valued  assistants  who  have  carried  the  work  through. 
I  have  added  to  the  ojHginal  plan  a  biographical  sketch  of 
Doctor  Goode,  by  Doctor  David  Starr  Jordan,  P^rsidcnt  of  the 
Leland  Stanfoi^d  Junior  University. 

S.  P.  LANG  LEY, 

Secretary. 
Smithsoniaji  Lnstitution, 

Washington,  June  23,  1897, 


TABLE    OF    CONTENTS 

PAGE 

PREFACE,  BY  THE  President  of  the  United  States iii 

INTRODUCTION,  BY  THE  SECRETARY  OF  THE  SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION  V 

HISTORY    OF   THE    SMITHSONIAN    INSTITUTION 

I 

JAMES  SMITHSON,  BY  Samuel  Pierpont  Langley I 

II 

THE    FOUNDING   OF    THE    INSTITUTION,    1835-1846,    BY     George 

Brown  Goode 25 

III 

THE   ESTABLISHMENT  AND  THE  BOARD  OF  REGENTS,  BY  George 

Brown  Goode 59 

IV 

THE  THREE   SECRETARIES,  BY   George   Brown   Goode 115 

V 

THE   BENEFACTORS,  BY  SaMUEL  PiERPONT  LaNGLEY 235 

VI 

THE    SMITHSONIAN    BUILDING   AND    GROUNDS,  BY  GeoRGE  BroWN 

Goode 247 

VII 

THE   SMITHSONIAN    LIBRARY,  BY  CyrUS  AdlER 265 

vii 


viii  Contents 

VIII 

the  united  states  national  museum,  by  frederick  william 

True 303 

IX 
BUREAU   OF   AMERICAN   ETHNOLOGY,  BY   W  J  McGee 367 

X 

THE  INTERNATIONAL  EXCHANGE  SYSTEM,  BY  WlLLlAM  CRAWFORD 

WiNLOCK 397 

XI 

THE  ASTROPHYSICAL  OBSERVATORY,  BY  SamueL  PieRPONT  LanGLEY      419 

XII 

THE   NATIONAL  ZOOLOGICAL   PARK,  BY   Frank   Baker 443 

XIII 
EXPLORATION    WORK    OF    THE    SMITHSONIAN    INSTITUTION,    BY 

Frederick  William  True 459 

XIV 
THE   SMITHSONIAN   PUBLICATIONS,  BY   CyRUS  Adler 481 

XV 

BIOGRAPHICAL    SKETCH    OF   GEORGE    BROWN    GOODE,  BY    David 

Starr  Jordan,  President  of  Leland  Stanford  Junior  University     ....        501 


APPRECIATIONS   OF   THE   WORK    OF   THE    SMITHSONIAN 

INSTITUTION 

I 

PHYSICS,  BY   Thomas    CorWIN   MendENHALL,  President  of  the  Worcester 

Polytechnic  Institute 5^9 

II 

MATHEMATICS,  BY  ROBERT   SiMPSON  WoODWARD,  Professor  of  Mechanics, 

Columbia  University       5^^ 


A 

Contents  ix 

■'■-'■-'•  PAGE 

ASTRONOMY  BY   EdwARD   SinglETON    HoldEN,  Director  of  the  Lick  Ob- 
servatory           571 

IV 

CHEMISTRY,   BY    MaRCUS    BENJAMIN,  Fellow   of  the   Chemical   Society   of 

London 611 

V 

GEOLOGY   AND    MINERALOGY,    BY    WiLLIAM    NORTH    RiCE,   Professor 

of  Geology,  Wesleyan  University 631 

VI 

METEOROLOGY,  BY   Marcus  BENJAMIN,   Fellow  of  the  Chemical  Society  of 

London 647 

VII 

PALEONTOLOGY,  BY   Edward   Drinker    Cope,  Professor  of  Mineralogy 

and  Geology,  University  of  Pennsylvania 679 

VIII 

BOTANY,  BY  William    GiLSON    FarloW,   Professor  of  Cryptogamic  Botany, 

Harvard  University 697 

IX 

ZOOLOGY,  BY  Theodore   Gill,    Professor  of  Zoology,  Columbian  University      711 

X 

ANTHROPOLOGY,   BY  JesSE   Walter    FewkES,   Editor  of  the  Journal  of 

American  Ethnology  and  ArchcEology 745 

XI 

GEOGRAPHY,  BY  GARDINER    GreENE  HubBARD,  President  of  the  National 

Geographic  Society 773 

XII 

BIBLIOGRAPHY,   BY   HenrY    CarRINGTON   BolTON,   Lecturer  on  the  His- 
tory of  Chemistry,  and  Professor  of  Bibliography,  Columbian  University       .     .        785 


X  Contents 

XIII  PAGE 

THE  COOPERATION  OF  THE  SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION  WITH 
OTHER  INSTITUTIONS  OF  LEARNING,  BY  Daniel  CoiT  GilMAN, 
President  of  Johns  Hopkins  University 805 

XIV 

THE  INFLUENCE  OF  THE  SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION  UPON 
THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  LIBRARIES,  THE  ORGANIZATION  AND 
WORK  OF  SOCIETIES,  AND  THE  PUBLICATION  OF  SCIENTIFIC 
LITERATURE  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES,  BY  JOHN  Shaw  BiLLINGS, 
Director  of  the  New  York  Public  Library 815 

XV 

RELATION  BETWEEN  THE  SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION  AND  THE 
LIBRARY  OF  CONGRESS,  BY  AiNSWORTH  RaND  SpOFFORD,  Librarian 
of  Congress 823 


APPENDIX 

PRINCIPAL    EVENTS    IN    THE     HISTORY     OF     THE     INSTITUTION, 

Compiled  by  William  Jones  Rhees 833 

INDEX 843 


HISTORY  OF 
THE    SMITHSONIAN    INSTITUTION 


JAMES   SMITHSON 


By   Samuel   Pierpont   Langley 


^jlHE  founder  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  was 
known  in  his  earlier  years  as  James  Lewis 
Macie,  his  mother,  Elizabeth  Keate  Macie, 
being  at  the  time  of  his  birth,  in  1765,  the 
"'^'^^  widow  of  James  Macie,  a  country  gentleman 
of  an  old  family  resident  at  Weston,  near  Bath.  She  was 
of  the  Hungerfords  of  Studley,  a  great-grandniece  of 
Charles,  Duke  of  Somerset,  through  whom  she  was  lineally 
descended  from  Henry  the  Seventh,  and  was  cousin  of  that 
Elizabeth  Percy  who  married  Hugh  Smithson  (who  later 
became  Duke  of  Northumberland,  and  by  act  of  Parliament 
took  the  name  of  Percy). 

An  unverified  story  represents  Smithson's  mother  as  at  one 
time  hoping  to  have  contracted  a  marriage  with  the  Duke 
of  Northumberland,  and  seeking,  for  that  purpose,  a  divorce 
from  her  husband,  which  he  successfully  opposed;  but,  in  any 
case,  the  subject  of  our  sketch,  who  only  apparently  after  his 
mother's  death  applied  to  the  Crown  for  permission  to  take 
the  name  of  Smithson,  describes  himself  in  his  final  will  as 
"  son  to  Hugh,  first  Duke  of  Northumberland,  and  Elizabeth, 


2  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

heiress  of  the  Hungerfords  of  Studley,  and  niece  of  Charles, 
the  proud  Duke  of  Somerset." 

We  need  not,  then,  practise  a  reticence  which  Smithson 
himself  did  not  desire  to  observe,  especially  since  the  facts 
are  already  public.  There  is,  indeed,  the  further  reason  that 
it  is  especially  to  these  facts  that  the  foundation  which  bears 
his  name  is  due,  for  Smithson  always  seems  to  have  regarded 
the  circumstances  of  his  birth  as  doing  him  a  peculiar  injus- 
tice, and  it  was  apparently  this  sense  that  he  had  been  de- 
prived of  honors  properly  his  which  made  him  look  for  other 
sources  of  fame  than  those  which  birth  had  denied  him,  and 
constituted  the  motive  of  the  most  important  action  of  his  life, 
the  creation  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution. 

By  the  student  of  human  nature  every  man's  conduct  is 
judged  in  reference  to  its  determining  motives,  and  if  we  try 
Smithson's  from  the  point  of  view  of  his  own  time,  not  of  ours, 
we  shall  not  judge  too  hardly  the  fact  that  the  circumstances 
of  his  birth  and  his  feeling  that  he  was  by  right  a  Northum- 
berland and  a  Percy  were  a  subject  of  pride  to  him  as  well  as 
of  pain.      He  once  wrote  :  ^ 

"The  best  blood  of  England  flows  in  my  veins;  on  my 
father's  side  I  am  a  Northumberland,  on  my  mother's  I  am 
related  to  Kings,^  but  this  avails  me  not.  My  name  shall  live 
in  the  memory  of  man  zvhen  the  titles  of  the  Northtimber lands 
ajid  the  Percys  are  extinct  and  forgotteni' 

It  has  been  wondered  that  Smithson  should  have  left  his 
fortune  for  the  purpose  he  did,  but  not  by  those  who  have 
considered  the  sentence  placed  here  in  italics,  where  we  surely 

1  Rhees's  "Smithson  and  his  Bequests."  the  ill-fated  Lady  Jane  Grey,  great-grand- 
"  Smithsonian  Miscellaneous  Collections,"  daughter  of  King  Henry  VII,  grandniece  of 
volume  XXI.  Henry  VIII,  and  cousin  of  Elizabeth.     His 

2  Doctor  Goode  pointed  out  in  his  "Account  ancestor  in  the  ninth  generation,  Edward  Sey- 
of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,"  written  for  the  mour,  the  first  Duke  of  Somerset  and  Protec- 
Atlanta  Exposition,  that  :  "  Smithson  was  of  tor  of  England,  was  thebrother  of  Queen  Jane 
royal  descent,  through  his  maternal  ancestor,  Seymour  and  the  uncle  of  King  Edward  VI." 


James  Smithson  3 

scarcely  need  to  read  between  the  lines  to  see  the  genesis  of 
the  institution  which  perpetuates  the  name  he  bore,  in  place 
of  the  titled  one  he  was  denied. 

It  will  be  observed  from  facts  given  later  that  it  was  only 
under  circumstances  which  showed  that  he  had  no  right  to 
the  name  of  Macie  (which  seems  to  have  been  first  imposed 
upon  him  under  circumstances  which  left  him  free  to  change 
it)  that  he  in  later  life  had  that  of  Smithson,  to  which  he  had 
every  moral  right,  legally  confirmed  to  him.  After  pointing 
out  that  the  change  was  obtained  under  circumstances  which 
do  him  no  discredit,  we  are  chiefly  concerned  with  this  sense 
of  the  injustice  under  which  he  labored  from  its  after  results; 
for  if  the  kind  of  pride  which  dictated  the  first  sentence  I 
have  above  quoted  be  one  which,  from  the  point  of  view  of 
the  present  day,  attracts  little  sympathy,  we  can  feel  more 
with  the  worthier  spirit  which  resulted  from  it,  and  in  which 
he  wrote  the  second.  We  are  in  no  ways  concerned  with  the 
ancestral  honors  or  titles  of  the  Percys,  as  such;  but  if  there 
be  anything  in  heredity,  we  may  supplement  our  limited 
knowledge  of  him  by  some  consideration  of  that  very  remark- 
able man,  the  first  Duke  of  Northumberland,  whose  child 
Smithson  declared  himself  to  be,  and  undoubtedly  was;  for 
the  father  was  remarkable,  not  in  having  been  born  great, 
but  in  having  achieved  greatness, —  at  least  a  greatness  of 
that  sort  which  his  less  fortunate  son  must  always  have 
envied  him. 

Hugh  Smithson,  the  father  of  the  founder  of  the  Smithso- 
nian Institution,  was  the  son  of  Langdale  Smithson,  who,  ac- 
cording to  another  unverified  tradition,  occupied  for  a  time  the 
then  relatively  unconsidered  position  of  a  medical  practitioner. 
The  Smithsons,  however,  were  an  old  family,  which  was,  in 
fact,  remotely  connected  by  lineage  with  the  Percys.  As 
country  gentlemen  they  were  reared  in  the  habit  of  person- 


4  The  Smithsoniaft  Instihttion 

ally  managing  their  estates ;  and,  notwithstanding  his  culture 
and  his  refined  and  artistic  tastes,  the  business  aptitude  of 
his  race  was  strong  in  Smithson's  father. 

The  entertaining  story  of  his  courtship  of  the  grand- 
daughter of  "the  proud  Duke"  of  Somerset  is  told  in  the 
"Annals  of  the  House  of  Percy,"  and  it  is  not  necessary  to 
repeat  it  here  further  than  to  remark  that  in  it,  as  in  every- 
thing else,  he  showed  the  tact,  persistence,  and  ability  which 
raised  him  from  the  position  of  a  private  gentleman  to  one  of 
the  first  dukedoms  of  England  at  a  time  when  such  a  transi- 
tion was  regarded  as  transcending  all  possibility,  and  became 
the  subject  of  wonder  after  it  had  happened. 

As  a  landlord.  Sir  Hugh  Smithson  (as  he  afterwards  be- 
came) ^  had  been  conspicuous  for  good  management.  After 
his  marriage  to  the  heiress  of  the  Percys  he  restored  Aln- 
wick Castle,  and  lived  there  so  expensively  that  Horace 
Walpole  wrote  of  the  new  groom  and  bride  that  they  would 
soon  have  no  estate  left ;  but  the  prophecy  was  falsified  by  the 
marked  ability  of  the  future  Duke,  who,  though  he  continued 
to  maintain  what  was  even  then  considered  magnificent  state, 
showed  such  extraordinary  administrative  capacity  as  enabled 
him  not  only  to  keep  undiminished  but  to  very  greatly  increase 
the  important  possessions  which  became  his  wife's  after  their 
marriage;  for  at  the  date  of  Sir  Hugh  Smithson's  marriage, 
in  1749,  the  rent  rolls  of  Alnwick  Castle  amounted  to  ^8,607, 
while  in  1778  they  had  increased  to  ^^50,000,  and  all  this 
while  a  liberal  and  even  magnificent  scale  of  expenditures 
appears  to  have  been  adopted.^ 

If  he  be  a  benefactor  to  mankind  who  makes  two  blades 
of  grass  grow  where  one  grew  before,  then  the  new  Lord  of 


1  He  succeeded  to  the  title  of  Baronet  on  2  See  "Annals  of  the  House  of  Percy,"  by 

the  death  of  his  grandfather,  Sir  Hugh  Smith-       Edward  Barrington  de  Fonblanque,  London, 
son,  which  took  place  in  1729.  i887,Volume  11,  page  531,  and  Appendix  xxvi. 


James  Smithson  5 

Northumberland  did  indeed  entitle  himself  to  the  gratitude 
of  those  within  the  influence  of  his  kindly  rule. 

"He  found  the  country  almost  a  desert,"  says  the  Bishop 
of  Dromore,  "and  he  clothed  it  with  woods  and  improved  it 
with  agriculture."^  For  more  than  twenty  years  he  is  said 
to  have  planted  annually  over  twelve  hundred  trees;  he  im- 
ported specimens  of  hitherto  unknown  timber,  fruits,  and 
flowers  from  various  parts  of  the  world,  and  expended  large 
sums  not  only  in  the  reclamation  and  drainage  of  lands,  but 
in  the  improvement  of  the  dwellings  of  his  laborers,  at  a  time 
when  the  physical  comfort  or  moral  well-being  of  the  poor 
rarely  occupied  the  thoughts  of  the  lords  of  the  soil. 

He  showed  a  like  ability  in  his  dealings  with  the  Crown, 
which  procured  him  the  unprecedented  step  from  the  baro- 
netcy to  the  dukedom,  and  in  every  part  of  his  life  (with  which 
we  are  not  further  concerned  here)  he  showed  himself  an  ex- 
ceptionally able  man.^ 

American  history  and  poetry  remember  his  son,  the  half- 
brother  of  Smithson,  who — 

"  Fought  for  King  George  at  Lexington, 
A  Major  of  Dragoons,"^ 


1  See  "  Annals  of  the  House  of  Percy,"  by 
Edward  Harrington  de  Fonblanque,  London, 
1887,  Volume  II,  page  531,  and  Appendix 
XXVI,  citing  Collins's  [Peerage]  5th  edition. 

2  The  Duke  showed  the  independence  of 
his  character,  as  well  as  the  soundness  of  his 
judgment  as  a  statesman,  by  opposing  the 
party  in  power  upon  the  question  of  war  with 
the  Colonies,  obtaining  leave  of  absence  for 
his  son,  Lord  Percy,  who  was  ordered  to 
America.  Of  this,  however,  Lord  Percy  re- 
fused to  avail  himself,  contending  that  he 
could  not  at  such  a  juncture  withdraw.  He 
accordingly  embarked  for  Boston  in  the 
spring  of  1774,  and  his  journal  and  letters 
during  the  succeeding  years  throw  light  upon 
many  of  the  incidents  of  the  struggle. 

3  The  fact  that  the  heir  of  the  house  of 
Percy  commanded  the  force  of  the  British 

T* 


troops  which  saved  the  retreat  from  Concord 
made  a  strong  impression  upon  the  fathers 
of  New  England  who  fought  on  the  memor- 
able day,  and  is  often  mentioned.  This  asso- 
ciation of  the  story  of  the  defeat  and  pursuit 
of  the  British  troops  with  the  name  of  Percy, 
in  the  minds  of  the  rustic  victors,  is  alluded 
to  by  Lowell : 

"  Old  Joe  is  gone,  who  saw  hot  Percy  goad 

His  slow  artillery  up  the  Concord  road  .  .  . 

Had  Joe  lived  long  enough,  that  scram- 
bling fight 

Had  squared  more  nearly  with  his  sense 
of  right, 

And  vanquished  Percy,  to  complete  the 
tale. 

Had  hammered  stone  for  life  in  Concord 
jail." 


6  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

and  who,  it  might  be  added,  saved  to  the  King  the  remnant 
of  his  forces,  which,  without  Percy's  timely  succor,  would  have 
been  utterly  destroyed.  As  an  indication  of  family  traits,  it 
may  be  interesting  to  note  the  memorable  action  of  the  half- 
brother  of  Smithson,  and  his  modest  description  of  it. 

General  Gage  had  placed  him  in  command  of  the  camp 
formed  at  Boston,  whence  he  writes  to  his  father  on  July  5, 
1774: 

"As  I  cannot  say  this  is  a  business  I  very  much  admire,  I 
hope  it  will  not  be  my  fate  to  be  ordered  up  the  country.  Be 
that  as  it  may,  I  am  resolved  cheerfully  to  do  my  duty  as  long 
as  ever  I  continue  in  the  service.  If  I  do  not  acquire  any  de- 
gree of  reputation  in  it,  it  will  be  my  misfortune,  but  shall 
never  be  my  fault." 

Throughout  the  ensuing  winter  he  remained  in  the  camp 
around  Boston,  whence  on  April  20  he  writes  to  inform  his 
father  of  that  first  bloodshed  which  was  the  prelude  of  the 
War  of  the  Revolution  : 

"I  was  ordered  out  yesterday  morning  to  cover  the  retreat 
of  the  Grenadiers  and  Light  Infantry  who  had  been  sent  upon 
an  expedition  up  the  country.-^  I  had  with  me  my  brigade 
and  two  pieces  of  cannon.  We  met  them  at  a  town'  about 
fifteen  miles  off,  sharply  attacked  and  surrounded  by  the  rebels, 
and  having  fired  away  all  their  ammunition,  I  had  the  happi- 
ness of  saving  them  from  inevitable  destruction,  and  arriving 
with  them  at  Charlestown,  opposite  Boston,  at  eight  o'clock 
last  night ;  not,  however,  without  the  loss  of  a  great  many, 
havinof  been  under  an  incessant  fire  for  fifteen  miles.  The 
rebels,  however,  suffered  much  more  than  the  King's  troops. 
I  have  not  myself  received  even  the  least  scratch,  and  I  beg 
that  you  will  not  either  of  you  be  uneasy  on  my  account.' 


"  3 


1  The  memorable  expedition  to  Concord,  which  gave  rise  to  the  battle  of  Lexington. 

2  Lexington. 
3  "Annals  of  the  House  of  Percy,"  Volume  li,  page  552. 


James  SmitJison  7 

Lord  Percy  was  too  good  a  soldier  to  fall  into  the  error  of 
despising  his  enemy.  He  had  never  shared  in  that  contemp- 
tuous estimate  which  Englishmen,  ignorant  of  the  country  and 
its  population,  had  formed  of  the  military  capacity  of  the 
American  colonists,  and  which  had  led  the  King,  under  the 
prompting  of  such  advisers  as  Lord  North  and  Lord  George 
Germain,  to  declare  that  all  resistance  would  collapse  on  the 
first  menacing  advance  of  half  a  dozen  English  regiments. 

**  Whoever,"  he  writes  to  his  father,  "  looks  upon  them  as 
merely  an  irregular  mob  will  find  himself  much  mistaken  ; 
they  have  men  amongst  them  who  know  what  they  are  about, 
having  been  employed  as  rangers  against  the  Canadians  and 
Indians  .  .  .  nor  are  their  men  devoid  of  the  spirit  of  en- 
thusiasm, as  we  experienced  yesterday,  for  many  of  them  con- 
cealed themselves  in  houses  and  advanced  within  ten  yards 
to  fire  at  me  and  the  other  officers,  though  they  were  morally 
certain  of  being  put  to  death  themselves  in  an  instant." 

The  father  died  in  1 786,  and  was  buried  in  Westminster 
Abbey,  where  he  is  described  as  "the  most  high  puissant  and 
most  noble  prince  Hugh  Percy,  Duke  and  Earl  of  Northum- 
berland, Earl  Percy,  Baron  Warkworth  and  Lovaine,  Lord 
Lieutenant  and  Gustos  Rotulorum  of  the  Gounties  of  Middle- 
sex and  Northumberland  and  of  all  America,  one  of  the  lords 
of  His  Majesty's  most  Honourable  and  Privy  Gouncil  and 
Knight  of  the  most  noble  Order  of  the  Garter,  etc.,  etc.,  etc."  ; 
but  we  are  here  concerned  with  these  honors  only  as  an 
evidence  of  the  character  of  the  man  who  did  not  inherit,  but 
who  conquered  them  by  the  force  of  his  will. 

Let  us,  after  noting  the  essential  qualities  of  his  race  in  the 
father  and  brother,  return  to  the  immediate  subject  of  our 
memoir,  the  date  of  whose  birth  is  fixed  by  the  Pembroke 
College  record  as  1765.     His  mother,  Elizabeth  Hungerford 


8  The  S^nithsonian  Institution 

Keate  (Macie),  is  described  in  the  will  of  Penelope  Keate, 
grandmother  of  Smithson,  in  a  bequest  dated  July  13,  1764, 
as  "my  daughter,  Elizabeth  Macie,  of  Bath,  widow,"  so  that 
at  this  time  her  husband  was  already  dead.  This  fact,  only 
recently  ascertained,  is  important  in  the  estimate  it  leads  us 
to  put  on  one  of  the  principal  actions  of  Smithson's  life,  his 
taking  of  his  father's  name  instead  of  that  of  Macie,  by  which 
he  was  previously  known. 

Something  of  the  facts  of  the  young  man's  birth  were  gen- 
erally surmised,  and  we  shall  see  that  he  was  apparently  not 
allowed  as  a  youth  even  to  describe  himself  as  Macie's  son,  a 
thing  to  be  remembered  in  connection  with  his  subsequent 
action  in  taking  the  name  of  Smithson.^ 

There  has  been  found  no  record  of  the  Macies  at  Weston 
in  the  years  preceding  his  birth ;  there  is  no  reference  to  him 
in  the  accessible  archives  of  the  Northumberland  family,  nor 
do  we  know  more  of  the  subsequent  circumstances  of  his 
mother  than  that  she  inherited  the  property  of  the  Hunger- 
fords  of  Studley  in  1766,  on  the  death  of  her  brother,  Lumley 
Hungerford  Keate, — a  matter  of  interest  as  indicating  the 
probable  source  of  a  considerable  portion  of  the  Smithson 
bequest. 

We  have  after  this  no  knowledge  of  the  founder  of  the  In- 
stitution until  his  name  is  entered  in  1782  as  James  Lewis 
Macie,  a  Gentleman  Commoner,  at  Pembroke  College,  Ox- 
ford, but  entered  in  a  way  which,  as  the  copy  of  the  record 
indicates,  omitted  the  prescribed  form  of  stating  the  name  of 
the  father,  which  others  were  obliged  to  comply  with. 

He  was  at  this  time  but  a  lad,  and  as  we  are  assured  only 


lln  1880,  when  Mr.  Rhees's  memoir  was  the  married  life  of  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Macie,  and 

prepared,  the dateofSmithson'sbirth.obtained  put  a  less  favorable  construction  on  young 

from  an  erroneous  inscription  on  his  tomb,  Macie's  action  in  taking  the  name  of  Smithson 

was  1754,  which  would  have  placed  it  eleven  from  that  it  bears,  under  the  circumstances 

years  earlier  than  the  actual  event,  during  which  are  now  for  the  first  time  detailed. 


James  Sniithson  9 

very  powerful  influence  could  have  procured  permission  for 
this  departure  from  rule,  we  may  presume  that  his  action, 
whether  acceptable  or  not  to  him,  was  dictated  by  an  author- 
ity to  which  he  had  in  any  case  to  yield. 

In  1894  I  ascertained  through  the  kindness  of  Chester 
Waters,  Esquire,  that  Reverend  Frederick  Brown  had 
occupied  himself  during  a  large  part  of  his  life  with  the 
biographies  of  the  Hungerford  family,  and  learned  from  his 
surviving  daughter  that  his  manuscript  was  deposited  in  the 
British  Museum.  This  manuscript  (which  is  numbered 
33,412),  I,  with  Doctor  Cyrus  Adler,  spent  some  time  in  ex- 
amining, with  the  results  here  given.  Among  other  facts  I 
learned  that  Smithson  was  born  in  France,  and  was  brought 
to  England  for  his  education,  and  naturalized.  I  further  was 
fortunately  led  to  consult  the  Oxford  records,  which  show  that 
he  in  his  early  years  entered  as  a  Gentleman  Commoner  at 
Pembroke  College,  where  he  matriculated  in  1782,  his  age 
then  being  given  in  the  registry,  here  appended,^  as  seventeen, 
so  that  this  matriculation  record  shows  him  to  have  been  born 
eleven  years  later  than  was  supposed.  This  is  material, 
for  it  will  be  seen  from  what  has  preceded  that  his  mem- 
ory is  thus  cleared  of  the  imputation  under  which  it  at  one 


1  Coll:    Exon  :    25°    Carolus  Ofspring  Blackall  17  Theophili  de  Dodbrooke 

Com :  Danmon : 


Cler:    Fil: 


Coll:  Wad:  26"    Robertus  Harbin  17  Swayne  de  Newton  Com:    Somerset:  Arm:  Fil: 
Mali  1° 

Coll:   Hert :  Gulielmus  Bragge  17  Joannis  de  Dillington  Com :   Somerset:  Arm:  Fil: 

Coll :  Wadh  :  2^1°  Joannes  Higgins  19  Joannis  de  Dicheatt  Com  :   Somerset : Gen :  Fil : 

Coll :  Mert :  3?  Henricus  Lloyd  18  Erasmi  de  Civitate  Vigorniensi  Gen :  Fil : 

Coll:  Di.  Jo.   Bap.  4?    Thomas  Keck  17  Samuelis  de  Civitate  Londin  : Gen:  Fil: 

changed  to  Smithson 

Coll:  Pemb  :  7"  Jacobus  Ludovicus  Macie  17  de  Civit :  Londin: — Arm:  Fil: 

Coll:  Ball:  8?  Hon.  Archibaldus  Cathcart  18  Carolide  Aloa  Com:  Clackmanan:  Baro!  Fil 

Coll:  Di :  Jo:    Bap.  9?    Thomas  Dethick   17  Thomae   de    Bombay  apud  Ind :    Orient: 
Arm  :  Fil 

Coll:  On:  Nas:   io™°  Arthurus  Townson  18  Joannis  de  Ben  tham  Com  :  Eboracensi 

Pleb:  Fil 

Coll:  Christi  \o'^°  Calverley  Joannes  Bewicke  17  Benjamin  de  Clapham  Com:  Surriae 
Gen :   Fil : 

Coll:  Magd:    11°  Isaacus  Williamson  21  Josephi  de  Withburn  Com  :  Cambr :  Gen:  Fil: 


lo  The  Sinithsoniaji  Institution 

time  seemed  to  rest,  of  his  having  adopted  the  name  of 
Smithson  in  circumstances  where  a  son  should  have  re- 
mained silent. 

We  have  also  an  authentic  contemporary  portrait  of  him  in 
the  dress  of  an  Oxford  student,  here  reproduced,  which,  it  is 
interesting  to  observe,  confirms  the  age  thus  given,  by  repre- 
senting him  as  a  mere  youth. 

Nothing  material  is  remembered  of  his  life  at  the  college, 
except  a  tradition  that  he  was  the  best  chemist  and  miner- 
alogist of  his  year,  though  in  his  journal,  when  but  a  youth 
of  nineteen,  he  gives  a  description  of  a  geological  tour  in 
1784  through  Oban,  Staffa,  and  the  western  islands,  in  com- 
pany with  De  St.  Fond,  "the  celebrated  French  philosopher," 
and  the  Italian  Count  Andrioni,  in  which  he  carried  on  ob- 
servations on  the  methods  of  mining  and  manufacturing  pro- 
cesses, made  with  all  the  minuteness  which  the  conditions  of 
the  journey  permitted.  The  journal  indicates  that  the  tour  at 
that  time  was  undertaken,  if  not  at  any  considerable  risk,  yet 
not  without  a  considerable  amount  of  privation  and  self- 
denial,  such  as  would  not  be  met  by  the  modern  traveler,  and 
shows  that  he  was  far  more  occupied  with  science  than  with 
the  ordinary  pleasures  of  so  youthful  a  tourist.  We  learn 
also  that  the  young  student  was  noted  for  diligence,  applica- 
tion, and  good  scholarship,  attracting  attention  by  his  pro- 
ficiency in  chemistry,  then  a  novel  study,  while  his  vacations 
were  ordinarily  passed  in  such  excursions  as  that  just  referred 
to,  and  devoted  to  the  collection  of  minerals  and  ores,  which 
it  was  his  favorite  occupation  to  analyze.  At  Oxford,  then, 
at  a  time  when  the  study  of  physical  science  was  almost 
unknown  in  the  University,  he  appears  to  have  already 
conceived  that  devotion  to  scientific  research  which  charac- 
terized all  his  future  life. 

He  was  graduated  at  Pembroke  College,  with  the  degree 


James  SmitJison  ii 

of  Master  of  Arts,  on  May  26,  1786,  as  James  Lewis  Macie, 
and  admitted  as  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  on  April  26, 
1787,  on  the  following-  recommendation: 

"James  Lewis  Macie,  Esq.,  M.A.,  late  of  Pembroke  College, 
Oxford,  and  now  of  John  Street,  Golden  Square, — a  gentle- 
man well  versed  in  various  branches  of  Natural  Philosophy, 
and  particularly  in  Chymistry  and  Mineralogy,  being  desirous 
of  becoming  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  we  whose  names 
are  hereunto  subscribed  do,  from  our  personal  knowledge  of 
his  merit,  judge  him  highly  worthy  of  that  honour  and  likely 
to  become  a  very  useful  and  valuable  Member. 

Richard  Kirwan, 
C.  F.  Greville, 
C.  Blagden, 
H.   Cavendish, 
David  Pitcairn." 

Cavendish,  whose  name  appears  here,  was  the  eminent 
physicist,  and,  as  we  learn  elsewhere,  was  an  intimate  friend. 

Smithson's  lodgings  were  for  some  time  in  Bentinck  Street, 
where  Gibbon  wrote  much  of  his  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the 
Roman  Empire."  Here  he  apparently  prepared  his  first 
scientific  paper,  which  was  signed  James  Lewis  Macie,  and 
was  read  on  July  7,  1791,  before  the  Royal  Society.  It 
is  entitled  "An  ^Account  of  Some  Chemical  Experiments  on 
Tabasheer."^  We  learn  of  him  incidentally  in  1792  as  jour- 
neying from  Geneva  to  Italy  through  the  Tyrol,  and  find  him 
in  the  same  year  in  Paris  writing  from  the  Hotel  du  Pare 
Royal,  Rue  de  Colombier,  a  letter  in  which  he  expresses 
sentiments  which  represented  what  would  have  been  then 
called  advanced  Jacobinism.  "  pz  ira,''  he  says,  "is  grow- 
ing the  song  of  England,  of  Europe,  as  well  as  of  France. 

1  Philosophical  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Londott  Volume  LXXXI,  part  II,  page  368. 


12  The  Smithsonian  histihition 

Men  of  every  rank  are  joining  in  the  chorus.  Stupidity  and 
guih  have  had  a  long  reign,  and  it  begins,  indeed,  to  be  time 
for  justice  and  common-sense  to  have  their  turn  .  .  .  the 
office  of  king  is  not  yet  aboHshed,  but  they  daily  feel  the 
inutility,  or  rather  great  inconvenience,  of  continuing  it,  and 
its  duration  will  probably  not  be  long.  May  other  nations, 
at  the  time  of  their  reforms,  be  wise  enough  to  cast  off,  at 
first,  the  contemptible  incumbrance."  Smithson  here  shares 
the  opinion  of  a  large  and  influential  portion  of  Englishmen 
of  the  time  in  which  he  wrote,  but  the  excesses  of  the  French 
Revolution,  which  immediately  followed,  caused  a  general 
revulsion  of  feeling,  and  it  would  not  be  fair  to  argue  from 
this  youthful  expression  as  to  his  maturer  judgment. 

The  date  of  his  application  to  the  Crown  for  permission  to 
take  his  father's  name  has  not  been  ascertained,  but  in  the 
will  of  his  half-sister,  Dorothy  Percy,  he  is  referred  to  as 
"Macie"  in  1794  (eight  years  after  his  father's  death).  The 
name  of  Smithson  is  first  certainly  known  to  have  been  used 
by  him  in  connection  with  his  second  communication  to  the 
Royal  Society,  "A  Chemical  Analysis  of  Some  Calamines,^ 
by  James  Smithson,  Esquire,"  read  November  18,  1802. 

In  this  paper  the  author  remarks  that  "  Chemistry  is  yet  so 
new  a  science ;  what  we  know  of  it  bears  so  small  a  propor- 
tion of  what  we  are  ignorant  of;  our  knowledge  in  every  de- 
partment of  it  is  so  incomplete,  consisting  entirely  of  isolated 
points,  thinly  scattered,  like  lurid  specks  on  a  vast  field  of 
darkness,  that  no  researches  can  be  undertaken  without  pro- 
ducing some  facts  leading  to  consequences  which  extend 
beyond  the  boundaries  of  their  immediate  object." 

The  Abbe  Haiiy  had  advanced  the  opinion  that  calamines 
were  all  mere  oxides  or  "calces"  of  zinc.  Smithson's  analy- 
sis completely  overthrew  this  opinion,  and  established  these 

1  Philosophical  Transactions,  Volume  XCIII,  page  12. 


James  Srnithson  13 

minerals  in  the  rank  of  true  carbonates,  while  his  remarks  on 
the  action  of  the  ores  of  zinc  before  the  blowpipe  evince  much 
discernment ;  and  the  paper,  on  the  whole,  is  altogether  a 
creditable  one.j 

At  this  period  he  seems  to  have  ceased  his  contributions 
to  the  Royal  Society,  and  later  we  find  his  name  more 
frequently  in  the  "Annals  of  Philosophy,"  a  journal  of  high 
character,  where  there  is  a  communication  from  him  dated 
Paris,  May  22,  1819,  on  "  Plombe  gomme,"  and  about  the 
same  time  a  paper  on  a  native  sulphuret  of  lead  and  arsenic, 
with  numerous  other  papers,  among  which  is  one  in  1822, 
"On  the  Detection  of  Very  Minute  Quantities  of  Arsenic  and 
Mercury,"  where  he  contributed  a  method  which  was  gener- 
ally used  by  chemists  until  quite  modern  tests  superseded  it. 
The  papers^  in  all  number  twenty-seven,  of  which  eight 
here  cited  were  published  in  the  "  Philosophical  Transac- 
tions of  the  Royal  Society,"  between  the  years  1791  and  1807, 
one  in  the  "Philosophical  Magazine"  in  1807,  and  eighteen 
in  "Thomson's  Annals  of  Philosophy,"  between  1 819  and  1825, 
and  these  all  give  the  idea  of  an  assiduous  and  faithful 
experimenter,  an  impression  enlarged  by  the  last  one  of 
the  series,  bearing  date  of  June,  1824,  which  contains  some 
observations  on  the  formation  of  the  Kirkdale  Cave,  forcibly 

1  Smithson's  subsequent  communications  "  On  a  Saline  Substance  from  Mount  Ve- 
to the  Philosophical  Transactions  are  six  in  suvius,"  1813.     (Volume  cm,  page  256.) 
number  :  "  A  few  Facts  relative  to  the  Coloring  Mat- 

"An  Account   of  a   Discovery  of  Native  ter  of  Some  Vegetables,"    1817.     (Volume 

Minium,"  submitted  in  a  letter  dated  from  cvili,  page  no.) 

Cassel,  in  Hesse,  March  2,  1806.     (Volume  A  paper  by  him  "  On  Quadruple  and  Bi- 

XCVI,  part  I,  page  267. )  nary   Compounds,  particularly  Sulphurets," 

"  On  the  Composition  of  the  Compound  was   also   published   in   the  "  Philosophical 

Sulphuret  from  Huel  Boys,  and  an  Account  Magazine,"  1807.  (Volume  xxix,  page  275,) 

of  its  Crystals,"  1808.    (Volume  xcviii,page  2  These  papers  were  collected  and  edited 

55- )  by  William  J.  Rhees,  and  are  contained  in 

"On  the  Composition   of  Zeolite,"  l8ll.  Volume  xxi  of  the  "Smithsonian  Miscella- 

(Volume  CI,  page  171.)  neous  Collections,"  under  the  title  of  "  The 

"  On  a  Substance  from  the  Elm  Tree,  called  Scientific    Writings    of   James     Srnithson" 

Ulmin,"  1813.     (Volume  cm,  page  64.)  (1879). 


14  7 he  Smithsonian  Institutio7i 

combating  (with  what  was  then  originaHty)  the  theories  of 
the  time,  which  referred  the  bones  there  found  to  "  The 
Deluge." 

"  The  most  notable  feature  of  Smithson's  writings,  from  the 
standpoint  of  the  modern  analytical  chemist,"  says  Professor 
Clarke,^  "is  the  success  obtained  with  the  most  primitive  and 
unsatisfactory  appliances.  In  Smithson's  day,  chemical  ap- 
paratus was  undeveloped,  and  instruments  were  improvised 
from  such  materials  as  lay  readiest  to  hand.  With  such 
instruments,  and  with  crude  reagents,  Smithson  obtained 
analytical  results  of  the  most  creditable  character,  and  en- 
larged our  knowledge  of  many  mineral  species.  In  his  time 
the  native  carbonate  and  silicate  of  zinc  were  confounded  as 
one  species  under  the  name  'calamine';  but  his  researches 
distinguish  between  the  two  minerals,  which  are  now  known 
as  Smithsonite  and  calamine  respectively. 

"  To  theory  Smithson  contributed  little,  if  anything ;  but 
from  a  theoretical  point  of  view  the  tone  of  his  writings  is  sin- 
gularly modern.  His  work  was  mostly  done  before  Dalton 
had  announced  the  atomic  theory,  and  yet  Smithson  saw 
clearly  that  a  law  of  definite  proportions  must  exist,  although 
he  did  not  attempt  to  account  for  it.  His  ability  as  a  rea- 
soner  is  best  shown  in  his  paper  upon  the  Kirkdale  bone 
cave,  which  Penn  had  sought  to  interpret  by  reference  to  the 
Noachian  deluge.  A  clearer  and  more  complete  demolition 
of  Penn's  views  could  hardly  be  written  to-day.  Smithson 
was  gentle  with  his  adversary,  but  none  the  less  thorough  for 
all  his  moderation.  He  is  not  to  be  classed  among  the  lead- 
ers of  scientific  thought ;  but  his  ability,  and  the  usefulness  of 
his  contributions  to  knowledge,  cannot  be  doubted." 

The  President  of  the  Royal  Society,  in  a  necrology  for  the 
year   1829,   associated  the  name  of  Smithson  with   those  of 

1  Communication  from  Professor  Frank  W.  Clarke,  Chief  Chemist,  United   States 

Geological    Survey. 


James  Smithson  15 

Wollaston,  Young,  and  Davy,  saying  that  "he  was  distin- 
guished by  the  intimate  friendship  of  Mr.  Cavendish,  and 
rivaled  our  most  expert  chemists  in  elegant  analyses  "  ;  while 
at  the  annual  meeting  of  the  Royal  Society  held  on  Novem- 
ber 30,  1830,  the  President,  Davies  Gilbert,  after  referring  to 
other  members  recently  deceased,  said : 

"  The  only  remaining  individual  who  has  taken  a  direct 
and  active  part  in  our  labours,  by  contributing  to  the  '  Trans- 
actions,' is  Mr.  James  Lewis  Smithson,  and  of  this  gentleman 
I  must  be  allowed  to  speak  with  affection.  We  were  at 
Oxford  together,  of  the  same  college,  and  our  acquaintance 
continued  to  the  time  of  his  decease. 

"  Mr.  Smithson,  then  called  Macie,  and  an  undergraduate, 
had  the  reputation  of  excelling  all  other  resident  members  of 
the  University  in  the  knowledge  of  chemistry.  He  was  early 
honored  by  an  intimate  acquaintance  with  Mr.  Cavendish  ;  he 
was  admitted  to  the  Royal  Society,  and  soon  after  presented 
a  paper  on  the  very  curious  concretion  frequently  found  in  the 
hollow  of  bambu  canes,  named  Tabasheer.  This  he  found  to 
consist  almost  entirely  of  silex,  existing  in  a  manner  similar 
to  what  Davy  long  afterwards  discovered  in  the  epidermis  of 
reeds  and  grasses. 

"  He  was  the  friend  of  Dr.  Wollaston,  and  at  the  same 
time  his  rival  in  the  manipulation  and  analysis  of  small  quan- 
tities.     'AYctGy]  §'  l[AQ  -?]§£  ppoTolai. 

"  For  many  years  past  Mr.  Smithson  has  resided  abroad, 
principally,  I  believe,  on  account  of  his  health ;  but  he  carried 
with  him  the  esteem  and  regard  of  various  private  friends, 
and  of  a  still  larger  number  of  persons  who  appreciated  and 
admired  his  acquirements." 

His  writings  exhibit  clearness  of  perception,  terseness  of 
language,  and  accuracy  of  expression.  He  was  an  intimate 
friend  of  Cavendish,  and  later  of  Arago ;  he  was  a  corre- 
spondent of  Black,  of  Banks,  of  Thomson,  and  of  most  of  the 


1 6  The  Smithsonian  Instittttion 

names  then  renowned  to  science,  and  he  himself  contributed 
in  those  early  days  honorably  to  the  enlargement  of  those 
"  lurid  specks  in  the  vast  field  of  darkness,"  of  which  he  spoke, 
towards  the  coming  light. 

His  industry  was  the  more  creditable  to  him  in  that  he  was 
at  this  time  a  man  of  large  means,  with  every  temptation  to 
devote  himself  to  amusement,  and  this  industry  will  be  seen 
to  be  still  greater  when  it  is  remembered  that  these  pub- 
lished papers  are  but  a  small  portion  of  his  writings ;  for  200 
manuscripts  were  forwarded  to  the  United  States  with  his 
effects,  and,  besides  these,  thousands  of  detached  notes  and 
memoranda. 

Unhappily,  with  the  exception  of  one  small  volume,  of  all 
these  nothing  remains,  the  whole  of  the  originals  having  been 
destroyed  in  the  disastrous  fire  at  the  Institution  in  1865,  just 
one  hundred  years  from  the  date  of  his  birth.  We  know 
something  of  these  manuscripts  from  the  paper  by  Mr.  John- 
son, who  had  access  to  them  before  the  formation  of  the  Insti- 
tution, and  from  it  we  learn  that  they  are  connected  not  only 
with  science,  but  with  history,  the  arts,  language,  rural  pur- 
suits, gardening,  the  construction  of  buildings,  and  kindred 
topics,  "such  as  are  likely  to  occupy  the  thoughts  and  to 
constitute  the  reading  of  a  gentleman  of  extensive  acquire- 
ments and  liberal  views  derived  from  a  lone  and  intimate 
acquaintance  with  the  world,"  while  his  cabinet,  which  was 
also  destroyed  by  the  fire,  is  described  as  consisting  of  a 
choice  collection  of  minerals,  comprising  probably  eight  or 
ten  thousand  specimens,  in  exceedingly  perfect  condition,  in- 
cluding examples  of  most  of  the  meteorites  which  had  fallen 
in  Europe  during  several  centuries,  and  forming  what  was  at 
the  time  very  much  the  richest  and  rarest  collection  in  the 
United  States. 

If,  then,  we  ask  whether  Smithson  had  such  a  competent 


JAMES    SMITHSOIS^. 

FOUNDER  OF  THE  SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION. 


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1 8  The  Smithsonian  Institiitio7i 

health,  whose  Hfe,  save  a  few  hours  given  to  repose,  was 
regularly  divided  between  the  most  interesting  scientific  re- 
searches and  gaming.  It  was  a  source  of  great  regret  to  me 
that  this  learned  experimentalist  should  devote  the  half  of 
so  valuable  a  life  to  a  course  so  little  in  harmony  with  an  intel- 
lect whose  wonderful  powers  called  forth  the  admiration  of  the 
world  around  him.  Unfortunately  there  occurred  fluctuations 
of  loss  and  gain,  momentarily  balancing  each  other,  which  led 
him  to  conclude  that  the  advantages  enjoyed  by  the  bank 
were  neither  so  assured  nor  considerable  as  to  preclude  his 
winning  largely  through  a  run  of  luck.  The  analytical  for- 
mulas of  probabilities  offering  a  radical  means,  the  only  one 
perhaps  of  dissipating  this  illusion,  I  proposed,  the  number 
of  the  games  and  the  stakes  being  given,  to  determine  in  ad- 
vance, in  my  study,  the  amount,  not  merely  of  the  loss  of  a 
day,  nor  that  of  a  week,  but  of  each  quarter.  The  calculation 
was  found  so  regularly  to  agree  with  the  corresponding  dim- 
inution of  the  bank-notes  in  the  foreigner's  pocketbook  that 
a  doubt  could  no  longer  be  entertained." 


I  owe  to  Doctor  B.  A.  Gould  the  interesting  statement  that 
Arago  was  not  merely  an  acquaintance,  but  an  intimate  friend 
of  Smithson,  and  that  Arago  personally  told  him  that  "the 
distinguished  foreigner  "  in  question  was  Smithson  himself, 
and  added  that  Smithson  resolved,  not  to  absolutely  discon- 
tinue play  (in  which  he  found  the  only  stimulus  which  could 
make  him  forget  his  physical  suffering),  but  to  do  so  with  a 
care  that  the  expenditure  for  this  purpose  was  a  definite  one, 
and  within  his  means. 

We  see  him  next  entering  the  confines  of  old  age,  approach- 
ing the  task  (with  such  enfeebled  health,  a  solemn  one)  of 
making  his  last  will,  and  looking  back  upon  a  life  which  his 
circumstances  have  made  lonely,  which  has  been  uncheered  by 
domestic  affection,  and  which,  though  filled  with  honorable 
activities,  has  not  brought  the  fame  to  which  he  once  aspired 


James  Smithson  19 

with  the  hope  that  it  would  bring  some  compensation  for  the 
accident  of  birth. 

The  most  important  act  of  his  Hfe  was  the  execution  of  this 
will,  a  copy  of  which  follows  : 

THE   WILL   OF   JAMES   SMITHSON. 

"  I  James  Smithson  Son  to  Hugh,  first  Duke  of  Northumber- 
land, &  Elizabeth,  Heiress  of  the  Hungerfords  of  Studley, 
&  Niece  to  Charles  the  proud  Duke  of  Somerset,  now 
residing  in  Bentinck  Street,  Cavendish  Square,  do  this 
twenty-third  day  of  October,  one  thousand  eight  hundred 
and  twenty-six,  make  this  my  last  Will  and  Testament: 

"I  bequeath  the  whole  of  my  property  of  every  nature  & 
kind  soever  to  my  bankers,  Messrs.  Drummonds  of  Charing 
Cross,  in  trust,  to  be  disposed  of  in  the  following  manner,  and 
I  desire  of  my  said  Executors  to  put  my  property  under  the 
management  of  the  Court  of  Chancery. 

"To  John  Fitall,  formerly  my  Servant,  but  now  employed 
in  the  London  Docks,  and  residing  at  No.  27,  Jubilee  Place, 
North  Mile  end,  old  town,  in  consideration  of  his  attach- 
ment &  fidelity  to  me,  &  the  long  &  great  care  he  has  taken 
of  my  effects,  &  my  having  done  but  very  little  for  him,  I 
give  and  bequeath  the  Annuity  or  annual  sum  of  One  hundred 
pounds  sterling  for  his  life,  to  be  paid  to  him  quarterly,  free 
of  legacy  duty  &  all  other  deductions,  the  first  payment  to  be 
made  to  him  at  the  expiration  of  three  months  after  my  death. 
I  have  at  divers  times  lent  sums  of  money  to  Henry  Honore 
Sailly,  formerly  my  Servant,  but  now  keeping  the  Hunger- 
ford  Hotel,  in  the  rue  Caumartin  at  Paris,  &  for  which  sums 
of  money  I  have  undated  bills  or  bonds  signed  by  him.  Now, 
I  will  &  direct  that  if  he  desires  it,  these  sums  of  money  be 
let  remain  in  his  hands  at  an  Interest  of  five  per  cent,  for  five 
years  after  the  date  of  the  present  Will. 

"To  Henry  James  Hungerford,  my  Nephew,  heretofore 
called  Henry  James  Dickinson,  son  to  ni)-  late  brother, 
Lieutenant-Colonel    Henry    Louis    Dickinson,    now   residing 


20  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

with  Mr.  Auboin,  at  Bourg  la  Reine,  near  Paris,  I  give  and 
bequeath  for  his  life  the  whole  of  the  income  arising  from  my 
property  of  every  nature  &  kind  whatever,  after  the  payment 
of  the  above  Annuity,  &  after  the  death  of  John  Fitall,  that 
Annuity  likewise,  the  payments  to  be  made  to  him  at  the  time 
of  the  interest  or  dividends  becomes  due  on  the  Stocks  or 
other  property  from  which  the  income  arises. 

"Should  the  said  Henry  James  Hungerford  have  a  child  or 
children,  legitimate  or  illegitimate,  I  leave  to  such  child  or 
children,  his  or  their  heirs,  executors,  &  assigns,  after  the 
death  of  his,  or  her,  or  their  Father,  the  whole  of  my  property 
of  every  kind  absolutely  &  forever,  to  be  divided  between 
them,  if  there  is  more  than  one,  in  the  manner  their  father 
shall  judge  proper,  or,  in  case  of  his  omitting  to  decide  this, 
as  the  Lord  Chancellor  shall  judge  proper. 

"Should  my  said  Nephew,  Henry  James  Hungerford, 
marry,  I  empower  him  to  make  a  jointure. 

"  In  the  case  of  the  death  of  my  said  Nephew  without  leav- 
ing a  child  or  children,  or  the  death  of  the  child  or  children  he 
may  have  had  under  the  age  of  twenty-one  years  or  intestate, 
I  then  bequeath  the  whole  of  my  property,  subject  to  the 
Annuity  of  One  hundred  pounds  to  John  Fitall,  &  for  the 
security  &  payment  of  which  I  mean  Stock  to  remain  in  this 
Country,  to  the  United  States  of  America,  to  found  at  Wash- 
ington, under  the  name  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  an 
Establishment  for  the  increase  &  diffusion  of  knowledge 
among  men. 

"I  think  it  proper  here  to  state,  that  all  the  money  which 

will  be  standing  in  the  French  five  per  cents,  at  my  death 

in  the  names  of  the  father  of  my  above  mentioned  Nephew, 

Henry  James   Hungerford,   &  all  that  in  my  names,  is  the 

property  of  my  said  Nephew,  being  what  he  inherited  from 

his  father,  or  what  I  have  laid  up  for  him  from  the  savings 

upon  his  income.  t  o  r        t  » 

^  James  Smithson.     [l.  s.] 

We  see  that  he  begins  by  recalling  the  parentage  which 
had  denied  him  the  name  of  his  father  and  the  position  in  the 


James  Sniithsoit  21 

world  he  believed  should  have  been  his,  and,  in  the  void 
places  of  father,  brother,  or  family,  he  seems  to  look  for  some 
object  of  affection,  and  to  find  only  an  old  servant  (whom  he 
remembers  with  thoughtful  liberality)  and  a  nephew,  to  whom 
he  bequeaths  his  property.  He  has  provided  for  the  continu- 
ance of  the  property  to  any  possible  heir  to  this  nephew,  and 
there  seems  to  remain  nothing  more. 

But  there  must  have  remained,  in  the  retrospect  of  such  a 
life  as  his,  a  sense  of  failure  of  that  purpose  with  which  he 
entered  it,  when  he  hoped,  with  youthful  ambition,  to  create 
a  greater  name  than  that  which  birth  had  denied  him,  and 
when  he  wrote,  *'  My  name  shall  live  in  the  memory  of  man 
when  the  titles  of  the  Northumberlands  and  the  Percys  are 
extinct  and  forgotten,"  and  there  must  have  come  up  on  such 
an  occasion  the  question  whether  this  was,  indeed,  the  end  of 
hope  and  the  time  only  for  renunciation. 

We  see  that  he  has  not  utterly  renounced  this  hope  even 
now ;  but  it  is  so  faint  that  he  writes  between  a  clause  which 
concerns  a  legacy  to  a  servant  and  one  which  concerns  an 
investment  in  the  funds,  and,  as  it  were,  almost  casually,  the 
words  which  have  perpetuated  his  name. 

Probably  no  man  ever  made  a  more  remunerative  invest- 
ment in  the  direction  in  which  he  would  like  best  to  see  a 
return  than  was  brought  out  by  these  words  of  Smithson, 
for  we  now  all  know  that  his  bequest,  when  accepted  by  the 
United  States  Government,  formed  the  initial  step  in  the 
creation  of  an  institution  whose  position  has  been  altogether 
exceptional,  for  it  is  likely  to  remain  without  successor,  as 
without  precedent,  in  perpetuating,  as  it  does,  the  fame 
of  a  private  individual,  whose  wishes  have  been  adopted 
and  carried  into  effect  by  a  great  nation,  which  has  con- 
sented to  take  the  position  of  a  guardian  to  a  ward  in  the 
care  of  his  property,  and  which  has  subsequently  made  his 
2* 


22  The  Smithsonian  Instihition 

private  fortune  the  nucleus  to  which  have  been  added  ap- 
propriations for  objects  of  national  importance,  yet  appro- 
priations which  are  still  administered  in  association  with 
his  name. 

The  will  was  proved  in  the  Prerogative  Court  of  Canter- 
bury, the  value  of  the  effects  being  sworn  to  be  under  ^120,- 
000.  The  property  disposed  of  by  it  is  believed  to  have  been 
received  chiefly  from  Colonel  Henry  Louis  Dickinson,  a  son 
of  his  mother  by  a  former  marriage,  though  he  is  known 
to  have  received  a  legacy  of  ^3,000  from  Dorothy  Percy,  his 
half-sister  on  his  father's  side;  but,  unless  through  this,  it  is 
proper  to  state  that  there  is  no  indication  that  any  portion 
whatever  of  the  Smithson  bequest  was  derived  from  the 
Northumberland  family. 

The  motives  which  actuated  Smithson  in  mentioning  the 
United  States  as  his  residuary  legatee,  rather  than  any  other 
government  or  institution,  must  remain  in  doubt,  for  he  is  not 
known  to  have  had  any  correspondent  in  America,  nor  are 
there  in  any  of  his  papers  any  reference  to  it  or  its  distin- 
guished men.  In  selecting  the  nation  itself  as  the  depository 
of  his  trust,  he  yet  certainly  testified  his  confidence  in  its  in- 
stitutions and  his  faith  in  their  perpetuity,  while  it  has  not 
escaped  attention  that  he  uses  language  in  the  determining 
clause  of  his  will  remarkably  similar  to  that  already  employed 
by  Washington,  who  in  his  farewell  address,  says:  "Promote, 
as  an  object  of  primary  importance,  institutions  for  the  gen- 
eral diffusion  of  knowledge." 

Smithson  died  June  27,  1829,  at  Genoa,  Italy.  He  is 
buried  in  the  little  English  cemetery  on  the  heights  of  San 
Benigno,  in  a  tomb  which  originally  bore  no  reference  to  him 
as  the  founder  of  this  Institution  ;  but  the  Institution  has  re- 
cently placed  a  tablet  there  remedying  this  omission,  has  sur- 
rounded the  tomb  with  evidence  of  continued  care,  and  has 


James  Smithson  23 

placed  in  still  further  remembrance  a  similar  tablet  in  the 
English  church  of  the  city. 

Smithson's  wishes  have  been  carried  out  by  those  im- 
mediately administering  them  with  a  constant  scrupulous 
thought  of  the  intent  of  the  founder,  while  in  doing  this  the 
best  results  have  flowed  from  a  ritrid  construction  of  his  own 
words,  so  briefly  expressed,  and  from  a  division  of  the  activi- 
ties of  the  Institution  into  two  great  distinct  but  parallel 
paths,   the   "increase"  and  "diffusion"  of  knowledge. 

What  has  been  done  in  these  two  paths  the  reader  may 
partly  gather  from  this  volume  —  in  the  former,  from  the  va- 
rious articles  by  contemporary  men  of  science,  describing  its  ac- 
tivities in  research  and  original  contributions  to  the  increase  of 
human  knowledge;  in  the  latter,  in  numerous  ways, — among 
others,  from  the  description  of  the  work  of  one  of  its  bureaux, 
that  of  the  International  Exchanges,  where  it  may  be  more 
immediately  seen  how  universal  is  the  scope  of  the  action  of 
the  Institution,  which,  in  accordance  with  its  motto,  PER 
ORBEM,  is  not  limited  to  the  country  of  its  adoption,  but 
belongs  to  the  world,  there  being  outside  of  the  United  States, 
at  the  time  I  write,  more  than  12,000  correspondents,  scat- 
tered through  every  portion  of  the  globe ;  indeed,  there  is 
hardly  a  language  or  a  people  where  the  results  of  Smithson's 
benefaction  are  not  known  and  associated  with  his  name. 

If  we  were  permitted  to  think  of  him  as  conscious  of  what 
has  been,  is  being,  and  is  still  to  be  done,  in  pursuance  of  his 
wish,  we  might  believe  that  he  would  feel  that  his  hope,  at  a 
time  when  life  must  have  seemed  so  hopeless,  was  finding  full 
fruition  ;  for  events  are  justifying  what  may  have  seemed  at 
the  time  but  a  rhetorical  expression,  in  the  language  of 
a  former  President  of  the  United  States,  who  has  said, 
"  Renowned  as  is  the  name  of  Percy  in  the  historical  annals 
of   England,   ...  let    the    trust   of  James    Smithson   to  the 


24 


The  Smithsonian  Institution 


United  States  of  America  be  faithfully  executed,  ...  let  the 
result  accomplish  his  object,  the  increase  and  diffusion  of 
knowledge  among  men,  and  a  wreath  more  unfading  shall  en- 
twine itself,  in  the  lapse  of  future  ages,  around  the  name  of 
Smithson  than  the  united  hands  of  history  and  poetry  have 
braided  around  the  name  of  Percy  through  the  long  ages 
past." 


The  principal  sources  of  information  for 
this  chapter  have  been  as  follows  : 

1.  Gentlematis  Magazine  for  March,  1830, 
page  275. 

2.  The  documentary  evidence  which, 
though  meager,  may  be  found  in  the  report 
of  Richard  Rush  to  the  Department  of  State, 
in  1838. 

3.  The  manuscripts  and  diary  of  Smithson, 
which  are  described  as  comprising  about  two 
hundred  titles,  besides  numberless  notes  of  an 
encyclopaedical  character,  "  such  as  are  likely 
to  occupy  the  thoughts  of  a  gentleman  of 
extensive  acquirements  and  liberal  views," 
These  manuscripts  were  destroyed  by  the  fire 
of  1865,  but  not  until  extended  extracts  had 
been  made  from  them  by  Walter  R.  Johnson, 
a  member  of  the  National  Institute  of  Wash- 
ington, in  whose  possession  the  papers  and 
books  of  Smithson  remained  until  the  forma- 
tion of  the  Institution.     The  paper  by  John- 


son will  be  found  in  Volume  xxi  of  the 
"  Smithsonian  Miscellaneous  Collections," 
and  these  lost  papers  are  the  original  sources 
of  some  statements  made  here  which  can  no 
longer  be  verified  by  comparison  with  the 
originals. 

4.  These  sources  are  not  only  contained 
in,  but  are  largely  supplemented  by,  the  ex- 
cellent memoir  on  "  James  Smithson  and  his 
Bequest,"  by  Mr.  William  J.  Rhees,  form- 
ing part  of  Volume  xxi  of  the  "  Smithsonian 
Miscellaneous  Collections,"  without  which 
the  biography  of  Smithson  can  hardly  be 
written,  and  from  which  the  writer  has  here 
frequently  quoted  textually,  without  other 
acknowledgment  than  this  general  and  ex- 
plicit one. 

5.  Another  source  of  information  is  the  re- 
searches made  by  the  writer  with  the  aid  of 
Doctor  Cyrus  Adler,  Librarian  of  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution,  in  England,  in  1894. 


THE    FOUNDING   OF   THE    INSTITUTION, 

1 835- 1 846 


By  George  Brown  Goode 


"/HEN  Smithson  died  in  Genoa  in  1829  his 
estate  became  the  property  of  his  brother's 
son,  Henry  James  Hungerford,  then  about 
twenty-three  years  of  age,  who  was  privi- 
leged to  enjoy  its  income  during  his  own  life- 
time, and  to  whose  heirs  it  was  to  pass  at  his  death.  Hun- 
gerford,  then  known  as  the  Baron  Eunice  de  la  Batut,  died 
in  Pisa,  June  5,  1835,  unmarried  and  without  heirs. 

There  was  now  no  one  to  contest  the  claim  of  the  United 
States  to  the  estate  except  his  mother,  Madame  de  la  Batut, 
who  declared  herself  to  be  satisfied  by  the  granting  of  a  small 
annuity  payable  during  her  own  lifetime. 

The  fact  of  the  Smithson  bequest  first  became  known  in 
this  country  in  September,  1835,  when  there  was  received  at 
the  State  Department  a  letter  from  Aaron  Vail,  charge  d'af- 
faires of  the  United  States  in  London,  transmitting  a  copy  of 
the  will,  tOQfether  with  certain  information  obtained  from 
Smithson's    solicitors    in    London.^ 

1  For    the    letter    of    these    gentlemen, —       and  the  full  text  of  all  documents  referred  to 
Messrs.   Clarke,  Fynmore,  and  Fladgate, —       in  this  chapter,  see  "  The  Smithsonian  Institu- 

25 


2  6  The  Smithsonian  Instihition 

The  proposed  gift  of  Smithson  was  first  publicly  announced 
by  President  Jackson  in  a  message  to  Congress,  dated  De- 
cember 17,  1835. 

The  President's  message  was  referred  in  the  Senate  to  the 
Committee  on  the  Judiciary,  which  promptly  reported  in  favor 
of  accepting  the  legacy.  Its  recommendations  were  strongly 
antagonized  by  Senators  Calhoun  and  Preston,  of  South 
Carolina,  who,  from  their  customary  standpoint  of  opposition 
to  centralization,  maintained  that  Congress  had  no  power  to 
accept  the  gift,  and  that  it  would  be  beneath  the  dignity  of 
the  Nation  to  receive  benefits  from  a  foreio^ner.  Senator 
Jefferson  Davis,  of  Mississippi,  and  Senator  Leigh,  of  Vir- 
ginia, took  strong  ground  on  the  other  side,  and  their  counsel 
finally  prevailed  after  the  report  had  lain  upon  the  table 
for  several  months. 

In  the  House  of  Representatives  the  announcement  was 
received  with  more  generous  appreciation,  and  the  message 
was  referred  to  a  select  committee,  of  which  John  Quincy 
Adams  was  made  chairman.  The  venerable  statesman,  now, 
ten  years  after  his  retirement  from  the  presidency,  a  Repre- 
sentative in  Congress  from  Massachusetts,  at  once  took  the 
measure  under  his  protection.  His  mind  seized  with  almost 
prophetic  grasp  upon  the  advances  which  the  gift  of  Smithson 
made  possible,  and  the  arguments  so  eloquently  presented  in 
his  report  of  January  19,  1836,  no  doubt  did  much  to  deter- 
mine Congress  upon  the  decision  that  the  gift  should  be 
accepted : 

"  Of  all  the  foundations  of  establishments  for  pious  or  char- 
itable uses  which  ever  signalized  the  spirit  of  the  age  or  the 
comprehensive  beneficence  of  the  founder,  none  can  be  named 

lion:   Documents  relative  to  its  Origin  and  archives  of  the  Institution  and  of  the  govern- 

History,"  edited  by  W.  J.  Rhees,  Washing-  nient,  provided  with   an  excellent  analytical 

ton,  1879,  8vo,  pages  i-xiv,  1-1013,  a  most  index.     It  also  contains  an  abstract  from  the 

careful  and  exhaustive  compilation  from  the  diary  of  John  Quincy  Adams. 


Foundiug  of  the  Ijistihttion  2  7 

more  deserving  of  the  approbation  of  mankind  than  this. 
Should  it  be  faithfully  carried  into  effect,  with  an  earnestness 
and  sagacity  of  application  and  a  steady  perseverance  of  pur- 
suit proportioned  to  the  means  furnished  by  the  will  of  the 
founder  and  to  the  greatness  and  simplicity  of  his  design  as 
by  himself  declared,  'the  increase  and  diffusion  of  knowledge 
among  men,'  it  is  no  extravagance  of  anticipation  to  declare 
that  his  name  will  hereafter  be  enrolled  among  the  eminent 
benefactors  of  mankind. 

"The  attainment  of  knowledge  is  the  high  and  exclusive 
attribute  of  man,  among  the  numberless  myriads  of  animated 
beings  inhabitants  of  the  terrestrial  globe.  On  him  alone  is 
bestowed,  by  the  bounty  of  the  Creator  of  the  universe,  the 
power  and  the  capacity  of  acquiring  knowledge.  Knowledge 
is  the  attribute  of  his  nature  which  at  once  enables  him  to 
improve  his  condition  upon  earth,  and  to  prepare  him  for  the 
enjoyment  of  a  happier  existence  hereafter.  It  is  by  this  at- 
tribute that  man  discovers  his  own  nature  as  the  link  between 
earth  and  heaven  ;  as  the  partaker  of  an  immortal  spirit ;  as 
created  for  a  hisfher  and  more  durable  end  than  the  count- 
less  tribes  of  beings  which  people  the  earth,  the  ocean,  and 
the  air,  alternately  instinct  with  life,  and  melting  into  vapor 
or  mouldering  into  dust. 

"To  furnish  the  means  of  acquiring  knowledge  is,  there- 
fore, the  greatest  benefife^  that  can  be  conferred  upon  mankind. 
It  prolongs  life  itself  and  enlarges  the  sphere  of  existence. 
The  earth  was  given  to  man  for  cultivation,  for  the  improve- 
ment of  his  own  condition.  Whoever  increases  his  know- 
ledge multiplies  the  uses  to  which  he  is  enabled  to  turn  the 
gift  of  his  Creator  to  his  own  benefit,  and  partakes  in  some 
degree  of  that  goodness  which  is  the  highest  attribute  of 
Omnipotence  itself 

"If,  then,  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  under  the  smile  of 
an  approving  Providence  and  by  the  faithful  and  permanent 
application  of  the  means  furnished  by  its  founder  to  the  pur- 
pose for  which  he  has  bestowed  them,  should  prove  effective 
to  their  promotion,  if  they  should  contribute  essentially  to 
the  increase  and  diffusion  of  knoiulcdge  anio?ig  men,  to  what 


2  8  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

higher  or    nobler   object  could   this  generous   and   splendid 
donation   have  been   devoted? 

"  In  the  commission  of  every  trust  there  is  an  implied 
tribute  of  the  soul  to  the  integrity  and  intelligence  of  the 
trustee  ;  and  there  is  also  an  implied  call  for  the  faithful  ex- 
ercise of  those  properties  to  the  fulfilment  of  the  purpose  of 
the  trust.  The  tribute  and  the  call  acquire  additional  force 
and  energy  when  the  trust  is  committed  for  performance  after 
the  decease  of  him  by  whom  it  is  granted,  when  he  no  longer 
exists  to  witness  or  to  constrain  the  effective  fulfilment  of  his 
design.  The  magnitude  of  the  trust  and  the  extent  of  con- 
fidence bestowed  in  the  committal  of  it  do  but  enlarge  and 
aggravate  the  pressure  of  the  obligation  which  it  carries  with 
it.  The  weight  of  duty  imposed  is  proportioned  to  the  honor 
conferred  by  confidence  without  reserve.  Your  committee 
are  fully  persuaded,  therefore,  that,  with  a  grateful  sense  of 
the  honor  conferred  by  the  testator  upon  the  political  institu- 
tions of  this  Union,  the  Congress  of  the  United  States,  in  ac- 
cepting the  bequest  will  feel  in  all  its  power  and  plenitude 
the  obligation  of  responding  to  the  confidence  reposed  by 
him  with  all  the  fidelity,  disinterestedness,  and  perseverance 
of  exertion  which  may  carry  into  effective  execution  the 
noble  purpose  of  an  endowment  for  the  increase  and  diffusion 
of  knowledge  among  men." 

After  much  debate  a  bill  was  passed  to  authorize  and  en- 
able the  President  to  assert  and  prosecute  the  claim  of  the 
United  States  to  the  legacy  bequeathed  by  James  Smithson, 
and  pledging  the  faith  of  the  United  States  to  the  application 
of  the  bequest  to  the  purpose  of  founding  an  institute  in 
Washinofton  under  the  name  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution 
—  an  establishment  for  the  increase  and  diff"usion  of  know- 
ledge among  men. 

On  the  first  of  July,  1836,  this  bill  became  a  law  through 
the  approval  of  the  President,  who  at  once  appointed  an 
agent  to  prosecute  the  claim.    The  man  selected  was  Richard 


Founding  of  the  Instihition  29 

Rush,  of  Pennsylvania,  a  lawyer  of  high  standing,  who  had 
been  Attorney-General  of  the  United  States,  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury,  and  a  candidate  for  the  office  of  Vice-President. 
He  had  also  been  Minister  to  France  and  to  England,  and 
his  official  residence  of  eight  years  at  the  Court  of  Saint 
James  fitted  him  admirably  for  the  mission  which  he  now 
undertook.  He  proceeded  at  once  to  London,  entered  a 
friendly  suit  in  the  Courts  of  Chancery  in  the  name  of  the 
President  of  the  United  States,  and,  notwithstanding  there 
were  eight  hundred  cases  ahead  of  this,  he  obtained  a  favora- 
ble decision  in  less  than  two  years,  an  event  without  example 
in  the  annals  of  chancery,  for  the  English  lawyers  them- 
selves admitted  that  a  chancery  suit  was  a  thing  which  might 
begin  with  a  man's  life,  and  its  termination  be  his  epitaph. 

The  success  of  Mr.  Rush  was  due  in  a  large  degree  to  the 
extreme  friendliness  and  consideration  manifested  by  the  Brit- 
ish law  officers  from  the  Attorney- General  down,  without 
which  it  would  have  been  scarcely  possible  for  him  to  have 
accomplished  in  so  short  a  period  what  in  the  ordinary  course 
of  events  would  at  that  time  have  required  twenty  or  thirty 
years.  His  skill  in  the  conduct  of  the  case  also  counted  for 
much,  the  American  Minister  testifying  that  no  litigant  ever 
displayed  a  more  ardent  zeal,  or  a  more  sagacious,  devoted, 
and  unremitting  diligence,  in  the  prosecution  of  a  suit. 

A  still  more  potent  influence,  however,  must  have  been  his 
own  enthusiasm  for  the  work  in  which  he  was  engaged,  an 
enthusiasm  which  he  succeeded  in  imparting  to  all  with 
whoni  he  came  in  contact.  "A  suit  of  higher  interest  and 
dignity,"  he  wrote,  "  has  rarely,  perhaps,  been  before  the  tri- 
bunals of  a  nation.  If  the  trust  created  by  the  testator's  will 
be  successfully  carried  into  effect  by  the  enlightened  legisla- 
tion of  Congress,  benefits  may  flow  to  the  United  States  and 
to  the  human  family  not  easy  to  be  estimated,  because  oper- 


30  The  Sinithsonian  Ijistitittion 

ating  silently  and  gradually  throughout  time,  yet  operating 
not  the  less  effectually.  Not  to  speak  of  the  inappreciable 
value  of  letters  to  individual  and  social  man,  the  monuments 
which  they  raise  to  a  nation's  glory  often  last  when  others 
perish,  and  seem  especially  appropriate  to  the  glory  of  a 
republic  whose  foundations  are  laid  in  the  presumed  intelli- 
gence of  its  citizens,  and  can  only  be  strengthened  and 
perpetuated  as  that  improves."^ 

On  May  9,  1838,  a  decree  of  the  Court  of  Chancery 
was  solemnly  pronounced,  adjudging  the  Smithson  bequest 
to  the  United  States,  and  the  estate  was  immediately  trans- 
ferred to  Mr.  Rush,  who  took  passage  for  America  in  the 
packet  ship  Mediator;  which  sailed  from  London  July  17, 
and  reached   New  York  August  29,  1838. 

The  various  securities  were  converted  into  gold  sovereigns 
for  convenience  of  transportation,  and  these  were  packed  at 
the  Bank  of  England  in  one  hundred  and  five  bags,  each 
containing  1000  sovereigns,  except  one  which  contained  960 
sovereigns  and  certain  change  which  Mr.  Rush  minutely 
records  as  amounting  to  "  eight  shillings  and  sevenpence 
wrapped  in  paper,"  a  minuteness  somewhat  entertaining,  since 
in  another  place  he  records  with  equal  minuteness  that  he 
delivered   eight  shillings  and  sixpence  at  the  Mint. 

The  money  was  deposited  with  the  Bank  of  America  until 
September  i,  when  Mr.  Rush,  accompanied  by  two  agents 
of  the  Bank,  took  stage  for  Philadelphia,  and  on  the  same 
day  delivered  his  charge  to  the  Director  and  Treasurer  of 
the  United  States  Mint.  The  contents  of  the  bags,  ^^104,- 
960,  8s.,  6d.,  was  found  to  be  the  equivalent  of  $508,318.46, 
which  was  the  amount  for  which  Mr.  Rush  obtained  a  receipt. 

1  Letter  to  the  Honorable  John  Forsyth,  England,    see     Rhees,    "The     Smithsonian 

Secretary  of  State,  dated  London,  May  12,  Institution  :      Documents     relative     to     its 

1838.   For  all  the  correspondence  and  other  Origin   and    History";    Washington,   1879, 

documents    relating    to   Rush's    mission   to  pages  3-122. 


Founding  of  the  Institution  31 

The  sum  was  subsequently  increased  by  the  repayment  of 
certain  amounts  expended  in  the  prosecution  of  the  claim, 
freights,  insurances,  etc.,  so  that  the  original  trust  amounted 
in  all  to  ^106,374,  9s.,  yd.,  or  $515,169.  The  sum  of 
;!^50i5  sterling  which  was  held  back  during  the  lifetime  of 
Madame  de  la  Batut,  after  her  death,  in  1862,  was  added  to 
the  fund,  and  in  February,  1867,  the  Board  of  Regents  was 
informed  that  the  amount  of  the  Smithsonian  Fund  in  the 
Treasury  had  been  increased  to  $550,000.^ 

As  soon  as  the  trust  fund  reached  the  United  States,  in 
1838,  it  was  invested  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  in 
stocks  of  States,  chiefly  in  500  bonds  of  the  State  of 
Arkansas  for  $1000  each,  bearing  six  per  cent,  interest.^ 
The  State  of  Arkansas  having  failed  to  pay  its  interest 
in  1846,  Congress  made  good  the  deficiency  from  the 
public  funds,  as  in  duty  bound  by  the  pledge  given  in  the 
bill  approved  July  i,  1836,  and  has  ever  since  paid  interest 
at  six  per  cent,  on  the  sum  of  $538,000,  which  was  the  total 
amount  at  that  time  invested  in  Arkansas  securities. 

Shortly  after  the  convening  of  Congress  in  1838,  President 
Van  Buren,  in  a  message  dated  December  6,  informed  both 
Houses  that  the  legacyhad  been  received  and  invested,  and 
invited  their  attention  to  the  obligation  devolving  upon  the 
United  States  to  fulfil  the  object  of  the  bequest.  His  mes- 
sage was  accompanied  by  several  letters  from  "  persons 
versed  in  science  and  in  matters  relating  to  education,"  who 
had  been  invited  by  the  President  to  communicate  their 
views  to  aid  his  judgment  in  presenting  the  subject  to 
Congress. 

Eight  years  passed  by  before  a  definite  plan  of  organiza- 

IRhees^  loc.  cit.,  page  133.  tion  of  the  President,  to  invest  all  the  money 

2  This  was  done  in  accordance  with    the  arising  from  the  bequest  of  Smithson  in  stocks 

Act,  approved  July    7,    1838,  directing   the  of  States.    This  Act  was  repealed  September 

Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  with  the  approba-  il,  1841,  through  the  agency  of  Mr.  Adams. 


32  The  Smithsonian  Instihttion 

tion  was  determined  upon,  although  at  each  session  of  Con- 
gress the  President  urged  prompt  action.  Though  at  the 
time  the  delay  seemed  irksome,  no  one  can  doubt  that  it  was 
in  the  end  advantageous.  At  first  the  importance  of  the 
occasion  was  not  fully  appreciated,  and  the  projects  pre- 
sented were  limited  in  scope.  Suggestions  were  offered  by 
a  large  number  of  persons,  and  almost  every  suggestion  was 
embodied  in  one  or  more  of  the  bills  which  were  brought  up 
for  discussion  during  this  formative  period.  The  broad  and 
liberal  plan  at  last  adopted  was  the  result  of  a  process  of 
selection  by  which  unworthy  features  were  thrown  out,  and 
only  those  retained  which  commended  themselves  to  the 
wisdom  of  an  intelligent  majority. 

When  the  subject  was  first  considered  in  the  Senate,  it 
seems  to  have  been  generally  believed  that  the  intention  of 
the  testator  was  to  establish  a  university,  and  this  was  the 
preference  of  those  to  whom,  in  July,  1838,  the  Secretary  of 
State,  by  direction  of  the  President,  addressed  letters  asking 
advice  in  regard  to  the  proper  application  of  the  bequest.^ 
Seven  communications  elicited  by  this  invitation  were  under 
consideration  in  1838,  and  of  these,  five  favored  a  school 
corresponding  to  what  would  now  be  called  a  postgraduate 
university.  Doctor  Wayland  suggested  an  institution  which 
should  occupy  "the  space  between  the  close  of  a  collegiate 
education  and  a  professional  school";  Doctor  Cooper,  "an 
institution  of  the  character  of  a  university,"  open  only  to 
graduates  of  other  colleges;  and  President  Chapin,  of  Colum- 
bian University,  "an  institution  for  liberal  and  professional 
purposes  and  for  the  promotion  of  original  investigations  — 
to  carry  through  a  range  of  studies  much  above  those  of  the 
ordinary  collegiate  course."     Professor  Dunglison,  of  the  Uni- 

1  The  persons  addressed  were  the  Honor-  of  South  Carolina  ;  the  Honorable  Richard 
able  John  Quincy  Adams,  ex-President;  Rush;  Doctor  Francis  Wayland,  President 
Thomas  Cooper,  M.  D.,  of  the  University       of  Brown  University;  and  others. 


Founding  of  the  Institutmi  ZZ 

versity  of  Virginia,  advocated  "  a  central  school  of  natural 
science,"  where  natural  philosophy,  chemistry,  geology,  miner- 
alogy, philosophy,  and  all  other  sciences  could  effectually  be 
taught,  to  be  supplemented  in  time  by  a  botanical  garden,  an 
observatory,  a  zoological  institute,  and  other  similar  agencies. 
Mr.  Rush  objected  to  a  school  of  any  kind,  and  proposed  a 
project  which  corresponds  more  nearly  than  any  other  of 
those  early  days  to  that  which  was  finally  adopted.  In  a 
shadowy  yet  far-seeing  way  he  outlined  a  system  of  scientific 
correspondence,  of  lectureships,  of  general  cooperation  with 
the  scientific  work  of  the  government,  a  liberal  system  of 
publication,  and  collections — geological,  zoological,  botanical, 
ethnological,  and  technological. 

Ex-President  Adams  urged  the  establishment  of  a  great 
astronomical  observatory,  "equal  to  any  in  the  world,"  and 
he  continued  to  urge  this  from  year  to  year,  and  to  introduce 
bills  in  which  this  feature  was  included,  until,  indeed,  provision 
for  astronomical  work  was  made  by  the  establishment  of  an 
observatory  in  connection  with  the  navy.  The  bill  consid- 
ered by  Congress  in  1839^  provided  for  the  establishment  of 
an  observatory  fully  equipped,  with  provision  for  the  publica- 
tion of  its  observations  'and  the  annual  preparation  and  pub- 
lication of  a  nautical  almanac.  This,  which  had  evidently 
been  prepared  by  a  minority  of  the  joint  committee,  was  re- 
inforced by  two  sets  of  resolutions  proposed  by  Mr.  Adams  in 
the  House. 

One,  reported  from  the  committee,  January  26,  provided : 

"That  the  first  appropriations  from  the  interest  or  income 
of  the  Smithsonian  fund  ouorht  to  be  for  the  erection  and  es- 
tablishment,  at  the  city  of  Washington,  of  an  astronomical 
observatory,  provided  with  the  best  and  most  approved  in- 
struments  and  books,   for   the  continual   observation,   calcu- 

1  House  Bill  No.  1161 ;  Senate  Bill  No.  293. 


34  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

lation,  and  recording  of  the  remarkable  phenomena  of  the 
heavens,  for  the  periodical  publication  of  the  observations 
thus  made,  and  of  a  nautical  almanac,  for  the  use  of  the  mari- 
ners of  the  United  States  and  of  all  other  navigating  nations." 

The  second,  reported  February  6,  recited  the  opinion  : 

"  That  the  education  of  the  children  of  these  United  States 
is  a  duty  of  solemn  and  indispensable  obligation  incumbent 
upon  their  parents  and  guardians,  not  for  the  increase  and 
diffusion  of  knowledge  among  men,  but  to  qualify  them  for 
the  enjoyment  of  their  rights  and  the  performance  of  their 
duties  throughout  life,  [and  therefore]  that  no  part  of  the 
Smithsonian  fund  ought  to  be  applied  to  the  education  of  the 
children  or  youth  of  the  United  States,  nor  to  any  school, 
college,  university,  or  institute  of  education." 

These  resolutions  were  evidently  intended  to  antagonize 
the  views  still  held  by  many  Senators,  and  urged  in  the 
speech  of  Senator  Robbins,  of  Rhode  Island,  in  January,  1839, 
who  declared  "  that  this  institution  should  make  one  of  a 
number  of  colleges,  to  constitute  a  university,  to  be  estab- 
lished here,  and  to  be  endowed  in  a  manner  worthy  of  this 
great  nation  and  their  immense  resources." 

On  February  18,  Senator  Robbins  offered  a  counterpoise  to 
Mr.  Adams's  anti-university  resolution  in  the  following: 

"  I.  Resolved,  That  it  is  the  duty  of  the  United  States,  they 
having  accepted  the  trust  under  the  will  of  Mr.  Smithson,  of 
London,  to  execute  that  trust  bona  fide,  according  to  the  true 
intent  and  meaning  of  the  testator. 

"  2.  Resolved,  That  the  trust  being  to  found  an  institution 
in  the  city  of  Washington  for  the  increase  and  diffusion  of 
knowledore  amono-  men,  the  kind  of  institution  which  will 
have  the  effect  intended  and  described,  in  the  most  eminent 
degree,  will  be  the  kind  of  institution  which  ought  in  good 
faith  to  be  adopted,  as  being  most  in  accordance  with  the  true 
intent  and  meaning  of  the  testator. 


Founding  of  the  Institution  35 

"3.  Resolved,  That  all  experience  having  shown  scientific 
and  literary  institutions  to  be  by  far  the  most  effectual  means 
to  the  end  of  increasing  and  diffusing  knowledge  among  men, 
the  Smithsonian  Institution  should  be  a  scientific  and  literary 
institution,  formed  upon  a  model  the  best  calculated  to  make 
those  means  the  most  effectual  to  that  end. 

"4.  Resolved,  That  to  apply  said  trust  fund  to  the  erection 
and  support  of  an  observatory  would  not  be  to  fulfil  bona  fide 
the  intention  of  the  testator,  nor  would  it  comport  with  the 
dignity  of  the  United  States  to  owe  such  an  establishment  to 
foreign  eleemosynary  means." 

The  Twenty-fifth  Congress  adjourned  without  action,  and 
Senator  Robbins  having  retired  from  public  life,  the  univer- 
sity idea  was  not  afterward  so  prominent.  At  this  time  addi- 
tional petitions  were  received.  One  was  from  Professor  Walter 
R.  Johnson,  of  Philadelphia,  pleading  for  an  institution  for 
researches  in  physical  science,  especially  in  connection  with 
the  useful  arts,  which  would  have  corresponded  in  a  general 
way  with  the  scientific  branches  of  the  present  Department 
of  Agriculture,  though  he  proposed  work  in  many  other 
directions.^ 

Another  was  from  Charles  L.  Fleischmann,  a  graduate  of 
the  Royal  School  of  Agriculture  in  Bavaria,  proposing  the 
establishment  of  an  institution  for  the  promotion  of  agricul- 
ture, with  experimental  farms  of  1360  acres,  manufactories, 
mills,  and  workshops,  a  considerable  staff  of  teachers  and  in- 
structors, and  one  hundred  students  at  the  commencement." 

The  Agricultural  Society  of  Kentucky  was  pleading  for  an 
agricultural  school,  the  Superintendent  of  the  Coast  Survey 
for  a  school  of  astronomy,  and  Mr.  James  P.  Espy  for  a  me- 
teorological bureau  with  a  system  of  wide-spread  simultaneous 
observations. 

1  Presented  to  the  House  of  Representa-  2  Reported  to  the  House  of  Representa- 

tives  May  21,  1838.     See    Rhees,   op.    ciL,       tives  January  9,  1S39.     See  Rhees,  op.  cit., 
pages  171-186.  pages  186-198. 


36  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

The  interest  of  the  public  became  much  greater ;  earnest 
discussions  were  printed  in  the  newspapers  and  reviews ; 
letters  urging  speedy  action  were  written  to  Congress  by 
persons  in  all  parts  of  the  country,  and  the  Corporation 
of  the  City  of  Washington  also  presented  a  vigorous  me- 
morial to  the  national  legislature. 

Soon  after  the  Twenty-sixth  Congress  convened,  President 
Adams  ao-ain  introduced  his  bill  for  the  establishment  of  a 
national  observatory,  accompanied  by  a  learned  and  exhaust- 
ive report  upon  the  importance  of  astronomical  work,  sup- 
plemented by  a  statement  from  the  Astronomer  Royal  of 
Great  Britain  concerning  the  observatories  at  Greenwich  and 
elsewhere.  His  ideas  did  not  meet  with  favor.  In  his  jour- 
nal for  1843  he  records  with  much  disgust  that  the  Secretary 
of  the  Treasury  said  to  him  in  conversation  that  the  prejudice 
against  his  plan  of  an  astronomical  observatory  was  insur- 
mountable because  he  had  once  called  observatories  "light- 
houses in  the  skies." 

Strenuous  as  was  his  desire  for  an  observatory,  it  was  fee- 
ble in  comparison  with  his  apprehension  lest  the  fund  should 
be  "squandered  upon  cormorants,  or  wasted  in  electioneering 
bribery,"  and  his  desire  to  save  it  "  from  misapplication,  di- 
lapidation, and  waste."  His  dread  became  almost  morbid,  and 
he  looked  with  suspicion  upon  every  one  who  was  interested 
in  the  disposition  of  the  bequest,  even  those  whose  names  are 
now  remembered  in  connection  with  his  own  as  the  most 
public-spirited  promoters  of  the  interests  of  the  Institution  in 
its  days  of  embryonic  existence.  He  would  cooperate  with 
no  one,  and  his  influence  must  be  characterized  as  conserva- 
tive rather  than  formative,  his  most  important  service  being 
his  opposition  to  the  bill  for  investing  the  fund  in  State 
stocks,  which,  in  1841,  he  succeeded  in  having  repealed. 

While  these  things  were   happening  at  the   Capitol,   new 


Founding  of  the  Instihdion  37 

agencies  were  coming  into  existence  which  were  destined  to 
exert  a  very  positive  and  decisive  influence  upon  the  charac- 
ter of  the  new  organization.  Chief  among  these  was  the  Na- 
tional Institution,  a  society  organized  May  15,  1840,  by  the 
adoption  of  a  constitution  and  a  declaration  of  objects,  which 
were,  "  To  promote  science  and  the  useful  arts,  and  to  estab- 
lish a  national  museum  of  natural  history,"  etc.  Its  constitu- 
tion, as  printed  on  the  cover  of  the  second  bulletin  of  the 
society,  was  decidedly  prophetic  of  the  future  plan  of  the 
Smithsonian  Institution.  The  society  was  established  in  a 
broad  and  liberal  way.  Its  membership  was  strong,  includ- 
ing at  the  beginning  about  ninety  representative  men  of 
Washington,  among  them  members  of  Congress,  scientific 
men,  clergymen,  and  prominent  citizens,  and  an  equal  num- 
ber of  corresponding  members,  including  all  the  leading  men 
of  the  country.  Among  its  officers  were  ex-President  Ad- 
ams, the  Secretary  of  War,  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  the 
Chief  of  Engineers  of  the  Army,  and  other  prominent  offi- 
cials. Its  meetings  were  largely  attended,  its  promoters  were 
enthusiastic,  gifts  of  books  and  specimens  began  to  come  in, 
and  its  prospects  were  in  every  way  flattering. 

From  the  beginning,  the  Smithson  legacy  and  its  proper 
disposition  was  the  subject  most  frequently  discussed  by  the 
founders  of  the  National  Institution.  For  years,  indeed,  it 
was  the  opinion  of  many  influential  men  that  this  society 
ought  to  be  made  the  custodian  of  the  Smithson  fund.  How 
strongly  this  was  urged  is  indicated  in  the  letter  addressed  to 
the  Secretaries  of  War  and  of  the  Navy  in  1842,  in  which  the 
managers  stated  that  the  object  of  the  National  Institution  is 
''to  increase  and  to  diffuse  knoivlcdgc  aviong  ?nc?i,''  making 
prominent  the  words  of  Smithson.  instead  of  the  official 
designation  of  the  objects  of  their  own  society. 

The  influence  of  the  society  was  strongly  and  continuously 


38  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

exerted  upon  Congress  during  the  six  years  from  its  organi- 
zation until  the  Smithsonian  Act  was  eventually  passed,  and 
resulted  in  the  final  engrafting  of  a  national  museum  upon 
the  Smithsonian  project,  and  also  in  the  addition  of  various 
features  of  organization  which  have  since  become  such  char- 
acteristic elements  in  the  plan  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution. 

The  controlling  mind  in  this  movement  was  undoubtedly 
that  of  the  Honorable  Joel  R.  Poinsett,  of  South  Carolina, 
who  was  Secretary  of  the  Navy  in  1840,  and  at  whose  resi- 
dence the  society  was  organized.  Mr.  Poinsett  was,  under 
the  first  plan  of  organization,  senior  director,  and  occupied 
the  chair  at  every  meeting  until,  in  1841,  under  an  amended 
constitution,  he  was  elected  its  first  president.  Notwithstand- 
ing the  fact  that  officers  were  annually  elected,  he  told  Mr. 
Adams  soon  after  this  election  that  he  should  for  two  years 
to  come  preside  over  the  National  Institution,  a  clear  indica- 
tion of  the  controlling  influence  which  he  consciously  exerted. 
He  was  in  fact  reelected  to  the  presidency  at  each  annual 
meeting  until  1845,  when,  having  declined  the  candidacy,  he 
was  elected  an  honorary  member,  and  Senator  Woodbury,  of 
New  Hampshire,  became  president  in  his  place.  From  this 
period  the  decline  in  the  prosperity  of  the  society  was  marked. 

It  is  certain  that  as  early  as  1838,  when  the  bequest  was 
first  received,  Mr.  Poinsett  was  thinking  seriously  about  its 
disposal.  This  is  made  clear  by  an  entry  in  the  diary  of  John 
Quincy  Adams,  under  date  of  December  8,  in  which  the  ex- 
President  describes  his  interview  and  was  evidently  impressed 
with  the  idea  that  Mr.  Poinsett  did  not  give  him  his  entire 
confidence. 

In  April,  1839,  they  discussed  the  matter  again,  and  in 
1 84 1  Mr.  Adams  wrote  again  in  his  diary:  "April  i.  Mr. 
Poinsett  called  upon  me  and  now  fully  disclosed  his  pro- 
ject,  which  is  to  place  the  investment  and   disposal  of  the 


Founding  of  the  InstiUttion  39 

Smithsonian  funds  under  the  management  of  the  American 
Institution  for  the  Promotion  of  Literature  and  Science  [evi- 
dently meaning  the  National  Institution].  He  concurs  entirely 
in  my  views  of  confining  the  appropriations  to  the  annual 
interest,  leaving  the  principal  unimpaired,  and  of  making  the 
first  appropriations  for  the  establishment  of  an  astronomical 
observatory.  .  .  .  He  said  he  had  at  present  no  other  occu- 
pation on  hand,  and  would  be  willing  to  devote  two  years  en- 
tirely to  organizing  this  establishment  and  getting  it  into  full 
operation."  "I  know  not,"  added  the  aged  statesman,  "that 
it  could  be  accomplished  more  effectively,  and  think  I  must 
acquiesce  in  this  arrangement  and  endeavor  to  carry  it  through. 
The  chief  obstacle,  however,  will  now  be  to  extricate  the 
funds  from  the  fangs  of  the  State  of  Arkansas.  Mr.  Poinsett 
thought  that  they  paid  the  interest  upon  the  bonds  punctu- 
ally; but  the  law  requires  that  the  interest  should,  when  paid, 
be  immediately  reinvested  in  State  stocks,  and  I  struggled 
in  vain  at  the  last  session  of  Congress  to  obtain  a  repeal  of 
that  law.  Mr.  Poinsett  said  he  was  now  going  in  a  very  few 
days  to  South  Carolina,  but  should  soon  return  here  ...  to 
preside  over  the  National  Institution  for  the  Promotion  of 
Science ;  and,  as  he  expressed  a  wish  that  the  Smithsonian 
fund  might  be  connected  with  that  Institution  and  placed  un- 
der its  management,  I  requested  him  to  take  the  bill  reported 
to  the  House  with  my  report  of  5th  March,  1840,  and  prepare 
any  amendment  to  it  which  would  carry  out  his  views,  and 
send  it  to  me  before  the  approaching  session  of  Congress ; 
which  he  said  would  do."^ 


1  Extracts    from    the    memoirs    of    John  his  advocacy  of  the  project.     (See  remarks, 

Qiiincy  Adams,  Rhees, "  The  Smithsonian  In-  March  8,  \%\\,  Proceedings  of  the  National  In- 

stitution  :  Documents  relative  to  its  Origin  j-Z/Vm/zV^w, page  69,  and  letter,  February  7, 1842, 

and  History,"  pages  769,  774,  779,  780.  Proceedings  of  the  National  Institution,  page 

Mr.  Poinsett  was  not  only  the  first  to  pub-  I57-)    Dr.  Peter  S.  Duponceau,  president  of 

licly  suggest  the  union  of  the  Smithsonian  with  the  American  Philosophical  Society,  in  a  letter 

the  National  Institution,  but  was  constant  in  to   the   institution    in   November,    1840,  re- 


40 


The  Smithsoniait  Institittion 


Poinsett,  when  elected  to  the  presidency  of  the  National 
Institution,  was  a  man  of  sixty-two.  He  had  lived  an  event- 
ful life,  full  of  opportunities  for  observing  the  institutions  of 
Europe,  Asia,  and  South  America.  His  culture  was  broad 
and  sympathetic,  and  he  was  better  fitted,  perhaps,  than  any 
of  the  public  men  of  his  time  to  appreciate  the  necessity  of 
organizing  our  institutions  in  accordance  with  a  liberal  and 
comprehensive  plan.  In  his  interviews  with  those  who  advo- 
cated an  observatory  as  the  first  result  of  the  Smithson  be- 
quest, he  showed  a  full  appreciation  of  the  value  of  such  an 
institution,  but  seems  to  have  kept  before  his  own  mind  a 
much  more  comprehensive  ideal.  In  his  address  upon  the 
"Objects  and  Aims  of  the  National  Institution  for  the  Promo- 
tion of  Science,"  delivered  at  the  first  anniversary  meeting, 
January  4,  1841,  he  referred  pointedly  to  the  Smithson  be- 
quest, saying  that  it  offered  a  favorable  occasion  for  carrying 
into  effect  all  the  important  objects  connected  with  the  Na- 
tional Institution,  such  as  that  which  he  was  then  addressing, 
enabling  the  government  to  afford  all  necessary  protection  to 
the  promotion  of  science  and  the  useful  arts,^  without  the  ex- 
ercise of  any  doubtful  power. 

Soon  after  this,  in  February,  Senators  Linn,  of  Missouri, 


marked :  "Congress  cannot  find  abetter  oppor- 
tunity to  execute  the  will  of  that  beneficent  tes- 
tator than  by  laying  hold  of  yourinstitution  and 
making  it  its  own."  {Proceedings,  page  12.) 
The  Honorable  Virgil  Maxey,  Charge  d'Af- 
faires  at  Brussels,  wrote  in  December,  1840, 
that  in  his  opinion  no  better  use  could  be 
made  of  the  bequest  than  to  place  it  under 
the  direction  of  a  society  organized  for  the 
proper  carrying  into  effect  views  identical  with 
those  contemplated  by  the  philanthropical 
and  philosophical  testator.  {Proceedings, 
page  46.) 

See  in  this  connection  letters  from  Richard 
Rush,  on  the  Smithsonian  Bequest  {Proceed- 
ings 0/  the  National  Institution,  1842,  pages 
201-204);   from  Peter  S.  Duponceau,  on  the 


Smithsonian  Bequest  (('/.<-//■., pages  204-208); 
from  Honorable  Virgil  Maxey,  Charge  d'Af- 
faires  of  the  United  States  at  Brussels  {op.  cit., 
pages  46-47) ;  Opening  Address  by  John 
Tyler,  President  of  the  United  States,  patron 
of  the  National  Institute  {op.  r/A,  pages  437- 
438) ;  letter  from  the  Honorable  Levi  Wood- 
bury, United  States  Senate  {op.  cit.,  pages 
451-453);  Smithsonian  Bequest,  by  the  Hon- 
orable Richard  Rush  {op.  cit.,  pages  455- 
460) ;  address  of  Honorable  Mr.  Preston,  of 
the  United  States  Senate  {op.  cit.,  page236); 
letter  of  John  Pickering,  of  Boston,  Septem- 
ber I,  1841  {op.  cit.,  pages  107-110). 

1  These  were  the  avowed  objects  of  the 
National  Institution,  as  can  be  seen  by  ref- 
erence to  its  constitution. 


Founding  of  the  Institution  41 

and  Preston,  of  South  Carolina,  both  members  of  the  Na- 
tional Institution,  proposed  new  bills  for  the  organization 
of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  at  the  same  time  report- 
ing a  bill  to  incorporate  the  National  Institution  for  the 
Promotion  of  Science.  By  these  bills,  the  entire  man- 
agement of  the  Smithsonian  foundation  was  to  be  intrusted 
to  the  National  Institution.  Its  officers,  a  superintendent, 
and  six  professors,  were  to  be  nominated  by  that  society, 
which  was  also  to  prescribe  their  duties.  Provision  was 
made  for  joint  occupancy  by  the  two  institutions  of  build- 
ings to  be  erected  at  the  cost  of  the  Smithson  bequest,  and 
finally  it  was  required  that  all  collections  of  works  of  art 
and  of  natural  history  owned  by  the  United  States,  not  other- 
wise assigned  (or  "  all  works  of  art,  and  all  books  relating 
thereto,  and  all  collections  and  curiosities  belonging  to  the 
United  States  in  the  possession  of  any  of  the  Executive  De- 
partments and  not  necessarily  connected  with  the  duties 
thereof")  shall  be  deposited  in  said  buildings  (or  "shall  be 
transferred  to  said  institution,  to  be  there  preserved  and 
arranged  "). 

Poinsett's  enthusiasm  was  contagious,  and  his  arguments, 
manifestly  based  upon  careful  observations  and  judicious 
reasoning  and  inspired  by  hopeful  patriotism,  brought  him 
many  sympathizers.  Among  these  the  Honorable  Levi 
Woodbury,  who  had  been  a  member  of  the  same  Cabinet 
with  Mr.  Poinsett,  and  was  subsequently  in  the  Senate, 
Senator  Preston,  of  South  Carolina,  one  of  the  directors  of  the 
Institute,  Senator  Walker,  of  Mississippi,  and  Senator  Linn, 
of  Missouri,  corresponding  members,  appear  to  have  been  es- 
pecially friendly  to  the  plans  of  Mr.  Poinsett,  and  on  various 
occasions  from  1841  to  1846  promoted  the  interests  of  the 
National  Institution  on  the  floor  of  the  Senate. 

In  June,  1842,  Mr.  Poinsett  was  again  in  Washington,  and 

4 


42  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

presided  at  a  meeting  for  the  purpose  of  connecting  the  or- 
ganization of  the  National  Institution  with  that  of  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution. 

"  Mr.  Preston,"  wrote  John  Ouincy  Adams,  "  has  introduced 
into  the  Senate  a  bill  for  combining  these  two  institutions, 
and  now  stated  to  the  meeting  his  views  on  the  subject,  em- 
bracing an  appropriation  of  $20,000  and  the  occupation  by 
law  of  a  large  portion  of  the  Patent  Office  building,  for  the 
preservation  and  arrangement  of  the  objects  of  curiosity  col- 
lected by  the  exploring  expedition  under  Lieutenant  Wilkes, 
now  daily  expected  home ;  and  he  called  on  me  to  say  how 
far  my  purposes  may  be  concurrent  with  these  suggestions. 

"  I  said  I  had  the  warmest  disposition  to  favor  them,  and 
thought  there  was  but  one  difficulty  in  the  way,  which  might 
perhaps  be  surmounted.  I  had  believed  that  the  whole  bur- 
den and  the  whole  honor  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  should 
be  exclusively  confined  to  itself,  and  not  entangled  or  com- 
mingled with  any  national  establishment  requiring  appropria- 
tions of  public  money.  I  exposed  the  principles  upon  which 
all  my  movements  relating  to  the  Smithsonian  bequest  have 
been  founded,  as  well  as  the  bills  which  at  four  successive 
Congresses  I  have  reported,  first,  for  obtaining  the  money, 
and  then  for  disposing  of  the  fund. 

"At  the  motion  of  Mr.  Walker,  of  Mississippi,  the  Presi- 
dent, Mr.  Poinsett,  was  authorized  to  appoint  a  committee  of 
five  members  of  the  Institute,  to  confer  with  Mr.  Preston  and 
me  upon  the  means  of  connecting  the  Smithsonian  Institution 
with  the  National  Institute." 

Nothing  resulted  from  these  deliberations. 

On  June  13,  at  a  stated  meeting  of  the  National  Insti- 
tution, Senator  Preston  was  present,  and  delivered,  as  the 
records  relate,  "an  eloquent  speech,  in  which  he  descanted 
at  length  on  the  history  and  labor  of  the  Institution,  what 
it  had  done,  and  what  it  proposed  to  do,  its  capacity  to  be 
eminently  useful   to  the  country  and   Congress,   the  advan- 


Foimding  of  the  Institittion 


43 


tage  of  uniting  the  Smithsonian  Institution  with  it,  etc.,  and 
appealed  to  Congress  and  to  the  Hberal  citizens  of  the  United 
States  to  come  forward  in  aid  of  a  glorious  cause  and  in  the 
accomplishment  of  the  great  national  objects  which  the  Insti- 
tution has  in  view,"  ^  etc. 

Senator  Preston's  bill  for  the  union  of  the  two  establish- 
ments came  to  naught.^ 

During  this  session,  however,  the  act  to  incorporate  the 
National  Institute,  as  it  was  henceforth  to  be  called,  passed 
in  a  much  modified  form,  and  was  approved  July  27,  1842,^ 
and  the  society  now  seems  to  have  felt  much  more  secure  in 
its  project  of  retaining  control  of  the  National  Museum,  and 
of  gaining  eventually  the  management  of  the  Smithson  fund, 
or,  at  least,  of  obtaining  an  appropriation  from  Congress. 

Senator  Woodbury,*  of  New  Hampshire,  in  commenting 
upon  the  form  of  the  charter,  remarked  that  "  care  was  taken 
originally  to  make  the  Institute  different  from  all  other  char- 
tered bodies,  even  in  this  District,  so  as  to  elevate  it  above 
every  motive  of  personal  gain,  dedicating  its  labors  exclu- 
sively to  objects  of  a  public  character  and  vesting  all  the  pro- 
perty possessed  for  this  purpose  in  the  government  itself; 
and  thus,  by  rendering  it  national  in  substance  as  well  as 
name,  to  obviate  any  constitutional  objection  which  might 
arise  agfainst  measures  in  its  behalf." 

The  chanofe  of  the  name  from  "  Institution"  to  "  Institute" 
was  made  in  deference  to  a  suggestion  by  Doctor  Peter  S. 


"^Proceedings  of  the  National  Institution, 
page  236.  A  copy  was  requested  for  publica- 
tion (/(?<:.  cit.,  page  241),  but  I  cannot  learn 
that  it  was  ever  put  in  type. 

2  It  was  laid  upon  the  table  July  18,  1842, 
and  never  again  came  up. 

3  See  "  Charter  of  Incorporation,  Constitu- 
tion and  By-Laws  "  in  Proceedings  of  the  Na- 
tional Institution,  pages  3S8-392.  See  also 
"Bill  to  Incorporate  the  National  Institution," 
etc.,  reported  by  Senator  Preston  (Senate  Bill 


No.  258),  February  17,  1841,  in  Rhees,"Doc- 
uments,"  etc.,  pages  239-341.  See  also  "Me- 
morial of  the  Officers  of  the  National  Institu- 
tion for  the  Promotion  of  Science,  January  21, 
1842"  (House  Documents  No.  59,  Twenty- 
Seventh  Congress,  Second  Session,  II.),  sub- 
milting  draft  of  a  bill  of  incorporation. 

4  For  a  thorough  understanding  of  the  mat- 
ter see  the  remarks  of  Senator  Woodbury  in 
full,  which  were  printed  in  the  Proceedings  of 
the  National  Institution,  pages  336,  337. 


44  The  Smithsonian  Instihttion 

Duponceaii  in   a  letter  written  in  April,    1842,   in  which  he 
said: 

"  I  have  seen  with  great  pleasure  the  bill  brought  into  the 
Senate  by  the  Honorable  Mr.  Preston.  It  fully  coincides 
with  the  views  that  I  have  expressed.  The  object,  in  my 
opinion,  is  to  preserve  the  superiority  of  the  National  Institu- 
tion over  the  Smithsonian,  and  of  the  government  over  both. 

"  I  would  beg  leave  to  suggest  whether  it  would  not  be 
advisable  to  make  some  small  alteration  in  the  name  of  the 
National  Institution  so  that  it  should  not  bear  exactly  the 
same  name  with  the  Smithsonian,  but  one  expressive  of  some 
degree  of  superiority.  I  would  recommend,  for  instance,  that 
of  Institute,  which  appears  to  me  more  dignified  than  that  of 
Institution,  which  is  equally  applicable  to  a  school  or  college 
as  to  a  great  national  establishment  for  the  promotion  of 
science.  My  idea  would  be  to  call  the  national  establishment 
the  '  National  Institute  for  the  Promotion  of  Science,'  and 
the  subordinate  one  the  *  Smithsonian  Institution,'  without 
more." 

No  appropriation  came,  however,  and  the  charter  and 
changed  name  failed  to  add  to  the  prosperity  of  the  society. 
At  a  meeting  on  June  20,-^  1842,  a  resolution  was  passed  ap- 
pointing a  committee  to  solicit  private  contributions  of  money 
and  property.  On  August  8,  1842,  a  report  was  made  by 
this  committee  proposing  to  institute  an  annual  scientific  con- 
vention at  Washington,  during  the  session  of  Congress,  and 
under  the  auspices  of  the  Institute,  and  also  recommended 
an  extensive  system  of  exchange  of  specimens  for  the  benefit 
of  the  museum. 

At  the  meeting  of  September  12,  1842,  Mr.  Poinsett,  the 
president,  proposed  a  series  of  resolutions^  intended  to  put 
the  recommendation  of  the  report  into  effect. 

1  Evidently  not  June  13,  though  so  stated  in  one  portion  of  the  minutes. 

See  Proceedings  of  the  National  Institntiott,  pages  236,  241,  335. 

^'^QQ  Proceedings  o/t/ie  National  Institution,  page  336. 


Founding  of  the  Institution  45 

All  of  these  resolutions  and  reports  were  issued  in  the 
form  of  circulars/  but  the  appeals  "to  the  liberality  and 
public  spirit  of  our  countrymen  "  were  without  avail.  Con- 
sequently a  special  meeting  of  the  board  of  management  was 
held  December  23,  1843,  at  the  office  of  the  Secretary  of 
State.  That  the  society  was  regarded  at  that  time  as  one  of 
national  importance  is  shown  by  the  presence  at  the  meet- 
ing of  Mr.  Abel  P.  Upshur,  Secretary  of  State,  who  took  an 
active  part  in  the  proceedings ;  the  Honorable  John  Quincy 
Adams,  who  presided ;  Senator  Levi  Woodbury,  late  Secre- 
tary of  the  Treasury,  who  agreed  to  represent  the  meeting 
in  Congress;  the  Honorable  Joseph  R.  Ingersoll,  who  acted  as 
secretary,  and  who  wrote  out  in  his  preamble  to  the  minutes 
of  the  meeting  a  forcible  statement  of  the  needs  of  the  so- 
ciety;  the  Honorable  Charles  J.  Ingersoll,  Senator  Robert 
J.  Walker,  besides  the  Honorable  Peter  Force,  Colonel  John 
J.  Abert,  Colonel  Joseph  G.  Totten,  Lieutenant  Matthew  F. 
Maury,  and  the  officers  of  the  society. 

The  issue  of  this  meeting  was  the  decision  "  to  memorialize 
Congress  on  the  subject  of  the  condition  and  wants  of  the 
Institute."  The  memorial  was  presented  in  due  course,  and 
in  June,  1844,  Senator  Choate,  of  Massachusetts,  presented 
a  report  upon  the  character  and  uses  of  the  Institute,  recom- 
mending that  its  property  should  be  vested  in  the  United 
States  and  an  appropriation  made  for  its  benefit. 

In  the  mean  time,  on  the  occasion  of  the  first  annual  meet- 
ing of  the  National  Institute  under  its  new  name  and  in  its 
capacity  as  a  corporation,  in  April,  1844,  the  meeting  of  the 
friends  of  science,  including,  besides  all  the  members  and 
patrons  of  the  National  Institute,  the  members  of  the  Ameri- 
can Philosophical  Society  and  of  the  Association  of  American 
Geologists  and  Naturalists  (the  predecessor  of  the  American 

1  October  15,  1842,  and  February  24,  1843. 

4* 


46  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science),  had  been  held 
in  Washington.  The  occasion  was  a  brilliantly  successful 
one.  The  President  of  the  United  States  presided  at  the 
first  meeting  and  some  prominent  public  man  at  each  of  the 
others. 

The  National  Institute  received  its  full  share  of  encomium. 
President  Tyler,  in  presiding  at  the  first  meeting,  lauded  it 
highly,  held  out  the  hope  that  the  government  would  "con- 
tinue to  it  a  fostering  care,"  and  expressed  in  a  general  way 
the  hope  that  it  should  be  identified  with  the  future  National 
Museum  and  the  future  Smithsonian  Institution.  "Where 
can  the  government  find,"  said  he,  "a  safer  depository  for 
the  fruits  of  its  expeditions,  fitted  out  to  explore  distant  and 
unknown  regions,  than  the  National  Institute?  What  can  it 
better  do  for  the  '  increase  and  diffusion  of  knowledge  among 
men '  than  by  patronizing  and  sustaining  this  magnificent 
undertaking  ?  " 

Senator  Walker,  of  Mississippi,  one  of  the  directors  of  the 
Institute,  delivered  an  address  on  the  present  condition  and 
history  of  American  science,  ending  with  an  appeal  to  scien- 
tific men  to  come  forward  and  unite  with  the  people  in  sus- 
taining and  advancing  the  National  Institute. 

Senator  Woodbury,  of  New  Hampshire,  in  a  letter  to  the 
secretary,  expressed  himself  strongly  in  favor  of  making  the 
society  the  agent  of  the  government  in  the  matter  of  caring 
for  collections,  patents,  and  copyrights,  and  also  in  the  exe- 
cution of  the  Smithson  trust. 

John  Quincy  Adams  closed  his  address  in  these  words : 

"  I  avail  myself  of  this  occasion  to  express  my  regret  that, 
having  taken  an  humble  part  in  the  establishment  of  this 
institution  from  its  first  foundation,  under  the  auspices  of 
Mr.  Poinsett,  I  have  been  able  to  contribute  so  little  to  its 
promotion  and  advantage,  and  to  add  my  heartfelt  satisfaction 


Founding  of  the  Instihition  47 

at  the  prosperity  which,  by  the  untiring  exertion  and  fervid 
zeal  of  its  executive  officers,  it  has  attained.  I  believe  it 
eminently  deserving  of  the  fostering  care  and  liberal  patron- 
age of  the  Congress  of  the  United  States,  and  could  antici- 
pate no  happier  close  to  my  public  life  than  to  contribute,  by 
my  voice  and  by  my  vote,  to  record  the  sanction  of  the 
nation's  munificence  to  sustain  the  National  Institute  devoted 
to  the  cause  of  science." 

The  Honorable  Richard  Rush,  in  a  paper  on  "  The  Smith- 
sonian Bequest,"  submitted  to  this  meeting,  urged  that  the 
Smithsonian  fund  should  be  "engrafted  upon  the  National 
Institute,"  and  submitted  an  elaborate  argument  in  favor  of 
his  proposal. 

It  was  a  gala  week  for  the  Institute.  The  meeting  was  in 
every  respect  a  success,  and  there  was  reason  to  believe  that 
Congress  would  share  in  the  general  enthusiasm,  take  the  so- 
ciety under  its  patronage,  and  even  give  it  the  control  of  the 
Smithson  fund. 

In  the  circular  of  invitation,  dated  March  5,  1843,  the  ob- 
jects of  the  meeting  as  a  means  of  strengthening  the  position 
of  the  society  had  been  boldly  stated,  and  the  committee  did 
not  hesitate  to  say  that  "  should  the  meeting  prove  as  suc- 
cessful as  the  hopes  of  the  managers  in  relation  to  it  are  ar- 
dent, they  will  expect  hereafter  to  welcome  all  who  may  visit 
the  association  in  apartments  peculiar  to  itself,  stored  with 
the  objects  of  its  honest  pride  and  worthy  of  its  distinguished 
visitors."  Such  a  paper,  signed  by  such  influential  names  as 
those  of  John  C.  Spencer,  Secretary  of  the  Treasury ;  Rob- 
ert J.  Walker,  William  C.  Rives,  Rufus  Choate,  of  the  Senate; 
Joseph  R.  Ingersoll  and  William  C.  Preston,  of  the  House  of 
Representatives ;  Alexander  D.  Bache,  Superintendent  of  the 
Coast  Survey ;  and  Abbott  Lawrence,  of  Boston,  was  surely 
a  powerful  campaign  document.      None  the  less  weighty  was 


48  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

the  "Memorial  of  the  Friends  of  Science  who  attended  the  April 
meeting  of  the  National  Institute,"  signed  by  nearly  forty  rep- 
resentative scientific  men  and  college  presidents  from  all  parts 
of  the  United  States,  speaking  in  terms  of  high  commenda- 
tion of  the  National  Institute,  and  particularly  of  the  extent 
and  value  of  its  museum  material,  and  expressing  the  hope 
"  that  the  enlightened  and  intelligent  members  of  Congress 
will  distinguish  the  present  session  by  the  appropriation  of 
funds  to  an  object  so  truly  national  and  so  truly  republican." 

The  hopes  of  the  promoters  of  the  Institute  were  doomed 
to  disappointment.  Congress  adjourned  without  making  any 
provision  for  its  needs. 

In  July  a  new  scheme  was  proposed  for  collecting  money 
from  private  sources  by  the  efforts  of  trustworthy  agents,  and 
in  December  a  committee  was  appointed  to  again  memorialize 
Congress.^  The  movement  had,  however,  received  its  death- 
blow. The  failure  of  the  tremendous  effort  of  April,  1844, 
disheartened  all  its  friends.  At  the  next  annual  meeting  Mr. 
Poinsett  declined  reelection  to  the  presidency.  The  society's 
publications  were  discontinued,  and  even  the  annual  address 
of  Senator  Woodbury,  solicited  for  publication  by  the  society, 
seems  to  have  remained  in  manuscript  unprinted.  No  more 
meetings  were  held,  and  the  list  of  350  resident  and  1250  cor- 
responding members  began  to  grow  shorter.  An  effort  was 
made  to  revive  it  in  1847,  and  a  meager  report  was  made 
once  afterward  by  the  corresponding  secretary.  In  1855  it 
was  brougfht  into  existence  for  a  time  as  a  local  scientific  so- 
ciety,^  and  issued  a  new  series  of  proceedings.  Its  glory  de- 
parted, however,  with  the  first  annual  meeting,  in  1844,  and 
the  attention  of  Congress  was  directed  exclusively  to  the  or- 
ganization of  the  Smithsonian  Institution. 

1  Proceedings  of  the  N'ational  Institute,  page  375. 
2  Professor  Henry  was  for  a  time  an  officer,  and  endeavored  to  have  its  name  changed  to 

"MetropoUtan  Institute." 


Pounding  of  the  Institution  49 

The  influence  of  the  National  Institute  upon  the  history  of 
science  in  the  United  States,  and  particularly  in  educating 
public  opinion  and  the  judgment  of  Congress  to  an  applica- 
tion of  the  proper  means  of  disposing  of  the  Smithsonian 
legacy,  cannot  well  be  overestimated.  If  the  Smithsonian  In- 
stitution had  been  organized  before  the  National  Institute 
had  exerted  its  influences,  it  would  have  been  a  school,  an 
observatory,  or  an  agricultural  experiment-station. 

In  1846,  however,  the  country  was  prepared  to  expect  it 
to  be  a  general  agency  for  the  advancement  of  scientific  in- 
terests of  all  kinds — as  catholic,  as  unselfish,  as  universal  as 
the  National  Institute  had  been  prepared  to  be. 

The  National  Institute,  after  nearly  five  years  of  activity, 
suddenly  ceased  to  be  a  center  of  public  interest.  The  strug- 
gle over  the  Smithsonian  bequest,  however,  was  still  going 
on.  During  the  Twenty-seventh  Congress  (i  841 -1843)  ^^ 
Senate  did  nothing.  The  House  of  Representatives  ap- 
pointed a  select  committee  on  the  subject,  and  Mr.  Adams  as 
chairman  reported  a  new  bill,  providing  still  more  thoroughly 
for  the  erection  of  an  observatory  and  the  publication  of  a 
nautical  almanac  to  be  called  the  Smithsonian  Almanac. 

The  Twenty-eighth  Congress  (1843-1845)  brought  its 
deliberations  in  regard  to  the  Smithsonian  bequest  more 
nearly  to  an  issue.  The  astronomical  observatory  bill  ^  was 
again  presented  by  Mr.  Adams,  but  not  acted  upon.  In  the 
Senate,  in  the  first  session,  a  bill  for  the  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion was  reported  June  6,  1844,  from  the  Joint  Committee  on 
the  Library,  by  Senator  Tappan,  of  Ohio,  who  in  the  second 
session,  December  12,  introduced  another  bill,  somewhat 
similar,  but  presenting  the  character  of  the  books  to  be 
bought.  This  bill,  before  being  finally  voted  upon,  was 
brought   into  a  form  somewhat   resembling  that  which  was 

1  House  of  Representatives  418,  Twenty -eighth  Congress. 


50  The  Smithsonian  Instihttion 

finally  adopted.  It  provided,  however,  for  the  appointment 
of  various  professors  and  lecturers,  for  a  school  of  agriculture 
and  mechanical  arts,  as  well  as  for  experimental  gardens,  a 
library  of  science  and  economics,  and  a  museum. 

The  museum  clause  of  this  bill  was  much  the  same  as  that 
finally  agreed  to,  and  contained  a  provision  that  the  natural 
history  objects,  and  geological  and  mineralogical  specimens 
belonging  to  the  United  States,  "  in  whosesoever  custody  the 
same  may  be,"  should  be  transferred  to  the  custody  of  the 
board  of  managers  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution.  This  was 
evidently  worded  with  the  purpose  of  withdrawing  from  the 
possession  of  the  National  Institute  the  various  collections, 
including  those  which  had  belonged  to  Smithson,  which  had 
fallen  into  its  hands  between  1840  and  1845.  Indeed,  the 
National  Institute  seems  to  have  already  become  the  object 
of  some  distrust  and  prejudice.  A  proposition  that  two  of 
the  seven  "managers,"  not  ex  officio  members  of  the  board, 
should  be  selected  from  the  membership  of  the  National  In- 
stitute, caused  a  vigorous  debate  in  the  Senate,  in  the 
course  of  which  at  least  two  Senators  objected  strongly  to 
placing  the  administration  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution, 
even  to  so  slight  a  degree  as  this,  in  the  hands  of  a  private 
corporation. 

The  bill  finally  passed  the  Senate,  January  23,  1845,  but 
was  not  acted  upon  by  the  House. 

In  connection  with  Mr.  Tappan's  bill,  in  January,  1845, 
Senator  Choate,  of  Massachusetts,  first  appeared  in  advocacy 
of  the  establishment  of  "a  noble  public  library, —  one  which, 
for  variety,  extent,  and  wealth,  should  be  equal  to  any  in  the 
world," — and  delivered  an  eloquent  oration  upon  the  influence 
of  books.  The  amendment  at  that  time  proposed  by  him, 
together  with  other  amendments  urged  by  Mr.  George  P. 
Marsh,    in   connection  with  the   Owen- Hough   bill,   brought 


Founding  of  the  Instittttion  5 1 

forward  in  the  following  session,  had  a  great  influence  upon 
the  final  adjustment  of  the  plan  of  administration.^ 

To  the  Twenty-ninth  Congress  (1845-1847)  belongs  the 
honor  of  finally  formulating  the  act  of  incorporation  by  which 
the  Smithsonian  Institution  was  established.  This  was  at 
last  accomplished  under  the  leadership  of  Robert  Dale  Owen, 
of  Indiana,  who  reported  the  bill  nearly  in  its  final  form, 
though  somewhat  modified  in  a  substitute  offered  by  Mr. 
William  J.  Hough,  and  still  more  by  the  refusal  of  the  House 
to  agree  to  Mr.  Owen's  favorite  feature  of  a  normal  school. 
John  Ouincy  Adams  was  a  member  of  the  select  committee  to 
which  it  was  referred,  together  with  Mr.  Owen,  chairman  ; 
Mr.  Timothy  Jenkins,  Mr,  George  P.  Marsh,  Mr.  Alexander 
D.  Sims,  Mr.  Jefferson  Davis,  and  Mr.  David  Wilmot. 

Mr.  Adams  was  now  for  the  first  time  willing  to  cease  his 
advocacy  of  a  Smithsonian  Astronomical  Observatory,  the 
Naval  Observatory  having  been  organized  on  a  plan  "at 
least  equal  in  everything  but  the  experience  of  its  observers 
to  the  Royal  Observatory  at  Greenwich." 

In  the  Hough  bill,  which  was  a  modification  of  that  of 
Owen,  there  was  an  attempt  of  another  kind  to  weld  together 
the  Smithsonian  Institution  and  the  "  National  Cabinet  of 
Curiosities,"  by  giving  to  the  Board  of  Regents  the  authority 
to  erect  a  building  by  the  side  of  the  Patent  Office,  so  as 
to  form  a  wing  of  that  structure,  and  to  connect  it  with  the 
hall  then  containing  the  National  Cabinet,  so  as  to  constitute 
that  hall  in  whole  or  in  part  the  depository  of  the  cabinet  of 
the  Institution.  This  was  discretionary,  however,  with  the  Re- 
gents, who  fortunately  did  not  look  upon  the  plan  with  favor. 

Reference  has  been  made  to  the  marked  similarity  between 
the  plans  of  organization  of  the  National  and  Sniithsonian 
Institutions.     The   former,  like  the   Smithsonian,  had  a  su- 

1  See  report  of  Honorable  James  Meachani,  1854,  pages  10-12. 


52  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

perior  board  of  officers,  composed  of  the  President  of  the 
United  States  and  the  members  of  his  Cabinet.  It  had  also 
a  board  of  directors,  which  inchided  in  its  membership  dele- 
gates from  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives,  corre- 
sponding in  function  to.  the  Smithsonian  Board  of  Regents, 
In  other  respects,  still  more  markedly  than  in  the  constitution 
of  its  governing  board,  the  Smithsonian  seems  to  have  been 
organized  with  the  plan   of  the   National  Institute   in  view. 

The  objects,  as  defined  in  the  Congressional  act  of  estab- 
lishment,^ correspond  very  closely  to  those  announced  in  the 
early  publications  of  the  National  Institute,  which  at  its  foun- 
dation divided  its  members  into  eight  classes,  as  follows:  (i) 
Astronomy,  Geography,  and  Natural  Philosophy ;  (2)  Nat- 
ural History;  (3)  Geology  and  Mineralogy;  (4)  Chemistry; 
(5)  The  application  of  same  to  useful  arts ;  (6)  Agriculture  ; 
(7)  American  History  and  Antiquities ;   (8)  Fine  Arts. 

The  term  "manager"  to  designate  a  member  of  the  gov- 
erning board,  and  which  was  derived  from  the  organization 
of  the  National  Institute,  was  employed  in  every  bill  except 
in  the  substitute  proposed  only  a  few  hours  before  final  action, 
when  it  was  replaced  by  the  term  "  regent,"  which  was  doubt- 
less suggested  by  Mr.  William  J.  Hough,  the  mover  of  the 
substitute,  a  representative  of  the  State  of  New  York,  and 
familiar  with  the  organization  of  the  University  of  the  State 
of  New  York,  which  was  under  the  control  of  a  board  of 
regents. 

Ten  years  after  the  announcement  of  the  bequest,  and 
eight  years  after  the  beginning  of  the  contest  as  to  its  dis- 
position, the  bill  to  incorporate  the  Smithsonian  Institution 
received  the  approval  of  Congress  and  the  President.  The 
charter  in  its  final  form  did  not  represent  the  views  of  any 
one  party,  except  in   some   degree   that  which   favored   the 

1  Sections  5  and  6. 


Founding  of  the  Institution  53 

library  and  incidentally  the  museum.  The  bill  as  finally  pre- 
sented contained  several  special  provisions  not  harmonious 
with  the  spirit  of  Smithson's  bequest  as  at  present  under- 
stood. These  were,  for  the  most  part,  eliminated  in  the  final 
discussion,  and  the  Act  finally  passed  by  Congress,  and  ap- 
proved by  the  President,  August  10,  1846,  while  broad  enough 
to  permit  almost  any  work  for  intellectual  advancement,  was 
fortunately  expressed  in  such  general  terms  as  to  allow  a 
large  degree  of  liberty  to  the  governing  board. 

The  Board  of  Regents  was  appointed  without  delay,  and 
their  meeting  was  held  on  September  7  in  a  room  in  the 
General  Post-Office  Building  set  apart  for  their  use  by 
direction  of  the  President  of  the  United  States.  Though 
many  wise  men  participated  in  the  councils  in  which  the  man- 
ner of  executing  the  trust  of  Smithson  was  decided,  there  are 
certain  names  which  are  especially  significant  as  those  of  the 
statesmen  and  patriots  who  made  the  interests  of  the  infant 
institution  their  own  special  care,  and  who,  by  their  wisdom 
and  earnest  advocacy,  shaped  its  destiny.  It  seems  proper 
that  in  this  memorial  volume  an  attempt  should  be  made  to 
show  what  each  of  these  contributed  to  the  final  result. 

John  Ouincy  Adams  was  perhaps  the  most  influential  in 
securing  the  acceptance  of  the  bequest  and  in  creating  a  high 
ideal  for  its  administration.  He  antagonized  the  idea  of  using 
it  to  found  a  university,  and  defeated  Owen's  project  for  a 
normal  school,  which  was  only  eliminated  from  the  bill  a  few 
minutes  before  final  action.  He  opposed  all  projects  for 
making  its  work  directly  practical.  His  influence  was  limited 
by  his  pertinacious  advocacy  of  the  idea  that  the  founding 
of  an  observatory  was  the  only  proper  distribution  of  the  first 
income  of  the  fund.  His  position  in  this  matter  has  been 
misunderstood.  He  wished  that  the  income  for  seven  suc- 
cessive years  should  go  to  found  an  observatory.      "  During 


54  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

this  period,"  he  said,  "there  will  be  ample  time  for  consider- 
ing the  best  means  of  appropriating  the  same  income  after- 
ward to  promote  establishments  for  increasing  and  diffusing 
knowledge  among  men.  A  botanical  garden,"  he  contin- 
ued, "a  cabinet  of  natural  history,  a  museum  of  mineralogy, 
conchology  or  geology,  a  general  accumulating  library  — 
all  institutions  of  which  there  are  numerous  examples  among 
the  civilized  Christian  nations,  and  of  most  of  which  our  own 
country  is  not  entirely  destitute  —  all  are  undoubtedly  in- 
cluded within  the  comprehensive  grasp  of  Mr.  Smithson's  de- 
sign —  all  may  receive,  in  turn,  and  with  progressive  utility 
and  power,  liberal  contributions  from  the  continually  grow- 
ing income  of  the  trust.  Nor  did  the  committee  believe  that 
the  moral  or  political  sciences,  the  philosophy  of  language, 
the  natural  history  of  speech,  the  graces  of  polite  literature, 
the  mechanic  or  the  liberal  arts,  were  to  be  excluded  from  the 
benefits  prepared  for  posterity  by  the  perpetuation  of  this 
fund."  He  did  not  desire  that  a  permanent  organization 
should  be  formed,  believing,  though  wrongly,  as  the  event  has 
proved,  that  such  an  organization  could  not  be  kept  efficient 
and  pure  under  the  control  of  a  government  like  ours ;  and 
his  suspicions  in  regard  to  the  motives  of  those  who  seemed 
interested  in  the  project  undoubtedly  lessened  his  power  of 
controlling  it. 

His  most  important  service  was  to  establish  the  principle 
that  only  the  interest  of  the  fund  should  be  used,  and  that  the 
principal  should  be  permanently  invested  in  the  Treasury  of 
the  United  States.  This,  after  all,  was  his  chief  ambition — "to 
secure,  as  from  a  rattlesnake's  fang,  the  fund  and  its  income, 
forever,  from  being  wasted  and  dilapidated  in  bounties  to 
feed  the  hunger  or  fatten  the  leaden  idleness  of  mountebank 
projectors  and  shallow  and  worthless  pretenders  to  science."  ^ 

1  Rhees,  "The  Smithsonian  Institution:  Documents,"  etc.,  page  849. 


JOHX   QUIIS'CY  ADAMS. 

MEMBER  OP  THE  COMMITTEE  OF  THE  HOUSE 

OF  REPRESENTATIVES  ON  THE  ORGANIZATION  OF  THE 

SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION. 


::  ,1 


7 


irH   T 


'ii< 


miAaA   YOTlTTTp   ZHOT, 

HHT  'iO  ^ITASr/IAf)aO  aHT  KO  ^.aYTTAT>ia8aH^I?TH  TO 


Fotmciing  of  the  Institution  55 

John  Davis,  of  Massachusetts,  was  the  one  in  the  Senate 
who,  in  1836,  stoutly  maintained,  against  much  opposition, 
that  the  government  had  the  right  to  accept  the  bequest  and 
to  apply  it  for  the  purpose  indicated  by  Smithson,  saying 
that  "he  deemed  the  establishment  of  institutions  for  the 
diffusion  of  knowledge  a  vital  principle  of  a  republican  gov- 
ernment." 

Joel  R.  Poinsett,  of  South  Carolina,  aided  by  his  associates 
of  the  National  Institute,  exercised  an  influence  greater  per- 
haps than  any  other  in  shaping  the  final  disposition  of  the 
fund.  The  Smithsonian  Institution  became  in  time  almost 
the  equivalent  of  the  National  Institute,  as  in  1841  he  hoped 
it  would  be, — an  institution  which,  having  at  its  command  an 
observatory,  a  museum  containing  collections  of  all  the  pro- 
ductions of  nature,  a  botanic  and  zoological  garden,  and  the 
necessary  apparatus  for  illustrating  every  branch  of  physical 
science,  would  attract  together  men  of  learning  and  students 
from  every  part  of  our  country,  would  open  new  avenues  of 
intelligence  throughout  the  whole  of  its  vast  extent,  and 
would  contribute  largely  to  disseminate  among  the  people 
the  truths  of  nature  and  the  light  of  science.  To  Poinsett 
are  due:  (i)  the  idea  of  an  important  building,  which  should 
be  a  permanent  feature  at  the  capital ;  (2)  the  plan  for  a 
national  museum  of  science  and  art,  with  a  staff  of  curators ; 
(3)  the  determining  of  the  location  of  the  Institution  upon 
the  Mall ;  (4)  the  main  features  of  the  plan  of  organiza- 
tion, with  the  President  and  his  Cabinet  as  trustees,  and  a 
subordinate  board  of  trustees  selected  by  Congress  in  part 
from  among  its  own  members ;  (5)  the  inauguration  of  a 
system  of  international  exchanges  of  books,  under  the  inspira- 
tion of  Alexander  Vattemare,  which,  though  not  provided  for 
in  the  organizing  bill,  was  actually  in  operation  as  early  as 
1 84 1,  with  indirect  aid  from  the  government. 


56  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

Rufus  Choate,  of  Massachusetts,  and  George  P.  Marsh,  of 
Vermont,  were  instrumental  in  giving  prominence  to  the 
library  project,  upon  which  so  much  of  the  fund  was  expended 
during  the  first  few  years — a  feature  which,  though  at  the 
time  almost  perilous,  undoubtedly  had  great  effect  not  only 
upon  the  development  of  the  National  Library,  but  of  the  re- 
lationship of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  to  other  institutions 
of  learning  at  home  and  abroad.  To  Mr.  Choate  and  to 
Benjamin  Tappan  was  due  in  large  degree  the  defeat  of  the 
aspirations  of  the  National  Institute  toward  the  control  of 
the  Smithsonian  fund,  and  to  Senator  Asher  Robbins,  of 
Rhode  Island,  the  defeat  of  Mr.  Adams's  plan  for  an  obser- 
vatory, to  which  at  the  time  he  opposed,  with  considerable 
prospect  of  success,  a  counter-project  for  a  great  postgraduate 
university. 

Richard  Rush,  of  Pennsylvania,  not  only  rendered  material 
service  in  securing  the  legacy,  but  was  the  first  to  propose 
a  staff  of  scholarly  investigators  resident  in  the  national 
capital,  who,  by  their  researches,  publications,  and  lectures, 
should  aid  in  keeping  the  United  States  in  touch  with  the 
scientific  progress  of  the  rest  of  the  world ;  and  a  press  for 
publishing  the  communications  of  learned  societies  and  of 
individuals  eminent  in  science  and  letters  in  every  part  of 
the  world.  Most  significant,  however,  was  his  conception 
of  a  permanent  national  organization,  under  the  wing  of  the 
government  and  indirectly  under  its  control,  which  should  be 
a  center  of  intellectual  activity,  and  not  only  maintain  its  own 
staff  of  learned  men,  but  cooperate  with  and  stimulate  the 
scientific  and  educational  work  of  the  government  —  a  plan,  as 
has  already  been  indicated,  quite  in  contrast  with  that  in  the 
mind  of  Mr.  Adams. 

Robert  Dale  Owen,  of  Indiana,  was  the  first  to  bring  into 
harmonious  and  generally  acceptable  form  the  various  plans 


Fo2tnding  of  the  Institution  57 

which  had  been  under  consideration  for  ten  years  before. 
He  prepared  the  final  act  of  incorporation,  which  was  drawn 
up  by  him  in  1845,  ^'''*^  which  was,  except  in  the  elimination 
of  his  plan  for  a  national  normal  school,  but  slightly  changed 
in  the  substitute  which  was  finally  passed.  As  a  member  of 
the  first  Board  of  Regents,  he  was  instrumental  in  selecting 
and  carrying  out  the  plan  for  the  Smithsonian  building,  and, 
as  chairman  of  the  Organization  Committee,  drew  up,  with 
the  assistance  of  Alexander  Dallas  Bache,  the  "  Report  on 
Plan  of  Organization,"  in  which  the  organizing  Act  was  ana- 
lyzed and  expounded,  and  many  of  the  possibilities  of  the 
future  for  the  first  time  clearly  set  forth.  From  this  Com- 
mittee was  also  reported  at  an  early  meeting  the  following 
resolution,  from  the  adoption  of  which,  and  its  legitimate  out- 
come, there  have  been  more  significant  results  than  through 
any  other  act  of  this  or  any  succeeding  board : 

"■Resolved,  That  it  is  essential,  for  the  advancement  of  the 
proper  interests  of  the  trust,  that  the  Secretary  of  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution  be  a  man  possessing  weight  of  character, 
and  a  high  grade  of  talent ;  and  that  it  is  further  desirable 
that  he  possess  eminent  scientific  and  general  requirements ; 
that  he  be  a  man  capable  of  advancing  science  and  promoting 
letters  by  original  research  and  effort,  well  qualified  to  act  as 
a  respected  channel  of  communication  between  the  Institution 
and  scientific  and  literary  individuals  and  societies  in  this  and 
foreign  countries ;  and,  in  a  word,  a  man  worthy  to  represent, 
before  the  world  of  science  and  of  letters,  the  institution  over 
which  this  board  presides." 

The  successful  organization  of  the  Institution  has  been  the 
result  of  long-continued  effort  on  the  part  of  men  of  unusual 
ability,  energy,  and  personal  influence.  No  board  of  trus- 
tees, no  succession  of  officers  serving  out  their  terms  in  rota- 
tion, could  have  developed  from  a  chaos  of  conflicting  opinions 

5 


58  The  Smithsonian  Listitution 

a  strongly  Individualized  establishment  like  the  Smithsonian 
Institution.  The  names  of  Henry  and  Baird  are  so  thor- 
oughly identified  with  the  history  of  the  Institution  during 
its  first  four  decades  that  their  biographies  would  together 
form  an  almost  complete  history  of  its  operations.  A  thirty- 
two  years'  term  of  service  was  rendered  by  one,  thirty-seven 
by  the  other.  Perhaps  no  other  organization  has  had  the 
benefit  of  so  uninterrupted  an  administration  of  forty  years, 
beginning  with  its  birth  and  continuing  in  an  unbroken  line 
of  consistent  policy  a  career  of  growing  usefulness  and 
enterprise. 

The  first  meeting  of  the  Board  of  Regents  took  place  Sep- 
tember 6,  1846,  and  before  the  end  of  the  year  the  policy  of 
the  Regents  was  practically  determined  upon,  for,  after  decid- 
ing upon  the  plan  of  the  building  now  occupied,  they  elected 
to  the  secretaryship  Professor  Joseph  Henry,  and  thus  ap- 
proved his  plan  for  the  organization  of  the  Institution  which 
had  previously  been  submitted  to  them. 

Henry  was  succeeded  in  the  office  of  Secretary  by  Profes- 
sor Spencer  Fullerton  Baird,  then  the  leading  authority  on 
the  mammals,  birds,  fishes,  and  reptiles  of  America,  the  foun- 
der of  the  United  States  Fish  Commission,  and  of  "public 
fish  culture,"  elected  in  1878;  and  he  in  turn  by  Samuel 
Pierpont  Langley,  preeminent  as  physicist  and  astronomer, 
the  inventor  of  the  bolometer,  the  discoverer  of  the  greater 
portion  of  the  infra-red  spectrum,  and  the  highest  authority 
upon  the  physics  of  the  atmosphere,  elected  in  1888. 


''Vi 


THE  ESTABLISHMENT  AND  THE 
BOARD    OF    REGENTS 

By  George  Brown  Goode 


^)HE   SMITHSONIAN    INSTITUTION   is  a 

corporation  or  Establishment,  created  by  the 

act  of  Congress  approved  August   lo,    1846, 

"  for  the  increase  and  diffusion  of  knowledge 

^m:i^r^^    among  men." 

Its  statutory  members  are  the  President  of  the  United 
States,  the  Vice-President  of  the  United  States,  the  Chief 
Justice  of  the  United  States,^  the  Secretary  of  State,  the 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  the  Secretary  of  War,  the 
Attorney-General,  the  Postmaster-General,  the  Secretary  of 
the  Navy,  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior,  and  the  Secretary 
of  Agriculture. 

The  duty  of  the  Establishment  is  the  "supervision  of  the 
affairs  of  the  Institution  and  the  advice  and  instruction  of  the 
Board  of  Regents."     The  Establishment  has,  from  time  to 


1  The  original  act  of  incorporation  also 
named  as  members  of  the  Establishment  the 
Commissioner  of  the  Patent  Office  of  the 
United  States  and  the  Mayor  of  the  city  of 
Washington.  This  act  was  amended  March 
20,  1871,  so  as  to  substitute  the  Governor 
of  the  District  of  Columbia  as  an  ex  officio 


Regent,  in  place  of  the  Mayor  of  Washington, 
the  latter  office  ha\Tng  ceased  to  exist.  In 
1874  the  office  of  Governor  of  the  District  of 
Columbia  was  in  turn  abolished.  In  1877  the 
Secretary  of  the  Interior,  and  in  1894  the  Sec- 
retary of  Agriculture,  were  added  as  members 
of  the  Establishment. 


59 


6o  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

time,  selected  eminent  citizens  of  the  United  States  to  be  hon- 
orary members  of  the  Institution,  and  to  share  with  them  the 
responsibihties  with  which  they  are  charged.  The  persons 
thus  honored^  have  been  Doctor  Robert  Hare,  of  Philadel- 
phia ;  the  Honorable  Albert  Gallatin,  of  New  York ;  Professor 
Benjamin  Silliman,  of  Connecticut;  Washington  Irving,  of 
New  York;  Professor  Parker  Cleaveland,  of  Maine;  Doctor 
Augustus  B.  Longstreet,  of  Mississippi ;  and  the  Honorable 
Columbus  Delano,  of  Ohio. 

The  first  meeting  of  the  Establishment  was  held  August  i, 
1849,  in  the  newly  completed  eastern  range  of  the  Smith- 
sonian building,  Zachary  Taylor,  President  of  the  United 
States,  occupying  the  chair.  Eight  meetings  have  since 
been  held,  the  last  on  May  5,  1877,  adjourning  to  meet  at  the 
call  of  the  President. 

The  Establishment,  though  exercising  constant  supervision 
over  the  affairs  of  the  Institution,  being  represented  upon  the 
Board  of  Regents  by  two  of  its  members,  one  of  them  the 
Chancellor,  as  its  presiding  officer,  has  never  deemed  it  nec- 
essary to  take  any  formal  action  at  its  meetings,  save  to 
adopt,  May  17,  1853,  a  code  of  by-laws,^  and  to  listen  from 
time  to  time  to  general  statements  by  the  Secretary  in  regard 
to  the  condition  and  affairs  of  the  Institution. 

The  Regents  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  are  charged 
by  the  act  of  incorporation  with  the  duty  of  conducting  the 
business  of  the  Institution.  Two  members  of  the  Establish- 
ment, the  Vice-President  of  the  United  States  and  the  Chief 
Justice,  are,  in  virtue  of  their  office,  members  of  the  Board  of 
Regents.  There  are  also  three  members  of  the  Senate,  three 
members  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  and  six  citizens, 
no  two  of  whom  may  be  from  the  same  State,  though  two 

1  The  law  as  amended  on  March  12,  1894,       no  honorary  member  has  been  elected  since 
omits    the    phrase   "  such   other   persons   as       the  year  1873. 
they    may    elect    honorary    memljers,"    and  2  See  "Smithsonian  Report,"  1853,  page  98. 


The  Board  of  Regents 


6i 


must  be  residents  of  the  city  of  Washington.  The  presid- 
ing officer  of  the  Board  of  Regents  is  the  Chancellor  of  the 
Smithsonian  Institution,  who  is  elected  by  the  Board  of 
Regents  from  among  their  own  number.  This  office  has, 
however,  always  been  held  either  by  the  Vice-President  or 
by  the  Chief  Justice.^ 

The  executive  officer  of  the  Board  of  Regents  is  the  Sec- 
retary of  the  Institution,  who  is  elected  by  them.  The  duties 
and  responsibilities  of  Secretary  are  such  as  in  other  institu- 
tions usually  belong  to  the  office  of  Director :  the  name  by 
which  this  officer  is  designated  is  that  which  in  Washington 
is  associated  with  the  highest  grade  of  executive  responsibil- 
ity. The  Secretary  makes  all  appointments  on  the  staff,  the 
members  of  which  are  technically  his  "assistants."  He  is  re- 
sponsible for  the  expenditure  and  disbursement  of  all  funds  of 
the  Institution,  is  the  legal  custodian  of  all  its  property,  and, 
ex  officio,  its  librarian  and  the  keeper  of  its  museum. 

He  presents  to  the  Regents  an  annual  report  upon  the 
operations,  expenditures,  and  condition  of  the  Establishment, 
which  is  transmitted  by  the  Board  to  Congress  for  publica- 
tion. By  a  special  act  of  Congress  in  1879  and  amended  in 
1884,  an  Acting  Secretary  is  provided  for,  in  case  of  the  ab- 
sence or  disability  of  the  Secretary,  the  designation  being  left 
with  the  Chancellor  of  the  Institution. 


1  Vice-President  Dallas  was  the  first  Chan- 
cellor, and  was  succeeded  by  Vice-President 
Fillmore.  When  Mr.  Fillmore  was  elevated 
to  the  Presidency  of  the  United  States,  in 
1850,  Chief  Justice  Taney  was  elected  Chan- 
cellor. In  1857  Mr.  Taney  resigned  the 
place  on  the  ground  that  the  Vice-President, 
the  liighest  in  rank  of  the  ofticers  of  the  gov- 
ernment who  are  ex  officio  Regents,  was  the 
proper  person  to  preside.  "  Unfortunate 
events,"  he  continued,  "  have  for  some  time 
past  left  the  government  without  a  Vice-Pres- 
ident elected  by  the  people.  And  when  that 
office  was  vacant  the  Regents  conferred  on 
me  the  office,  which  had  always  before  been 

5* 


filled  by  the  Vice-President.  And  "when  I 
accepted  it  I  regarded  the  appointment  as  a 
temporary  one.  The  reason  for  the  appoint- 
ment has  now  happily  ceased,  and  I  desire  to 
give  the  Regents  an  opportunity  of  restoring 
the  original  plan  of  organization,  in  which  I 
fully  concurred  when  it  was  adopted."  Mr. 
Breckinridge,  Vice-President  of  the  United 
States,  who  was  present  at  this  meeting, 
moved  that  the  present  Chancellor,  Chief  Jus- 
tice Taney,  be  reelected  to  that  oftice.  The 
precedent  thus  established  of  electing  the 
Chief  Justice  to  be  Chancellor  of  the  Institu- 
tion has  never  since  been  abandoned. 


62  The  Sniithsoiiian  Institution 

The  first  meeting  of  the  Regents  for  the  purpose  of  or- 
ganization was  held  on  September  7,  1846,  in  a  room  in  the 
Patent  Office  building,  assigned  for  the  purpose  by  the 
President  of  the  United  States. 

At  this  meeting  were  present  George  M.  Dallas,  of  Penn- 
sylvania, Vice-President  of  the  United  States;  Roger  B. 
Taney,  of  Maryland,  Chief  Justice  of  the  United  States ;  Wil- 
liam W.  Seaton,  Mayor  of  the  city  of  Washington ;  Senator 
George  Evans,  of  Maine ;  Senator  Isaac  S.  Pennybacker,  of 
Virginia;  Robert  Dale  Owen,  Representative  from  Indiana; 
William  J.  Hough,  Representative  from  New  York ;  Henry 
W.  Hilliard,  Representative  from  Alabama;  the  Honorable 
Rufus  Choate,  of  Massachusetts;  Doctor  Gideon  Hawley,  of 
New  York;  and  Richard  Rush,  of  Pennsylvania,  citizens  at 
large;  Doctor  Alexander  Dallas  Bache  and  Colonel  Joseph 
G.  Totten  representing  the  National  Institute  of  Washing- 
ton. Senator  Sidney  Breese,  of  Illinois,  was  present  at  sub- 
sequent meetings  during  the  course  of  organization. 

Since  the  date  of  organization,  the  Board  of  Regents  have 
held  218  meetings,  an  average  of  about  four  to  each  year. 
The  record  of  their  proceedings  up  to  1876  occupies  a  volume 
of  three  hundred  pages,  and  if  extended  up  to  the  present 
year  would  require  four  hundred  pages.-^  This  record,  it  need 
scarcely  be  said,  relates  only  to  the  actual  transactions  of  the 
Board  and  its  committees  at  its  regular  meetings.  The  re- 
ports of  the  Board  to  Congress  occupy  fifty  volumes,  includ- 
ing in  all  about  thirty-eight  thousand  pages. 

The  regular  annual  meetings  of  the  Board  are  held  in 
January.  Since  January,  1890,  the  day  has  been  fixed  for  the 
fourth  Wednesday  of  the  month. 

The  Executive  Committee  of  the  Regents  provided  for  by 

1  "The  Smithsonian  Institution :  Journals  J.  Rhees,  Washington;  published  by  the 
of  the  Board  of  Regents,  Re|)orts  of  Com-  Smithsonian  Institution,  1879.  Octavo,  pages 
mittee's  Statistics,"  etc.     Edited  by  William       v-vii,  844. 


The  Board  of  Regents  (>z 

the  law  holds  quarterly  meetings  for  the  purpose  of  auditing 
the  accounts  for  expenditures  made  in  accordance  with  the 
appropriations  voted  by  the  Board  at  its  annual  meeting. 
The  Executive  Committee  has  also  customarily  performed 
the  duties  of  a  Committee  of  Ways  and  Means,  besides  acting 
upon  many  matters  directly  referred  to  it  by  the  Board.  Two 
of  its  members  have  always  been  the  two  Regents  resident  in 
Washington,  and  the  third  some  other  member,  not  a  Sena- 
tor or  Representative,  living  near  enough  to  Washington  to 
be  readily  accessible.  The  Executive  Committee,  therefore, 
soon  became  an  Advisory  Committee,  practically  always  in 
session,  which  the  Secretary  constantly  consults  in  regard 
to  the  interpretation  of  questions  of  policy,  and  the  method 
of  carrying  out  the  instructions  of  the  Board.  The  citizen 
residents  have  usually  served  for  longer  periods  than  others 
as  members  of  the  Executive  Committee,  and  many  of  them 
have  become  intimately  associated  with  the  executive  work 
of  the  organization. 

Since  the  organization  of  the  Board  of  Regents,  fifty  years 
ago,  the  names  of  129  persons  have  appeared  upon  its  roll. 
Among  these  are  a  large  number  of  the  most  distinguished 
citizens  of  the  United  States, — men  eminent  in  statesmanship 
and  diplomacy,  in  governmental  administration,  in  science, 
in  literature,  and  in  arts.  Each  one  of  these  has  contributed 
his  share  to  the  prosperity  of  the  Institution  by  his  counsel 
and  good  judgment. 

The  long  list  of  distinguished  names  here  given  shows 
how  carefully  the  Regents  have  been  selected,  so  that  repre- 
sentative men  from  every  section  of  the  Union  might  be  in- 
cluded in  that  important  body. 

From  the  Middle  States:  William  J.  Hough,  Gideon  Haw- 
ley,  Millard  Fillmore,  Samuel  Sullivan  Cox,  John  V.  L. 
Pruyn,  William  B.  Astor,  William  A.  Wheeler,  Andrew   D. 


64  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

White,  and  Levi  P.  Morton,  from  New  York ;  William  L. 
Dayton,  Professor  John  Maclean,  of  Princeton  University, 
and  William  Walter  Phelps,  from  New  Jersey ;  George  M, 
Dallas,  Richard  Rush,  Edward  McPherson,  Hiester  Clymer, 
Robert  Adams,  Jr.,  and  President  Henry  Coppee,  of  Lehigh 
University,  from  Pennsylvania. 

From  the  Southern  States :  Chief  Justice  Taney,  Henry 
Winter  Davis,  James  A.  Pearce,  from  Maryland ;  Isaac  S. 
Pennybacker,  James  M.  Mason,  Robert  E.  Withers,  General 
Joseph  E.  Johnston,  from  Virginia ;  William  R.  King,  George 
E.  Badger,  from  North  Carolina ;  William  C.  Preston,  from 
South  Carolina;  William  F.  Colcock,  Robert  M.  Charlton, 
John  M.  Berrien,  Hiram  Warner,  Lucius  J.  Gartrell,  Benjamin 
H.  Hill,  and  Alexander  H.  Stevens,  from  Georgia;  General 
Henry  W.  Hillard  and  General  Joseph  Wheeler,  from  Ala- 
bama; Jefferson  Davis,  Otho  R.  Singleton,  Randall  L.  Gibson, 
from  Mississippi ;  President  William  Preston  Johnson,  of 
Tulane  University,  from  Louisiana;  Garrett  Davis,  John 
Cabell  Breckinridge,  John  W.  Stevenson,  and  William  C.  P. 
Breckinridge,  from  Kentucky ;  Andrew  Johnson,  from  Ten- 
nessee ;  William  Lyne  Wilson,  from  West  Virginia ;  Samuel  B. 
Maxey,  from  Texas. 

From  the  New  England  States:  Rufus  Choate,  Henry  Wil- 
son, E.  Rockwood  Hoar,  George  F.  Hoar,  Cornelius  C.  Fel- 
ton.  Professor  Louis  Agassiz  and  Professor  Asa  Gray,  of 
Harvard  University,  and  Henry  Cabot  Lodge,  from  Massa- 
chusetts ;  Lafayette  S.  Foster,  President  Theodore  D.  Wool- 
sey,  Noah  Porter,  and  Professor  James  Dwight  Dana,  of  Yale 
College,  from  Connecticut ;  James  W.  Patterson,  from  New 
Hampshire ;  George  P.  Marsh,  James  Meacham,  Luke  P. 
Poland,  Justin  S.  Morrill,  and  George  F.  Edmunds,  from 
Vermont;  George  Evans,  William  Pitt  Fessenden,  Hannibal 
Hamlin,  Nathan  Clifford,  from  Maine, 


The  Board  of  Regents  65 

From  the  Western  States :  Benjamin  Stanton,  Salmon  P. 
Chase,  Benjamin  F.  Wade,  James  A.  Garfield,  Chief  Justice 
Waite,  Ezra  B.  Taylor,  John  Sherman,  and  Benjamin  Butter- 
worth,  from  Ohio ;  Robert  Dale  Owen,  Graham  N.  Fitch, 
Thomas  A.  Hendricks,  William  H.  English,  and  Schuyler 
Colfax,  from  Indiana;  Sidney  Breese,  Stephen  A.  Douglas, 
Lyman  Trumbull,  John  F.  Farnsworth,  Shelby  M.  Cullom, 
David  Davis,  and  Chief  Justice  Fuller,  from  Illinois;  George 
W.  McCrary,  Stephen  F.  Miller,  and  Nathaniel  C.  Deering, 
from  Iowa;  Robert  McClelland,  Lewis  Cass,  David  Stuart, 
Thomas  W.  Ferry,  and  President  James  B.  Angell,  of  the 
University,  from  Michigan ;  Gerry  W.  Hazleton,  from  Wis- 
consin;  John  J.  Ingalls,  from  Kansas;  George  Gray,  from 
Delaware ;  and  Aaron  A.  Sargent  and  Newton  Booth,  from 
California. 

As  representatives  from  the  District  of  Columbia,  the  fol- 
lowing Mayors  of  Washington  served  from  1846  to  187 1, 
ex  officio,  upon  the  Board  of  Regents : 

William  Winston  Seaton,  Walter  Lenox,  John  W.  Maury, 
John  T.  Towers,  William  B.  Magruder,  Joseph  G.  Berret, 
Richard  Wallach,  Sayles  J.  Bowen,  and  Matthew  G.  Emery  ; 
followed  in  1872  by  Henry  D.  Cooke,  and  in  1874  by  Alex- 
ander R.  Shepherd,  Governors  of  the  District. 

Those  who  have  served  as  citizens  from  the  city  of  Wash- 
ington have  been  Professor  Alexander  D.  Bache,  Superinten- 
dent of  the  United  States  Coast  Survey ;  General  Joseph 
G.  Totten,  U.  S.  A.  ;  General  Robert  Delafield,  U.  S.  A.  ; 
the  Reverend  Peter  Parker,  D.  D,  ;  General  William  T.  Sher- 
man, U,  S.  A.;  George  Bancroft;  General  Montgomery  C. 
Meigs,  U.  S.  A.;  President  James  C.  Welling,  of  Columbian 
University;  ex-Senator  John  B.  Henderson;  and  Gardiner 
G.  Hubbard. 

Among  the  Congressional  Regents,  those  who  were  long- 


66  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

est  in  service  were :  Representative  Samuel  S.  Cox,  from 
1861  to  1865,  from  1870  to  1875,  from  1882  to  1883,  a"'^ 
again  from  1888  to  1889;  Senator  James  A.  Pearce,  from 
1847  to  1862;  Representative  James  A.  Garfield,  from  1865 
to  1873,  ^'^'^  from  1878  to  1880;  Senator  James  M.  Mason, 
from  1849  to  1861  ;  and  Senator  Justin  S.  Morrill,  from  1883 
to  the  present. 

The  chairmanship  of  the  Executive  Committee  was  held 
by  Mayor  Seaton  from  1846  to  1849,  by  General  Totten  in 
1850  and  again  in  1862,  by  Professor  Bache  in  1851  and 
again  in  1863,  by  Senator  Pearce  from  1852  to  1861,  by 
Mayor  Wallach  in  1864  and  1865,  by  General  Delafield  from 
1866  to  1870,  by  Doctor  Parker  from  1871  to  1883,  by  Pro- 
fessor Maclean  from  1884  to  1885,  by  President  Welling 
from  1886  to  1893,  by  President  Coppee  in  1894,  and  by  ex- 
Senator  Henderson  in  1895  and  1896. 

Upon  the  rolls  of  this  committee  also  appear  the  names  of 
Robert  Dale  Owen,  General  William  T.  Sherman,  Honorable 
George  Bancroft,  General  Montgomery  C.  Meigs,  Honorable 
Gardiner  G.  Hubbard,  and  Honorable  William  L.  Wilson. 

Among  this  company  of  distinguished  men,  including  many 
of  the  Americans  most  eminent  in  their  day,  there  have  been 
some  who  had  opportunities  to  identify  themselves  more  ac- 
tively than  others  with  the  work.  It  would,  perhaps,  not  be 
proper,  or  indeed  possible,  to  make  particular  mention  of  any 
of  these  but  for  the  fact  that  the  Regents  themselves  have 
from  time  to  time  recorded  in  their  Journal  of  Proceedings 
special  words  of  commendation  and  appreciation  of  such  of 
their  associates  as  they  considered  to  have  rendered  extraor- 
dinary services. 

On  the  occasion  of  the  death  of  Richard  Rush,  at  the  meet- 
ing of  the  Board  on  January  28,  i860,  Senator  Pearce,  after 
alluding  to  the  very  important  services  rendered  by  him  in 


The  Board  of  Regents  67 

England  for  the  recovery  of  the  fund  bequeathed  by  Smith- 
son,  remarked  : 

"The  act  of  Congress  of  1846  having  established  the 
Smithsonian  Institution,  he  was  appointed  one  of  its  first 
Regents,  and  was  constantly  continued  by  Congress  a  mem- 
ber of  their  Board.  His  zeal  for  the  increase  and  diffusion  of 
knowledge  among  men,  and  his  sound  judgment,  contributed 
to  the  adoption  of  the  system  of  operations  which,  so  far,  has 
borne  the  happiest  fruits  ;  and  his  interest  in  and  care  for  its 
successful  management  furnished  one  of  the  enjoyments  of 
a  tranquil  old  age,  '  attended  by  reverence  and  troops  of 
friends.' " 

At  a  meeting  held  January  31,  1863,  Professor  Bache,  in  his 
eulogy  of  Senator  James  Alfred  Pearce,  of  Maryland,  said : 

"Asfain  has  death  invaded  our  circle,  and  taken  from 
our  councils  and  our  active  sympathies  one  of  the  most  ad- 
mirably gifted  intellects  which  has  at  any  time  been  called 
upon  to  shape  the  destiny  or  direct  the  labors  of  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution.  A  member  of  the  Executive  Committee 
from  nearly  the  second  year  of  the  organization  under  the 
act  of  Congress  of  1846,  attentive  to  every  detail,  whether 
scientific,  administrative,  or  financial,  Mr.  Pearce  was  always 
prompt  at  the  call  of  every  duty.  His  entire  and  cordial  ac- 
quiescence in  the  form  of  organization  adopted  for  the  Insti- 
tution, his  liberal  and  zealous  cooperation  with  the  Board  of 
Regents,  his  earnest  support  of,  and  unfaltering  confidence  in, 
the  discretion  and  integrity  of  its  Secretary,  were  as  conspicu- 
ous as  they  were  productive  of  the  most  lasting  and  important 
benefits.  And  though  it  is  true  that  the  general  form  and 
policy  of  the  Institution  were  determined  under  the  authority  of 
Congress,  by  the  first  Board  of  Regents,  yet  it  is  quite  as  cer- 
tain that  strenuous  action  was  afterwards  needed  to  maintain 
it  in  its  adopted  course,  and  secure  it  from  projected  innova- 
tions which,  though  strenuously  advocated  at  the  time,  few 
now  regard  with  aught  but  disfavor.      To  this  end  no  one 


68  The  Srnithsoiiiaji  htstitntion 

lent  more  effectual  aid  than  our  lamented  colleagfue.  Al- 
thouorh  from  taste  and  the  conditions  of  his  active  life  he 
might  more  properly  be  styled  a  literary  man,  yet  were  his 
scientific  attainments  by  no  means  inconsiderable,  and  a  lib- 
eral and  cultivated  mind,  which  admitted  of  no  narrow  views, 
enabled  him  to  embrace,  in  all  its  comprehensive  simplicity, 
the  idea  of  the  generous  foreigner  who,  in  founding  this  In- 
stitution, consecrated  his  fortune  to  'the  increase  and  diffu- 
sion of  knowledge  among  men.' 

"  The  objects  which  in  Congress  occupied  most  of  his  at- 
tention, and  which  it  gave  him  most  pleasure  to  defend  and 
sustain,  were  those  connected  with  literature  and  science,  and 
in  these  he  showed  the  same  qualities  which,  as  chairman  of 
our  Executive  Committee,  he  has  here  so  often  exhibited. 
With  the  great  interests  of  State  and  the  high  objects  of  na- 
tional politics  he  was  abundantly  qualified  to  grapple ;  in  fact, 
he  shrunk  from  no  occasion  in  which  to  exert  himself  when 
enlarged  views  and  skilful  powers  of  debate  could  be  ren- 
dered serviceable  to  his  country  or  the  world.  But  if  duty 
called  upon  him  from  time  to  time  for  such  efforts,  still  it  was 
to  objects  promotive  of  art  and  science  and  high  civilization, 
to  means  for  man's  moral  and  intellectual  improvement,  and 
the  enlargement  of  his  knowledge  and  power  over  nature, 
that  he  turned  with  ever  new  and  unwearied  interest.  To 
him  probably  more  than  to  any  other  Senator  the  library  of 
Congress  was  indebted  for  the  augmented  fund  which  it  has 
now  for  some  years  enjoyed,  and  for  the  care  taken  in  the  se- 
lection of  the  materials  which  render  its  shelves  so  useful. 
The  exploring  expedition  was  more  than  once  indebted  to  his 
earnest  and  persistent  efforts  for  the  continuance  of  the  means 
of  publication  of  its  results  ;  the  Coast  Survey  for  expositions 
of  its  importance  to  the  country  and  the  world ;  the  Smith- 
sonian for  warding  off  assaults  and  reconciling  enthusiastic 
but  misguided  opposition;  the  naval  and  military  expeditions, 
boundary  surveys,  and  explorations,  for  close,  searching  in- 
vestigations which  led  to  important  improvements  and  to  cor- 


The  Board  of  Regents  69 

dial  support.  The  great  work  of  the  extension  of  the  Capitol 
found  in  him  a  wise  advocate  and  judicious  friend.  Not 
afraid  of  what  was  new,  yet  he  aimed  at  nothing  for  the  sake 
of  novelty.  In  connection  with  the  decoration  of  our  public 
buildings,  our  sculptors  and  painters  found  in  him  a  most  en- 
lightened appreciator  of  their  works,  and  one  always  ready  to 
promote  the  great  cause  of  their  art  by  legitimate  means." 

At  the  meeting  of  January  28,  1867,  a  resolution  was 
passed  referring  to  the  long  and  gratuitous  services  of  Wil- 
liam W.  Seaton.  In  this  connection.  Professor  Henry  spoke 
of  his  association  with  the  Institution  in  the  following  terms: 

"  At  the  first  meeting  of  the  Board  of  Regents  he  was 
elected  Treasurer,  and  subsequently  one  of  the  Building  Com- 
mittee. The  former  office  he  continued  to  hold  until  the  time 
of  his  death,  and  during  the  whole  of  this  period,  nearly 
twenty  years,  discharged  its  duties  without  other  compensa- 
tion than  the  pleasure  he  derived  from  an  association  with 
the  Institution,  and  the  laudable  pride  he  felt  in  contribut- 
ing to  its  prosperity  and  usefulness.  It  is  well  known  that 
at  the  time  of  the  organization  of  the  Institution  a  wide 
diversity  of  opinion  existed  as  to  the  practical  means  which 
would  be  most  suitable  for  realizing  the  objects  of  the  legacy. 
Mr.  Seaton,  on  mature  reflection,  finally  gave  his  cordial 
support  to  the  policy  which  sought  to  impress  on  the  Institu- 
tion a  truly  cosmopolitan  character.  He  strenuously  advo- 
cated the  plan  which  the  Secretary,  then  recently  elected,  had 
been  invited  to  submit  to  the  Board  of  Regents,  and  which 
looked  to  the  advancement  of  knowledge  chiefly  through  the 
encouragement  and  publication  of  original  researches,  a  sys- 
tem which,  without  neglecting  other  available  means  for  the 
promotion  and  difl'usion  of  scientific  enlightenment,  may  be 
claimed,  without  undue  pretension,  to  have  made  the  Institu- 
tion favorably  known,  and  to  have  exerted  a  well-recognized 
influence  wherever  men  occupy  themselves  with  intellectual 
pursuits. 


70  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

"The  relation  borne  by  Mr.  Seaton  to  the  city  of  Wash- 
ington, the  deHght  with  which  he  watched  and  aided  its  pro- 
gress, a  certain  native  taste  also  for  artistic  embellishment, 
led  him  to  take  special  interest  in  the  architectural  character 
of  the  Smithsonian  building  and  the  ornamentation  of  the 
public  grounds  around  it. 

"  Mr.  Seaton  was  a  constant  attendant  at  the  meetings  of 
the  Board  of  Regents,  and  from  his  familiarity  with  the  early 
history  of  the  Institution  and  the  state  of  the  funds,  as  well 
as  from  his  long  experience  in  public  office,  was  enabled  to 
offer  suggestions,  always  marked  by  clearness  of  conception 
and  soundness  of  judgment.  The  social  attentions  which  he 
was  accustomed  to  extend  to  the  Regents,  especially  those 
who  were  called  from  abroad  to  attend  the  annual  meetings, 
and  to  gentlemen  invited  to  lecture  before  the  Institution, 
were  but  the  expression  of  his  characteristic  hospitality ;  but 
by  thus  adding  to  the  pleasure  of  their  sojourn  in  Wash- 
ington, he  contributed  largely  to  increase  the  number  of  its 
friends  and  supporters.  The  columns  of  the  '  National  Intelli- 
gencer,' under  his  direction,  were  always  open  to  the  defense 
of  the  policy  adopted  and  the  course  pursued  by  the  Insti- 
tution, and  he  rarely  failed  to  soften,  by  the  courtesy  of  his 
manner  and  the  moderation  of  his  expressions,  any  irritable 
feeling  which  might  arise  in  the  discussion  of  conflicting 
opinions.  It  would,  indeed,  be  difficult  to  say  in  how  many 
and  in  what  various  ways  he  contributed  to  the  popularity  as 
well  as  to  the  true  interests  of  the  Institution.  The  Secretary, 
who  was  in  the  habit  of  conferring  with  him  on  all  points 
requiring  mature  deliberation,  may  with  justice  acknowledge 
that  he  never  failed  to  derive  important  assistance  from  the 
wisdom  of  his  counsels." 

At  a  meeting  on  February  22,  1867,  similar  resolutions 
were  passed  in  honor  of  the  memory  of  Professor  Alexander 
Dallas  Bache,  who  had  served  as  a  Regent  and  one  of  the 
Executive  Committee  from  its  first  organization  to  the  time  of 
his  death.      In  a  eulogy  prepared  by  Professor  Henry,  at  the 


The  Board  of  Regents  71 

request  of  the  Regents,  the  following  statement  in  regard  to 
his  services,  which  were  by  the  Secretary  deemed  more  sig- 
nificant than  those  of  any  other  of  its  early  members,  is 
made : 

*'  In  1846  he  had  been  named  in  the  act  of  incorporation  as 
one  of  the  Regents  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  and  by 
successive  reelection  was  continued  by  Congress  in  this 
office  until  his  death,  a  period  of  nearly  twenty  years.  To 
say  that  he  assisted  in  shaping  the  policy  of  the  Establish- 
ment would  not  be  enough.  It  was  almost  exclusively  through 
his  predominating  influence  that  the  policy  which  has  given 
the  Institution  its  present  celebrity  was,  after  much  opposition, 
finally  adopted.  The  object  of  the  donation,  it  will  be  re- 
membered, had  been  expressed  in  terms  so  concise  that  its 
import  could  scarcely  be  at  once  appreciated  by  the  general 
public,  though  to  the  cultivators  of  science,  to  which  class 
Smithson  himself  belonged,  the  language  employed  failed  not 
to  convey  clear  and  precise  ideas.  Out  of  this  state  of  things 
it  is  not  surprising  that  difference  of  opinion  should  arise 
respecting  the  proper  means  to  be  adopted  to  realize  the  in- 
tentions of  the  founder  of  the  Institution.  Professor  Bache, 
with  persistent  firmness,  tempered  by  his  usual  moderation, 
advocated  the  appropriation  of  the  proceeds  of  the  funds 
principally  to  the  plan  set  forth  in  the  first  report  of  the  Sec- 
retary, namely,  of  encouraging  and  supporting  original  re- 
search in  the  different  branches  of  science.  Unfortunately 
this  policy  could  only  be  partially  adopted,  on  account  of  the 
restrictions  of  the  enactment  of  Congress  by  which  provision 
was  to  be  made  for  certain  specified  objects.  He  strenuously 
opposed  the  contemplated  expenditure  of  a  most  dispropor- 
tionate sum  in  the  erection  and  maintenance  of  a  costly  edi- 
fice; but  failing  to  prevent  this,  he  introduced  the  resolution 
adopted  by  the  Board  as  a  compromise,  whereby  the  mischief 
which  he  could  not  wholly  avert  might  at  least  be  lessened. 
This  resolution  provided  that  the  time  of  the  erection  of  the 
building  should   be   extended  over   several  years,   while  the 


72  The  Sjuithsonian  histitntion 

fund  appropriated  for  the  purpose,  being  in  the  mean  time  in- 
vested in  a  safe  and  productive  manner,  would  serve  in  some 
degree  to  counterbalance  the  effect  of  the  great  and  unneces- 
sary outlay  which  had  been  resolved  on.  It  would  be  diffi- 
cult for  the  Secretary,  however  unwilling  to  intrude  anything 
personal  on  this  occasion,  to  forbear  mentioning  that  it  was 
entirely  due  to  the  persuasive  influence  of  the  Professor  that 
he  was  induced,  almost  against  his  own  better  judgment,  to 
leave  the  quiet  pursuit  of  science  and  the  congenial  employ- 
ment of  collegfe  instruction  to  assume  the  laborious  and 
responsible  duties  of  the  office  to  which,  through  the  partial- 
ity of  friendship,  he  had  been  called.  Nor  would  it  be  pos- 
sible for  him  to  abstain  from  acknowledging  with  heartfelt 
emotion  that  he  was  from  first  to  last  supported  and  sus- 
tained in  his  difficult  position  by  the  fraternal  sympathy,  the 
prudent  counsel,  and  the  unwavering  friendship  of  the  la- 
mented deceased. 

"  His  demeanor  in  the  Board  was  quiet  and  unobtrusive, 
and  his  opinions  sought  no  support  in  elaborated  or  premedi- 
tated argument ;  but  when  a  topic  likely  to  lead  to  difficulty 
in  discussion  was  introduced,  he  seldom  failed,  with  that  ad- 
mirable tact  for  which  he  was  always  noted,  to  dispose  of  it 
by  some  suggestion  so  judicious  and  appropriate  as  to  secure 
ready  acquiescence  and  harmonious  action.  The  loss  of  such 
a  man  in  the  councils  of  the  Institution,  when  we  consider 
the  characteristics  which  it  has  been  our  aim  to  portray,  must, 
indeed,  be  regarded  as  little  less  than  irreparable." 

At  a  meeting  on  December  19,  1873,  Mr.  Garfield,  speaking 
of  the  death  of  Chief  Justice  Chase,  said: 

"As  the  Chancellor  of  this  Institution,  we  saw  in  happy 
and  harmonious  action  his  ample  knowledge  of  our  institu- 
tions, his  wide  experience  of  finance,  his  reverential  love  for 
science  and  art,  and  his  unshaken  faith  in  the  future  of  his 
country  as  the  grand  theater  for  the  highest  development  of 
all  that  is  best  and  greatest  in  human  nature.  No  contribu- 
tion to  science  offered  to  this  Board  escaped  his  attention. 


The  Board  of  Regents  73 

Nothing  that  was  high  or  worthy  in  human  pursuits  failed  to 
elicit  his  appreciative  and  powerful  support." 

At  a  meeting,  January  18,  1882,  Chancellor  Waite  thus 
referred  to  the  services  of  President  Garfield : 

"  General  Garfield  first  took  his  seat  in  Congress  at  the 
end  of  the  year  1863.      He  was  then  but  thirty-six  years  old. 

"At  the  beginning  of  his  second  term  he  was  appointed  a 
member  of  this  Board  by  the  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives, and  was  present  at  the  meeting  of  February  3, 
1866.  He  continued  to  hold  the  same  position  until  1873, 
when  another  was  appointed  in  his  place.  He  appeared 
again,  however,  in  1878,  and  we  were  never  afterwards  de- 
prived of  his  counsels  until  he  was  elected  President  of  the 
United  States,  which  made  him  ex  officio  the  presiding  officer 
of  the  Smithsonian  Institution. 

"  From  the  beginning  his  presence  here  was  felt.  He  was 
eminently  fitted  for  such  a  trust. 

"  He  was  himself  a  scholar,  and  the  'increase  and  diffusion 
of  knowledge  among  men '  always  gave  him  the  greatest 
pleasure. 

"At  every  meeting  of  the  Board  during  his  successive 
terms,  when  he  could  be  present,  his  name  appears  among 
active  and  thoughtful  members.  He  manifested  his  appre- 
ciation of  the  place  he  filled  by  always  doing  what  it  was  his 
privilege  to  do,  and  doing  it  well.  When  on  former  occa- 
sions the  Board  has  given  expression  to  its  feelings  upon  the 
death  of  a  member  his  words  of  heartfelt  sympathy  have  often 
been  heard.  The  records  show  that  he  knew  and  appreciated 
the  great  and  good  qualities  of  Chief  Justice  Chase,  and  that 
he  fully  realized  the  debt  science  owed  to  Agassiz.  But  the 
crowning  act  of  all  was  when,  out  of  the  fullness  of  his  heart, 
at  the  memorial  services  in  the  hall  of  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives, he  made  those  who  heard  him  feel  how  great  the 
life  of  Professor  Henry  had  been. 

"  It   is   not   for  us   to  say  he  ought  to  have  been  spared 

6 


74  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

longer.      Few  men  seemed  to  possess  greater  power  for  good. 
He  died  as  he  lived,  an  honor  to  human  nature." 


At  a  meeting  on  January  21,  1885,  on  the  occasion  of  the 
resiofnation  of  Doctor  Peter  Parker  from  the  Board,  resolu- 
tions  were  passed  expressing  "  high  appreciation  of  the  valu- 
able and  efficient  services  he  had  rendered  to  the  Institution, 
for,  when  required,  he  had  worked  without  weariness  and 
watched  without  flagging,  even  after  he  had  begun  to  feel  the 
burden  of  age." 

On  the  occasion  of  the  death  of  Chancellor  Waite,  in  1888, 
it  was  by  the  Regents  resolved : 

"  That  while  an  obvious  sense  of  propriety  must  dictate 
that  we  should  leave  to  others  in  that  great  forum  which  was 
the  chosen  arena  of  his  life's  career  the  sad  privilege  of  depict- 
ing, with  minute  and  detailed  analysis,  the  remarkable  com- 
bination of  strong  and  lovely  traits  which  met  in  the  person 
of  the  late  Chief  Justice  and  gave  to  the  symmetrical  char- 
acter of  our  beloved  friend  its  blended  sweetness  and  light, 
we  cannot  omit,  even  in  this  hour  of  our  special  sorrow,  to 
bear  our  cheerful  testimony  to  the  pleasing  amenity  with 
which  he  presided  over  the  deliberations  of  this  council 
chamber  as  the  Chancellor  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  ; 
and  sharing,  as  we  all  do,  in  a  profound  admiration  for  the 
intelligence  he  brought  to  our  discussions  while  ever  moder- 
ating them  by  the  guidance  of  his  clear  thought  and  mild 
wisdom,  we  can  but  render  our  reverent  homage  to  the  en- 
gaging personal  qualities  which  endeared  him  to  us  as  a  man, 
while  at  the  same  time  gratefully  confessing  our  obligations 
to  him  for  the  provident  care  and  deep  interest  which  he 
always  brought  to  the  discharge  of  his  official  duties  in  this 
place,  where,  through  all  the  years  of  his  honorable  and  use- 
ful service  at  the  head  of  this  Board,  the  Secretary  of  the  In- 
stitution, in  common  with  ourselves,  has  leaned  on  him  as  the 
wise  and  true  counsellor  who  could  be  trusted  as  well  for  the 


The  Board  of  Regents  75 

rectitude  of  his  moral  intuitions  as  for  the  clear  perceptions 
of  his  calm  and  judicious  intellect." 

At  a  meeting  on  January  18,  1889,  on  the  occasion  of  the 
death  of  Professor  Asa  Gray,  after  fifteen  years  of  service,  a 
committee  of  Regents  reported  as  follows : 

"  Upon  the  Smithsonian  Institution  his  loss  falls  with  par- 
ticular weight,  since  his  active  interest  in  its  welfare  is  almost 
continuous  with  its  existence,  for  he  was  one  of  the  Com- 
mittee of  the  American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  the 
report  of  which  upon  the  '  plan  proposed  for  the  organization 
of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,'  rendered  in  1847,  has  exer- 
cised so  active  an  influence  upon  the  subsequent  history  of 
this  Establishment. 

"Appointed  a  Regent  in  January,  1874,  to  succeed  Pro- 
fessor Louis  Agassiz,  his  efficient  and  active  interest  in  the 
welfare  of  this  Institution  has  been  one  of  its  most  valuable 
possessions,  and  it  is  with  deeper  feeling  than  formal  reso- 
lutions of  regret  usually  convey  that  we  now  endeavor  to 
express  some  part  of  our  sense  of  irreparable  loss." 

On  the  death  of  the  Honorable  Samuel  S.  Cox,  in  1890, 
after  a  period  of  service  as  Regent  which,  though  occasion- 
ally interrupted,  continued  in  the  neighborhood  of  thirty 
years,  at  a  meeting  of  the  Board  on  January  8,  1890,  a  com- 
mittee reported  that — 

"  While  he  was  not  a  regular  attendant  at  all  the  meetings 
of  the  Board,  he  was  ever  ready  to  advance  the  interests  of  the 
Institution  and  of  science,  either  as  a  Regent  or  as  a  member 
of  Congress ;  and  although  such  men  as  Hamlin,  Fessen- 
den,  Colfax,  Chase,  Garfield,  Sherman,  Gray,  and  Waite,  in 
a  list  comprising  Presidents,  Vice-Presidents,  Chief  Justices, 
and  Senators  of  the  United  States,  were  his  associates,  there 
were  none  whose  service  was  longer  or  more  gratefully  to  be 
remembered,  nor  perhaps  any  to  whom  the  Institution  owes 
more  than  to  Mr.  Cox." 


76  The  Smithsoitiaji  Institution 

In  1892,  General  Montgomery  C.  Meigs,  U.  S.  A.,  who 
had  been  for  seventeen  years  a  member  of  the  Executive 
Committee,  died,  and  Doctor  Coppee,  in  a  memorial  record 
presented  at  the  annual  meeting,  said : 

"  His  valuable  services  to  the  Institution  began,  indeed, 
before  he  was  officially  connected  with  it  as  Regent,  and  con- 
tinued until  his  death,  rendering  most  important  service  in 
1876  by  designing  the  new  building  for  the  National  Mu- 
seum, a  marvel  of  economic  design.  Directly  upon  his  en- 
trance into  the  Board,  December  26,  1885,  he  became  an 
active  member  of  its  Executive  Committee.  He  was  always 
present,  extremely  painstaking,  and  eminently  judicious  in 
his  counsel  and  judgment  on  important  points  of  business  and 
policy.  He  had  just  been  nominated  as  Regent  for  another 
term  of  six  years  when  he  was  taken  away  from  us  by  sudden 
illness.  Few  Regents  have  been  of  such  importance  to  the 
Institution." 

Appropriate  action  was  taken  at  the  meeting  held  on  Jan- 
uary 23,  1895,  by  the  adoption  of  suitable  resolutions  in 
honor  of  the  memory  of  President  Welling.  On  that  oc- 
casion Doctor  Coppee  said  : 

"  Doctor  Welling  was  one  of  the  most  valuable  citizens 
of  Washington,  to  whom  was  confided  many  trusts,  among 
them  the  presidency  of  the  Columbian  University  and  the 
chairmanship  of  the  Executive  Committee  of  this  Institution  ; 
and  he  did  well  everything  that  was  confided  to  him.  He 
was  a  man  pure  in  thought,  honest  in  purpose  and  action, 
and  intelligent  in  judgment.  He  held  a  ready  pen,  and  how 
polished  his  public  utterances  were,  all  here  would  remember 
who  had  heard  him  when  he  presented  papers  and  other 
matters  before  this  Board." 

Also  the  following  tribute  to  his  interest  in  the  Institution 
was  made  by  Secretary  Langley : 


The  Board  of  Regents  TJ 

"  I  will  only  add,  speaking  of  him  still  chiefly  in  his  rela- 
tionship to  this  Institution,  that  in  1884  he  was  chosen  one 
of  its  Regents,  to  succeed  the  Reverend  Doctor  Peter  Parker. 
For  ten  years  he  gave  conscientious  attention  to  its  interests, 
and  upheld  in  every  way  those  conservative  and  dignified 
traditions  of  which  I  have  already  spoken  of  him  as  almost 
the  living  embodiment ;  and  while  he  did  this  primarily  be- 
cause of  their  harmony  with  his  own  personal  tendencies  and 
convictions  as  to  their  value,  he  did  so  also  because  of  his 
affection  and  reverence  for  the  first  Secretary,  Joseph  Henry, 
whose  pupil  he  had  been  in  his  youth,  and  with  whom  in 
middle  life  he  maintained  the  relation  of  friend  and  confidant. 
After  Henry's  death,  Doctor  Welling  consented  to  add  to  his 
already  burdensome  duties  those  of  the  chairman  of  the 
Executive  Committee,  which  he  performed  till  his  own  death, 
so  that  he  may  be  said  to  have  been  a  link  between  the  past 
and  the  present  in  the  history  of  this  Institution,  though 
happily  not  the  only  one,  since  it  has  preserved  others  in 
his  contemporaries." 

The  death  of  Doctor  Henry  Coppee  was  announced  by 
the  Chancellor  at  the  meeting  held  on  March  21,  1895.  The 
following  resolutions  were  presented  by  Senator  Henderson : 

"That  the  Board  of  Regents  feels  sincere  sorrow  in  the 
loss  of  one  whose  distinguished  career  as  a  soldier,  a  man  of 
letters,  and  whose  services  in  the  promotion  of  education 
command  their  highest  respect  and  admiration.  That  in  the 
death  of  Doctor  Coppee  the  Smithsonian  Institution  and  the 
Board  of  Regents  have  suffered  the  loss  of  a  tried  and  valued 
friend,  a  wise  and  prudent  counsellor,  whose  genial  courtesy, 
well-stored,  disciplined  mind,  and  sincere  devotion  to  the  in- 
terests of  the  Institution  will  be  ever  remembered." 

General  Wheeler  said  that  "  forty  years  ago  he  was  a  pupil 
of  Doctor  Coppee,  and  from  that  time  to  his  death,  owing  to 
various  connections  and  associations,  by  correspondence  and 

6* 


78  The  Smithsonian  Institutio7i 

by  visit,  he  had  known  him,  and  therefore  felt  well  fitted  to 
speak  of  the  high  qualities  referred  to  in  the  resolutions." 

It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that  the  passing  of 
resolutions  and  the  delivery  of  eulogies  have  only  been  cus- 
tomary when  a  member  of  the  Board  has  continued  actively 
associated  with  the  Institution  until  the  time  of  his  death. 
It  should  not  be  forgotten  that  several  of  the  Regents  who 
were  most  active  in  the  defense  of  the  Institution  and  in 
the  advancement  of  its  interests  were  so  remote  in  time 
and  place  from  the  organization  at  the  time  of  their  death 
that  no  reference  to  their  services  stand  recorded  upon  the 
Journal. 

In  this  connection,  then,  it  seems  but  just  to  refer  to  the 
activities  of  Robert  Dale  Owen,  in  securing  the  passage  of 
the  act  organizing  the  Institution,  and  as  chairman  of  its 
Building  Committee  ;  the  intense  interest  shown  by  Rufus 
Choate,  in  the  promotion  of  the  library  and  bibliographical 
work  of  the  Institution  in  its  days  of  organization,  thus  sup- 
plementing the  valuable  services  rendered  at  a  still  earlier 
day  in  the  Senate  in  preventing  the  diversion  of  the  fund  to 
unworthy  ends  ;  the  courageous  attitude  of  Henry  W.  Mil- 
liard, of  Alabama,  in  defending  the  Institution  and  its  Re- 
gents from  an  attack  in  the  House  of  Representatives  on  the 
part  of  Andrew  Johnson,  of  Tennessee,  who  desired  to  see 
the  organization,  still  in  its  infancy,  destroyed ;  the  effective 
service  of  Jefferson  Davis,  in  preventing  the  repudiation  by 
the  government  of  the  responsibility  which  it  had  incurred 
by  ordering  the  investment  of  the  Smithson  bequest  in  State 
bonds  which  had  become  worthless,  and  in  securing  the  res- 
toration to  the  Treasury  of  the  money  thus  misapplied  and 
lost;  also  the  bold  stand  taken  by  Mr.  Davis  in  1850,  in  the 
Senate,  resisting  the  demand  to  force  upon  the  Institution 
the  miscellaneous  collection  of  curiosities  then  housed  in  the 


The  Board  of  Regents  79 

Patent  Office  and  called  "The  National  Cabinet  of  Curiosi- 
ties," without  financial  provision  for  its  maintenance. 

Reviewing  the  history  of  fifty  years,  one  cannot  fail  to  be 
impressed  with  the  belief  that  Congress  acted  with  great  wis- 
dom in  determining  the  character  of  the  corporation  to  which 
it  intrusted  the  affairs  of  the  Institution.  It  was  at  first  pro- 
posed that  the  Directors  of  the  Institution  should  be  citizens, 
selected  like  those  of  private  institutions,  without  reference  to 
official  connection  with  the  orovernment  durin^:  their  time  of 
service.  The  plan  finally  adopted  brought  the  Smithsonian 
Institution  into  much  closer  relationship  with  the  govern- 
ment, securing  for  it  the  administrative  supervision  of  a  body 
of  men  the  majority  of  whom  have  always  been  thoroughly 
representative  members  of  the  executive  and  legislative 
branches  of  the  government ;  men  in  the  prime  of  their  vigor 
and  trained  to  the  highest  administrative  responsibilities.  To 
be  a  Regent  of  the  Institution  has  always  been  regarded  as  a 
high  honor,  and  those  who  have  held  this  position,  as  mem- 
bers of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives,  have  been, 
without  exception,  eminent  for  scholarship  and  general  cul- 
ture, as  well  as  in  statesmanship.  The  citizen  members  of 
the  Board  associated  with  them  have  been  equally  eminent 
in  the  fields  of  scientific,  literary,  and  educational  work. 

Being  residents  of  Washington  during  their  terms  of  ser- 
vice, the  majority  of  this  group  of  wise  and  experienced  ad- 
ministrators had  the  opportunity  of  acquiring  familiarity  witli 
the  activities  of  the  Institution  from  day  to  day,  and  have, 
without  special  effort,  controlled  and  regulated  all  its  work. 
Familiar  with  affairs,  able  to  feel,  almost  unconsciously,  the 
workings  of  manifold  interests  simultaneously  in  operation,  in 
constant  communication  with  the  executive  officers  of  the  Es- 
tablishment, the  supervision  which  they  have  exercised  has 
been  of  the  most  wholesome  and  effective  character. 


8o  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

Notwithstanding  the  fears  so  generally  entertained  fifty 
years  ago,  the  Institution  has  never,  in  any  respect,  fallen 
under  the  influence  of  political  interference.  No  member  of 
its  staff  has  ever  been  appointed  because  of  the  influence  of 
powerful  friends  or  for  any  reason  except  that  he  was  believed 
to  be  the  best  man  available  for  the  place.  No  sinecures  have 
been  created,  and  no  breath  of  suspicion  has  ever  tarnished 
the  reputation  of  any  officer  or  employee. 

Since  this  can  be  said  in  regard  to  the  first  fifty  years  of  the 
Smithsonian  Institution,  it  may  fairly  be  claimed  as  demon- 
strated that  the  plan  of  organization  was  wisely  and  judi- 
ciously conceived. 


Regents  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution 

Biographical  Notices  by  William  Jones  Rhees 

ROBERT   ADAMS,  Jr. 

PENNSYLVANIA. 

Regent  on  behalf  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  appointed  December  20,  1895. 

Born  in  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania,  February  26,  1849.  A.  B.,  University 
of  Pennsylvania,  1869.  Ph.  B.,  Wharton  School  of  Economy  and  Finance, 
University  of  Pennsylvania,  1884.  Admitted  to  the  Bar.  Member  of  United 
States  Geological  Survey,  i87i-'75.  Member  of  Pennsylvania  Senate,  1883- 
'87.  U.  S.  Minister  to  Brazil,  1889-90.  Member  of  U.  S.  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives from  Pennsylvania,  January  3,  1894- March  4,  1899. 

LOUIS   AGASSIZ. 

MASSACHUSETTS. 

Regent  elected  by  Congress,  February  21,  1863  ;  reelected  March  2,  1869. 

Bom  in  Motier,  Canton  Fribourg,  Switzerland,  May  28,  1807 ;  died  in  Cam- 
bridge, Massachusetts,  December  14,  1873.  Educated  in  College  of  Lausanne, 
1823.  Studied  medicine  in  Zurich,  1824,  also  in  Heidelberg  and  Munich. 
M.  D.,  Munich,  1829.  Ph.  D.,  Erlangen,  1830.  LL.  D.,  Edinburgh,  1834; 
Dublin,  1835;  and  Harvard,  1848.  Member  of  French  Academy  of  Sciences, 
1836.  Professor  of  Natural  History  in  College  of  Neuchatel,  Switzerland,  1832. 
Professor  of  Zoology  and  Geology  in  Lawrence  Scientific  School,  Cambridge, 
Massachusetts,  1848.  Professor  of  Comparative  Anatomy  and  Zoology  in  the 
Medical  College,  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  1851-54.    Curator  of  the  Mu- 


The  Board  of  Regents  8i 

seum  of  Comparative  Zoology,  Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  1859.  Professor 
(non-resident)  of  Natural  History,  Cornell  University,  1868.  Director 
Penikese  Island  School  of  Natural  History,  1873.  Original  member  National 
Academy  of  Sciences,  1863.  Received  Monthyon  prize  from  the  Academy 
of  Paris,  and  Wollaston  medal  from  the  London  Geological  Society. 

JAMES    BURRILL   ANGELL. 

MICHIGAN. 

Regent  elected  by  Congress,  January  19,  1887  ;   reelected  January  9,  1893. 

Born  in  Scituate,  Rhode  Island,  January  7,  1829.  Educated  in  Seekonk, 
Massachusetts,  and  North  Scituate,  Rhode  Island.  A.  B.,  Brown,  1849.  LL.  D., 
Brown,  1868;  and  Columbia,  1887.  Professor  of  Modern  Languages  and  Lit- 
erature in  Brown  University,  1853.  Y.i\\\.ox  rnn'idcuce  Daily  Journal,  i86o-'66. 
President  of  University  of  Vermont,  1 866-71.  President  of  University  of 
Michigan,  i87i-'96.  U.  S.  Minister  to  China,  1880-82.  Commissioner  to 
negotiate  a  new  treaty  with  China.  Commissioner  to  form  treaty  with  Great 
Britain  in  settlement  of  the  fisheries  dispute,  i887-'88. 

CHESTER   ALAN    ARTHUR. 

NEW    YORK. 

Regent  ex  officio,  as  Vice-President  of  the  United  States,  March  4,  1881. 

Born  in  Fairfield,  Vermont,  October  5,  1830;  died  in  New  York  City,  No- 
vember 18,  1886.  A.  B.,  Union,  1848.  LL.  D.,  Princeton,  1884;  and 
Union,  1884.  Principal  of  an  Academy  in  North  Pownal,  Bennington  County, 
Vermont,  1851.  Admitted  to  the  Bar,  New  York,  1853.  Engineer-in-Chief, 
as  Brigadier-General  on  Governor  Morgan's  staft",  January  i,  1861.  Acting 
Quartermaster-General  of  New  York.  Inspector-General,  1862.  Collector  of 
the  Port  of  New  York,  1871-78.  Vice-President  of  the  United  States,  1881. 
President  of  the  United  States,  July  20,  1881-84. 

WILLIAM    BACKHOUSE   ASTOR. 

NEW    YORK. 

Regent  elected  by  Congress,  March  2,  1861. 

Born  in  New  York  City,  September  19,  1792  ;  died  in  New  York,  November 
24,  1875.  Educated  in  public  schools,  New  York;  later  in  Heidelberg  and 
Gottingen.  Engaged  with  his  father  John  Jacob  Astor  in  trade  with  China, 
i8i5-'27.  President  of  the  American  Fur  Company,  1827.  Gave  $550,000 
to  the  Astor  Library, 

ALEXANDER  DALLAS  BACHE. 

CITY    OF    WASHINGTON. 

Regent  elected  by  Congress,  August  10,  1846;   reelected  January  13,  1853, 

January  17,  1859. 

Born  in  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania,  July  19,  1806;  died  in  Newport,  Rhode 
Island,  February  17, 1867.    Graduated  United  States  Military  Academy,  West 


82  The  Smithsoiiimi  histitntion 

Point,  New  York,  1825.  A.  M.,  Yale,  1830.  LL.  D.,  University  of  the  City 
of  New  York,  1836;  University  of  Pennsylvania,  1837;  and  Harvard,  1851. 
Assistant  Professor  of  Engineering  in  United  States  Military  Academy,  1826. 
Lieutenant  of  Engineers,  1827-29.  Engaged  in  constructing  Fort  Adams 
and  other  pubHc  works.  President  of  Girard  College,  Philadelphia,  1832-39. 
Professor  of  Mathematics  in  University  of  Pennsylvania,  iS27-'32.  Professor 
of  Natural  Philosophy  and  Chemistry  in  University  of  Pennsylvania,  1828-41, 
and  1842-43.  Principal  of  Central  High  School,  Philadelphia,  i84i-'42. 
Superintendent  of  Public  Schools.  Superintendent  United  States  Coast  Sur- 
vey, November,  i843-'67.  Vice-President  United  States  Sanitary  Commis- 
sion. President  American  Philosophical  Society,  1855.  President  American 
Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  1850.  Original  Member  and 
President  National  Academy  of  Sciences,  1863. 


GEORGE    EDMUND    BADGER. 

NORTH    CAROLINA. 
Regent  elected  by  Congress,  February  27,  1856;   reelected  January  17,  1859. 

Born  in  Nevvbern,  North  Carolina,  April  13,  1795;  died  in  Raleigh,  North 
Carolina,  May  II,  1866.  A.  B.,  Yale,  1813.  A.  M.,  Yale,  1825.  LL.  D.,  Uni- 
versity of  North  Carolina,  1834;  and  Yale,  1848.  Admitted  to  the  Bar  in 
Raleigh,  North  Carolina.  Major  in  War  of  181 2.  North  Carolina  State 
Legislature,  i8i6-'2o.  Judge  of  North  Carolina  Superior  Court,  i82o-'25. 
Secretary  of  the  Navy,  March,  1841.  Member  of  U.  S.  Senate  from  North 
Carolina,  December  7,  1846-March  3,  1855, 

GEORGE    BANCROFT. 

CITY    OF    WASHINGTON. 
Regent  elected  by  Congress,  December  11,  1874. 

Born  in  Worcester,  Massachusetts,  October  3,  1800;  died  in  Washington 
City,  January  17,  1891.  Educated  in  Phillips  Exeter  Academy,  New  Hamp- 
shire. A.  B.,  Harvard,  181 7.  Ph.  D.,  University  of  G5ttingen,  1820.  D.  C.  L., 
Oxford,  1849.  D.  J.,  University  of  Bonn,  1868.  LL.D.,  Harvard,  1843; 
and  Union,  1840.  L.  H.  D.,  Columbia,  1843.  Tutor  in  Harvard.  Principal 
of  Round  Hill  School,  Northampton,  Massachusetts,  1824.  Elected  to  Massa- 
chusetts Legislature,  1830.  Collector  of  the  Port  of  Boston,  i838-'4i.  Can- 
didate for  Governor  of  Massachusetts,  1844.  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  1845. 
Acting  Secretary  of  War,  1846.  U.  S.  Minister  to  Great  Britain,  i846-'49. 
U.  S.  Minister  to  Prussia,  1867.  U.  S.  Minister  to  North  German  Confeder- 
ation, 1868.     U.  S,  Mmister  to  Germany,  1871-74. 

JAMES  GABRIEL  BERRET. 

CITY    OF   WASHINGTON. 
Regent  ex  officio,  as  Mayor  of  Washington,  June,  1858-June,  i860. 

Born  in  Baltimore,  Maryland,  February  12,  1815.  Member  of  House  of 
Delegates  of  Maryland,   1837-39.      Clerk   in  Register  of  Treasury's  office, 


The  Board  of  Regents  83 

Washington  City,  1839-48.  Chief  Clerk  of  Pension  Bureau,  1848-49. 
Postmaster  of  VVashington  City,  1853-58.  Mayor  of  Washington  City, 
i858-'6r.  Apj)ointe{l  Commissioner  by  President  Lincohi  on  Abolition 
of  Slavery  in  the  District  of  Columbia,  1862.  Member  of  Washington  Police 
Board,  i875-'77.  Elector  for  Maryland,  and  President  of  the  Electoral 
College,  1888.  Member  of  Maryland  Legislature  and  Chairman  of  Com- 
mittee of  Ways  and  Means,  1891.  First  Vice-President  of  Washington  Na- 
tional Monument  Society. 


JOHN    MCPHERSON    BERRIExN. 

GEORGIA. 
Regent  elected  by  Congress,  January  13,  1853. 

Born  in  New  Jersey,  August  23,  1781 ;  died  in  Savannah,  Georgia,  January 
I,  1856.  A.  B.,  Princeton,  1796.  LL.  D.,  Princeton,  1829;  University  of 
Georgia,  1850;  and  University  of  Alabama,  1852.  Admitted  to  the  Bar  in 
Georgia,  1799.  Solicitor-General  of  Georgia,  1809.  Judge  of  Eastern  Cir- 
cuit, 1810.  Colonel  in  War  of  1812.  Member  of  Georgia  Legislature,  1822. 
Member  of  U.  S.  Senate  from  Georgia,  i824-'29,  i84o-'46,  and  i847-'52. 
Attorney-General  of  United  States,  1829.  Judge  of  Supreme  Court  of 
Georgia,  i845-'47. 


NEWTON    BOOTH. 

CALIFORNIA. 
Regent  on  behalf  of  the  Senate,  appointed  March  21,  1879. 

Born  in  Salem,  Lidiana,  December  25,  1825;  died  in  Sacramento,  Califor- 
nia, July  14,  1892.  A.  B.,  Asbury  University,  1846.  LL.  D.,  De  Pauw, 
1872.  Admitted  to  the  Bar  in  Tcrre  Haute,  Indiana,  1850.  Member  of 
California  State  Senate,  1863.  Governor  of  California,  i87i-'74.  Member  of 
U.  S.  Senate  from  California,  March  9,  1875-March  3,  1881. 


SAYLES   JENKS    BOWEN. 

CITY    OF    WASHINGTON. 
Regent  r^  ^<rw,  as  Mayor  of  Washington,  June,  1868-June,  1870. 

Bom  in  Scipio,  Cayuga  County,  New  York,  October  7,  18 13;  died  in 
Washington  City,  December  16,  1896.  Educated  in  Aurora  Academy,  New 
York.  Clerk  in  United  States  Treasury  Department,  1845-48.  Commis- 
sioner of  Police  in  District  of  Columbia,  1861.  Disbursing  Officer  of  United 
States  Senate,  1861.  Collector  of  Internal  Revenue,  1862.  Postmaster 
City  of  Washington,  1863-68.  Mayor  City  of  Washington.  June,  1868- 
June,  1870.  Trustee  and  Treasurer  of  Public  Schools  for  Colored  Children 
in  the  District  of  Columbia,  to  which  he  devoted  much  time,  labor,  and 
money. 


84  The  Smithsonian  Instihition 

JOHN    CABELL    BRECKINRIDGE. 

KENTUCKY. 

Regent  ex  officio,  as  Vice-President  of  the  United  States,  March  4,  1857- 

March  4,  1861. 

Born  near  Lexington,  Kentucky,  January  21,  1821;  died  in  Lexington, 
Kentucky,  May  17,  1875.  A.  B.,  Centre  College,  1841.  LL.  D.,  Centre, 
1857.  Studied  law  at  Transylvania  Institute.  Admitted  to  the  Bar,  Lexing- 
ton, Kentucky.  Major  in  Mexican  War.  Member  of  Kentucky  Legislature. 
Member  of  U.  S.  House  of  Representatives  from  Kentucky,  December  i, 
1851-March  3,  1855.  Declined  the  Spanish  Mission.  Vice-President  of  the 
United  States,  1857.  Member  of  U.  S.  Senate  from  Kentucky,  March  4, 
1861-December  4,  1861.     Major-General  Confederate  Army,  1862. 


WILLIAM  CAMPBELL  PRESTON  BRECKINRIDGE. 

KENTUCKY. 

Regent  on  behalf  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  appointed  January  15,  1892; 

reappointed  January  4,  1894. 

Born  in  Baltimore,  Maryland,  August  28,  1837.  Admitted  to  the  Bar  in 
Louisville,  Kentucky,  1857.  Educated  in  Transylvania  University  and  Centre 
College.  LL.  B.,  University  of  Louisville,  1857.  A.  M.,  Centre  College,  1855. 
LL.  D.,  Cumberland  University,  1874  ,  Central  University,  1881  ;  and  Centre 
College,  1886.  Captain  and  Colonel  Confederate  Army,  1862.  Professor 
in  Cumberland  University.  Member  of  U.  S.  House  of  Representatives  from 
Kentucky,  March  4,  1885-March  4,  1895. 


SIDNEY    BREESE. 

ILLINOIS. 
Regent  on  behalf  of  the  Senate,  appointed  August  10,  1846. 

Born  in  Whitesborough,  New  York,  July  15,  1800;  died  in  Pinckneyville, 
Illinois,  June  27,  1878,  Educated  in  Hamilton  College.  A.  B.,  Union, 
1818.  LL.  D.,  Union,  1871.  Admitted  to  the  Bar  in  Illinois,  1821.  Assis- 
tant Secretary,  State  of  Illinois.  Postmaster  of  Kaskaskia,  Illinois,  1800.  At- 
torney-General of  Illinois,  i822-'27.  Attorney  of  the  United  States  for  Il- 
linois, 1827.  Lieutenant  in  Black  Hawk  War.  Circuit  Judge,  1835.  Member 
of  U.  S.  Senate  from  Illinois,  December  4,  1843-March  3,  1849.  Speaker  of 
Illinois  House  of  Representatives,  1850.  Chief  Judge  of  Circuit  Court, 
Illinois,  1855.     Justice  of  Supreme  Court  of  Illinois,  i857-'78. 


BENJAMIN    BUTTERWORTH. 

OHIO. 
Regent  on  behalf  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  appointed  January  6,  1890. 

Born  in  Warren  County,  Ohio,  October  22,  1837.  Educated  in  public 
schools  and  Ohio  University.  Graduated  in  Cincinnati  Law  College,  186 1. 
Admitted  to  the  Bar.     Member  of  Ohio  Senate,  i873-'75.     Member  of  U.  S. 


The  Board  of  Regents  85 

House  of  Representatives  from  Ohio,  March  i8,  1879-March  3,  1883,  De- 
cember 7,  1885-March  4,  1891.  U.  S.  Commissioner  of  Patents,  1883.  Sec- 
retary and  Solicitor-General  of  the  World's  Columbian  Exposition  in  Chicago. 

LEWIS    CASS. 

MICHIGAN. 

Regent  on  behalf  of  the  Senate,  appointed  January  18,  1847. 

Born  in  Exeter,  New  Hampshire,  October  9,  1782  ;  died  in  Detroit,  Michi- 
gan, June  17,  1866.  Eklucated  in  Exeter  Academy.  LL.  D,  Hamilton,  1825  ; 
Harvard,  1836;  and  Jefferson,  1837.  Admitted  to  the  Bar  in  Marietta,  Ohio, 
1802.  Member  of  Ohio  Legislature,  1807.  Marshal  of  Ohio,  i8o7-'i3.  Colo- 
nel and  Brigadier-General  in  War  of  181 2.  Governor  of  Michigan,  1813-31. 
Secretary  of  War,  1831-36.  Minister  to  France,  1836-42.  Member  of 
U.  S.  Senate  from  Michigan,  December  i,  1845-August  14,  1848,  December 
3,  1849-March  3,  185 1.  Secretary  of  State,  1857-60.  Negotiated  many 
treaties  with  the  Indians.     Candidate  for  President,  1848. 


ROBERT    MILLEDGE    CHARLTON. 

GEORGIA. 

Regent  on  behalf  of  the  Senate,  appointed  August  24,  1852. 

Born  in  Savannah,  Georgia,  January  19,  1807  ;  died  in  Savannah,  Georgia, 
January  18,  1854.  Admitted  to  the  Bar,  1825.  Member  of  Georgia  Legisla- 
ture. U.  S.  District  Attorney.  Judge  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Eastern 
Georgia,  1834.  Member  of  U.  S.  Senate  from  Georgia,  December  6,  1852- 
March  3,  1853.    Mayor  of  Savannah,  Georgia. 

SALMON    PORTLAND    CHASE. 

OHIO. 

Regent  ex  officio,  as  Chief  Justice  of  the  United  States,  December  6,  1864. 

Born  in  Cornish,  New  Hampshire,  January  13,  1808;  died  in  Washington 
City,  May  7,  1873.  Educated  in  Cincinnati  College.  A.  B.,  Dartmouth,  1826. 
LL.  D.,  Miami,  1865.  Admitted  to  the  Bar,  1829.  Member  of  U.  S.  Senate 
from  Ohio,  December  3,  1849-March  3,  1855.  Governor  of  Ohio,  1855-57. 
Elected  to  U.  S.  Senate  from  Ohio,  i860.  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  i86i-'64. 
Chief  Justice  of  the  United  States,  1864-73. 

RUFUS    CHOATE. 

MASSACHUSETTS. 

Regent  elected  by  Congress,  August  10,  1846;  reelected  December  19,  1848,  and 

December  27,  1854. 

Born  in  Ipswich,  Massachusetts,  October  i,  1799;  died  in  Halifax,  Nova 
Scotia,  July  12, 1859.  Tutor  in  Dartmouth  College.  A.  B.  and  A.  M.,  Dart- 
mouth,'1819.  LL.  D..  Yale,  1844:  Harvard,  1845;  Dartmouth,  1845;  and 
Amherst,  1848.  Studied  law  in  Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  and  Washington 
City.     Admitted  to  the  Bar  in  Dan  vers,  Massachusetts,  1824.      Member  of 


86  The  Smithsonian  histitittion 

Massachusetts  Legislature,  1825-28.  Member  of  U.  S.  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives from  Massachusetts,  December  6,  1830-July  30,  1834.  Member 
of  U.  S.  Senate  from  Massachusetts,  May  31,  1841-August  10,  1846. 

NATHAN    CLIFFORD. 

MAINE. 

Regent  ex  officio,  as  Acting  Chief  Justice  of  the  United  States,  May  7,  1873,  and 
Chancellor /r£»  tern,  pending  the  appointment  of  a  Chief  Justice. 

Born  in  Rumney,  New  Hampshire,  August  18,  1803;  died  in  Cornish, 
Maine,  July  25,  1881.  Educated  in  Haverhill  Academy  and  Hampton  Liter- 
ary Institution.  LL.  D.,  Bowdoin,  i860;  Dartmouth,  1862  ;  Brown,  1868;  and 
Harvard,  1878.  Admitted  to  the  Bar  in  New  Hampshire,  1827.  Member  of 
Maine  Legislature  and  Speaker,  i83o-'34.  Attorney-General  of  Maine,  1834- 
'38.  Member  of  U.  S.  House  of  Representatives  from  Maine,  December  2, 
1839-March  3,  1843.  Attorney-General  of  the  United  States,  i846-'48.  Com- 
missioner to  Mexico,  1849.  v.  S.  Minister  to  Mexico,  1848-49.  justice  of 
United  States  Supreme  Court,  1858-81.  Member  of  the  Electoral  Commis- 
sion, 1876. 

HIESTER   CLYMER. 

PENNSYLVANIA. 

Regent  on  behalf  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  appointed  December  14,  1875  ; 
reappointed  January  14,  1878,  and  April  4,  1879. 

Born  in  Berks  County,  Pennsylvania,  November  3,  1827;  died  in  Read- 
ing, Pennsylvania,  June  12,  1884.  Educated  in  public  schools,  Reading. 
A,  B.,  Princeton,  1847.  Admitted  to  the  Bar,  1849.  Member  of  Pennsylvania 
Legislature,  i860.  Candidate  for  Governorship  of  Pennsylvania,  1866.  Mem- 
ber of  the  State  Board  of  Public  Charities,  1870.  Member  of  U.  S.  House  of 
Representatives  from  Pennsylvania,  December  i,  1873-March  4,  1881. 

WILLIAM    FERGUSON  COLCOCK. 

SOUTH   CAROLINA. 

Regent  on  behalf  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  appointed  January  7,  1850; 
reappointed  January  2,  1852,  and  January  11,  1853. 

Bom  in  Beaufort,  South  Carolina,  November  5,  1804;  died  in  Charleston, 
South  Carolina,  June  13,  1889.    A.  B.,  South  Carolina  College,  1823.  Admitted 
to  the  Bar.     Member  of  South  Carolina  Legislature.     Speaker  of  South  Caro- 
lina House.     Member  of  U.  S.  House  of  Representatives  from  South  Carolina, 
/  December  3,  1849-March  3,  1853.     Collector  of  Port  of  Charleston. 

SCHUYLER    COLFAX. 

INDIANA. 

Regent  on  liehalfofthe  House  of  Representatives,  appointed  December  19,  1861.    'Kq- 
g&nXex  officio,  as  Vice-President  of  the  United  States,  March  4,  i869-March4,  1873. 

Born  in  New  York  City,  March  23,  1823;  died  in  Mankato,  Minnesota, 
January    13,   1885.      Educated   in   public   schools.    New   York    City,     Ad- 


The  Board  of  Regents  87 

mitted  to  the  Bar,  Indiana,  1836.  Member  of  Indiana  State  Constitutional 
Convention,  1850.  Member  of  U.  S.  House  of  Representatives  from  Indiana, 
December  3,  1855-March  4,  1869.  Speaker  of  the  U.  S.  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives, i863-'68.  Vice-President  of  the  United  States,  March  4,  1869- 
March  4,  1873. 

HENRY    DAVID    COOKE. 

CITY   OF    WASHINGTON. 

Regent  ex  officio,  as  Governor  of  the  District  of  Columbia,  February  28,  1871- 

September  13,  1873. 

Born  in  Sandusky,  Ohio,  November  23,  1825 ;  died  in  Georgetown,  District 
of  Cokimbia,  February  24,  1881.  Educated  in  Allegheny  College.  A.  B., 
Transylvania  University,  1844.  Admitted  to  the  Bar  in  Sandusky,  Ohio,  and 
Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania.  Attache  to  American  Consul  in  Valparaiso,  Chile, 
1846.  Presidential  Elector,  1856.  Journalist  in  Philadeljjhia,  Sandusky,  and 
Columbus,  Ohio.  First  Governor  of  District  of  Columbia,  February  28,  187 1- 
September  13,  1873. 

HENRY    COPPEE. 

PENNSYLVANIA. 

Regent  elected  by  Congress,    January  19,   1874;    reelected  December   19,   1879, 
December  26,  1885,  and  January  26,  1892. 

Born  in  Savannah,  Georgia,  October  13,  1821;  died  in  Bethlehem,  Penn- 
sylvania, March  22,  1895.  Educated  in  Yale,  1839.  Graduated  United  States 
Military  Academy,  1845.  A.  M.,  University  of  Georgia,  1848.  LL.  D., 
Union,  1866;  and  University  of  Pennsylvania,  1866.  Served  through  Mexican 
War,  brevetted  Captain,  1847.  Professor  of  French,  i848-'49;  Professor  of 
Geography,  History,  and  Ethics,  i85o-'55;  Assistant  Professor  of  Geogra- 
phy, History,  and  Ethics,  U.  S.  Military  Academy,  1855.  Professor  of  Eng- 
lish Literature  and  History,  University  of  Pennsylvania,  1855-66.  President 
of  Lehigh  University,  1866-79,  '9°'  '93~'95-  Professor  of  English  Literature 
and  History,  and  of  International  and  Constitutional  Law,  Lehigh  University, 
1874-95.     U,  S.  Assay  Commissioner,  1874  and  1880. 


SAMUEL   SULLIVAN    COX. 

OHIO-NEW   YORK. 

Regent  on  behalf  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  appointed  December  19,  1861  ; 
reappointed  December  23,  1863,  February  2,  1870,  December  18,  1873,  January 
9,  1882,  and  January  5,  1888. 

Boni  in  Zanesville,  Ohio,  September  30,  1824;  died  in  New  York  City, 
September  10,  1889.  Educated  in  public  schools,  Zanesville,  Ohio.  A.  B., 
Brown  University,  1846.  A.  M.,  Brown.  LL.  D.,  Brown,  1S85.  Admitted 
to  the  Bar,  Cincinnati,  Ohio.  Secretary  of  Legation  to  Peru,  1855.  Mem- 
ber of  U.  S.  House  of  Representatives  \xoxxv  Ohio,  December  6,  1857-March 

3,  1865.    Member  of  U.  S.  House  of  Representatives  from  New  York,  March 

4,  1869-March  3,  1885,  December  5,  1887-March  3,  1889.     U.  S.  Minister 
to  Turkey,  i885-'86. 


^ 


88  The  Smithsonian  histitution 

SHELBY    MOORE    CULLOM. 

ILLINOIS. 

Regent  on  behalf  of  the  Senate,  appointed  March  23,  1885  ;  reappointed  March  28, 

1889,  and  December  18,  1895. 

Born  in  Wayne  County,  Kentucky,  November  22,  1829.  Educated  in  Rock 
River  Seminary,  Mount  Morris,  Illinois.  Admitted  to  the  Bar  in  Spring- 
field, Illinois,  1855,  City  Attorney  of  Springfield,  1855.  Presidential  Elector, 
1856.  Member  of  the  Illinois  Legislature,  i856-'6o,  i872-'74,  and  its 
Speaker,  1861,  '73.  Member  of  U.  S.  House  of  Representatives  from  Illinois, 
December  4,  1865-March  3,  187 1.  Governor  of  Illinois,  January  8,  1877- 
February  5,  1883.  Member  of  U.  S.  Senate  from  Illinois,  December  4,  1883- 
March  3,  1901. 

GEORGE    MIFFLIN    DALLAS. 

PENNSYLVANIA. 

Regent  ex  officio,  as  Vice-President  of  the  United  States,  August  10,  1846- 

March  4,  1849. 

Born  in  Philadelphia,  July  10,  1792;  died  in  Philadelphia,  December  31, 
1864.  A.  B.,  Princeton,  1810.  LL.  D.,  Princeton,  1854.  Admitted  to  the 
Bar,  1813.  Secretary  of  the  Russian  Commission,  i8i3-'i4.  Deputy  Attor- 
ney-General for  Philadelphia  County,  18 17.  Mayor  of  Philadelphia,  1829. 
U.  S.  Attorney  for  Pennsylvania,  1829-31.  Member  of  U.  S.  Senate  from 
Pennsylvania,  December  5,  1831-March  2,  1833.  Attorney-General  of  Penn- 
sylvania, 1833-35.  U.  S.  Minister  to  Russia,  1837-39.  Vice-President  of 
the  United  States,  i845-'49.     U.  S.  Minister  to  Great  Britain,  i856-'6i. 

JAMES    DWIGHT    DANA. 

CONNECTICUT. 
Regent  elected  by  Congress,  January  19,  1874;   resigned  December  27,  1877. 

Born  in  Utica,  New  York,  February  13,  1813;  died  in  New  Haven, 
Connecticut,  April  14,  1895.  Educated  in  Bartlett  Academy,  Utica,  New 
York.  A.  B.,  Yale,  1833.  Ph.  D.,  Munich,  1872.  LL.  D.,  Amherst,  1853; 
Harvard,  1886;  and  Edinburgh,  1889.  Instructor  of  Mathematics  to  United 
States  Naval  Officers,  1833-36.  Assistant  in  Chemistry,  Yale,  i836-'38. 
Mineralogist,  Geologist,  and  Zoologist  of  the  United  States  Exploring  Expe- 
dition, i836-'42.  Silliman  Professor  of  Natural  History  and  Geology  in  Yale, 
i85o-'9o.  YA\ior  oi  American  Journal  of  Science,  1846-95.  Received  Wol- 
laston  and  Copley  medals  and  Grand  Walker  prize.  President  of  American 
Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  1854.  Original  Member  National 
Academy  of  Sciences,  1863. 

DAVID    DAVIS. 

ILLINOIS. 

Regent  ex  officio,  as  President  of  the  Senate  pro  tern.,  October  13,  1881- 

March  4,  1883. 

Born  in  Cecil  County,  Maryland,  March  9,  1815;  died  in  Bloomington, 
Illinois,  June  26,  1886.      Educated  in  Newark  Academy.     A.  B.,  Kenyon. 


GEORGE   MIFFLII^   DALLAS. 

FIRST  CHANCELLOR  OF  THE  SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION, 

1846-1849. 


ALLAS. 


d  in  Rock 

ng- 


8,  1877- 


of 


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Cnryrij^'it.  iSgij  by  The  Century  Co. 


The  Board  of  Regents  89 

1832.  LL.  D.,  Williams,  1873;  Beloit;  and  Illinois  Wesleyan.  Studied  law 
in  New  Haven.  Admitted  to  the  Bar,  Pekin,  Illinois,  1835.  Member  of 
Illinois  Legislature,  1844.  Member  of  State  Constitutional  Convention, 
1847.  Judge  of  8th  Circuit,  i848-'62.  Justice  of  the  U.  S,  Supreme  Court, 
i862-'77.  Member  of  U.  S.  Senate  from  Illinois,  December  3,  1877-March 
3,  1883.     President  of  the  Senate/w  iem.,  i88i-'83. 

GARRETT    DAVIS. 

KENTUCKY. 

Regent  on  behalf  of  the  Senate,  appointed  January  16,  1863  ;  reappointed 

March  21,  1867. 

Born  in  Mount  Sterling,  Kentucky,  September  10,  1801;  died  in  Paris, 
Kentucky,  September  22,  1872.  Admitted  to  the  Bar,  1823.  Member  of 
Kentucky  Legislature,  1833-36.  Member  of  State  Constitutional  Conven- 
tion, i839-'47.  Member  of  U.  S.  House  of  Representatives  from  Kentucky, 
March  4,  1847-March  3,  1849.  Member  of  U.  S.  Senate  from  Kentucky, 
December  3,  1861-September  22,  1872. 

HENRY   WINTER   DAVIS. 

MARYLAND. 

Regent  on  behalf  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  appointed  December  23,  1863. 

Born  in  Annapolis,  Maryland,  August  16,  1817;  died  in  Baltimore,  Mary- 
land, December  30,  1865.  A.  B,,  Kenyon,  1837.  LL.  D.,  Hampden-Sidney. 
Studied  law  in  University  of  Virginia.  Admitted  to  the  Bar,  Alexandria,  Vir- 
ginia, and  Baltimore,  Maryland.  Member  of  U.  S.  House  of  Representatives 
from  Maryland,  December  3,  i855-June  14,  1858,  December  7,  1863-March 
3,  1865. 

JEFFERSON    DAVIS. 

MISSISSIPPI. 

Regent  on  behalf  of  the  Senate,  appointed  December  30,  1847;  reappointed  March 

6,  1851. 

Born  in  Christian  County,  Kentucky,  June  3,  1808;  died  in  New  Orleans, 
Louisiana,  Deceml)er  6,  i88g.  Educated  in  Transylvania  College.  Graduated 
United  States  Military  Academy,  1828.  LL.  D.,  Bowdoin,  1858.  Served  in 
Black  Hawk  War,  1831-32  ;  Mexican  War,  1846.  Second  Lieutenant  Infantry, 
i828-'33.  First  Lieutenant  Dragoons,  1833-35.  Member  of  U.  S.  House 
of  Representatives  from  Mississippi,  December  8,  1845-August  10,  1846. 
Member  of  U.  S.  Senate  from  Mississippi,  December  6,  1847-March  3,  1851, 
December  7,  1857-March  2,  i86r.  Secretary  of  War,  1853-57.  Major-Gen- 
eral  and  President  of  the  Confederate  States,  1861. 

WILLIAM    LEWIS    DAYTON. 

NEW   JERSEY. 

Regent  elected  by  Congress,  March  2,  1861. 

Bom  in  Baskinridge,  New  Jersey,  February  17, 1807;  died  in  Paris,  France, 
December  i,  1864.     A.  B.,  Princeton,  1825.     LL.  D.,  Princeton,  1857.     Ad- 


90  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

mitted  to  the  Bar,  Trenton^  New  Jersey,  1830.  Member  of  the  New  Jersey 
Legislature,  1837.  Associate  Judge  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  State,  1838. 
Member  of  U.  S.  Senate  from  New  Jersey,  December  5,  1842-March  3,  1851. 
Attorney-General  of  New  Jersey,  1857-61.  U.  S.  Minister  to  France,  1861- 
'64.     Candidate  for  Vice-President,  1856. 


NATHANIEL   COBB    DEERING. 

IOWA. 
Regent  on  behalf  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  appointed  January  9,  1882. 

Born  in  Denmark,  Oxford  County,  Maine,  September  2,  1827;  died  in 
Osage,  Iowa,  December  8,  1887.  Educated  in  public  schools  and  North 
Bridgeton  Academy,  Mame.  Member  of  Maine  Legislature,  1855-56. 
Removed  to  Osage,  Iowa,  1857.  Clerk  in  U.  S.  Senate,  1862-65. 
Special  Agent  in  Post  Office  Department,  1865-69.  National  Bank  Ex- 
aminer for  Iowa,  i8-j2-'jj.  Member  of  U.  S.  House  of  Representatives  from 
Iowa,  October  15,  1877-March  3,  1883. 


RICHARD    DELAFIELD. 

CITY   OF   WASHINGTON. 
Regent  elected  by  Congress,  February'14,  1865. 

Born  in  New  York  City,  September  i,  1798;  died  in  Washington  City, 
November  5,  1873.  Graduated  United  States  Military  Academy,  1818. 
Served  in  Engineer  works,  i8i9-'38.  Superintendent  of  United  States  Mili- 
taryAcademy,  1838-45,  i856-'6i.  Superintended  the  defenses  of  New  York 
Harbor,  1846-55.  Brigadier-General  and  Chief  of  Engineers,  i864-'7o. 
Major-General,  1865. 


CHARLES    DEVENS. 

MASSACHUSETTS. 
Regent  elected  by  Congress,  May  20,  1890. 

Born  in  Charlestown,  Massachusetts,  April  4,  1820;  died  in  Boston,  Massa- 
chusetts, January  7,  1891.  Declined  appointment  as  Regent  on  account  of  a 
provision  in  Constitution  of  the  State  of  Massachusetts  that  "  Justices  of  the 
Supreme  Judicial  Court  of  the  Commonwealth  shall  not  hold  any  other  place 
or  office,  or  receive  any  pension  or  salary  from  any  other  State,  Government, 
or  powei  whatsoever."  A.  B.,  Harvard,  1838.  LL.  D.,  Columbian,  1876; 
and  Harvard,  1877.  Studied  law  in  Cambridge.  Admitted  to  the  Bar, 
1841.  Member  of  Massachusetts  Legislature,  i848-'49.  U.  S.  Marshal 
for  Massachusetts,  1849-53.  Major,  Colonel,  Brigadier-General,  186 1- 
'62.  Major-General,  1864.  Justice  of  Superior  Court  of  Massachusetts, 
1867.  Justice  of  Supreme  Court  of  Massachusetts,  1873-77,  '81,  Attorney- 
General  of  the  United  States,  1877. 


The  Board  of  Regents  91 

STEPHEN   ARNOLD    DOUGLAS. 

ILLINOIS. 

Regent  on  behalf  of  the  Senate,  appointed  February  21,  1854;    reappointed 

January  26,  i860. 

Born  in  Brandon,  Vermont,  April  23,  1813;  died  in  Chicago,  Illinois,  June 
3,  1 86 1.  Educated  in  public  schools,  Brandon,  Vermont,  and  Canandaigua, 
New  York.  Taught  school  in  Winchester,  Illinois,  1833.  Admitted  to  the 
Bar,  1834.  Attorney-General  of  the  State  of  Illinois,  1834.  Member  of  the 
Illinois  Legislature,  1835.  Secretary  of  State  of  Illinois,  1840.  Judge  of 
the  Supreme  Court,  1841.  Registrar  of  the  Land  Office  of  Illinois,  1837. 
Member  of  U.  S.  House  of  Representatives  from  Illinois,  December  4,  1843- 
August  ID,  1846.  Member  of  U.  S.  Senate  from  Illinois,  December  6,  1847- 
March  2,  1861.    Candidate  for  President  of  the  United  States,  i860. 


GEORGE   FRANKLIN    EDMUNDS. 

VERMONT. 

Regent  on  behalf  of  the  Senate,  appointed  January  20,  1883  ;  declined  February, 
21,  1883.     Regent  ex  officio,  as  President  of  the  Senate /w  ievi.,  i883-'85. 

Born  in  Richmond,  Vermont,  February  i,  1828.  Educated  in  public 
schools.  A.  M.,  University  of  Vermont,  1855.  LL,  D.,  Middlebury,  1869; 
and  University  of  Vermont,  1879.  Admitted  to  the  Bar  in  Richmond, 
Vermont,  1849.  Member  of  Vermont  Legislature,  1854-59,  i86i-'62;  and 
Speaker,  1855-57.  Member  of  U.  S.  Senate  from  Vermont,  December  3, 
1866-March  3,  1 89 1.  President  pro  tern,  of  the  United  States  Senate, 
i883-'85. 

MATTHEW   GAULT   EMERY. 

CITY    OF   WASHINGTON. 

Regent  ex  officio,  as  Mayor  of  Washington,  June,  1870-June,  1871. 

Bom  in  Pembroke,  New  Hampshire,  September  28,  181 8.  Educated  in 
Pembroke  Academy.  Member  of  Board  of  Aldermen,  Washington  City, 
many  years.  Captain  of  Company  of  Militia  in  the  District  of  Columbia, 
May  16,  1861.  'rreasurer  of  New  Hampshire  Soldiers'  Association,  i86i-'65. 
Trustee  Dickinson  College,  Pennsylvania.  Mayor  of  Washington  City,  June, 
1870-June,  1871.  Vice-Chancellor  of  National  University,  Regent  and  Treas- 
urer American  University,  Washington  City. 


WILLIAM  HAYDEN  ENGLISH. 

INDIANA. 

Regent  on  behalf  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  appointed  December  14.  1853; 
reappointed  February  26,  1856,  December  14,  1857,  February  21,  i860. 

Born  in  Lexington,  Indiana,  August  27,  1822  ;  died  in  Indianapolis,  In- 
diana, February  7,  1896.  Educated  m  Hanover  College.  Admitted  to  the 
Bar,  1846.     County  Clerk  ;    Postmaster  in  Lexington.     Secretary  of  Indiana 


92  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

State  Constitutional  Convention,  1850.  Member  and  Speaker  of  Indiana 
Legislature,  185 1.  Member  of  U.  S.  House  of  Representatives  from  Indiana, 
December  i,  1851-March  4,  1861.  Candidate  for  Vice-President,  1880. 
President  Indiana  Historical  Society. 


GEORGE  EVANS. 

MAINE. 

Regent  on  behalf  of  the  Senate,  appointed  August  10,  1846. 

Born  in  Hallowell,  Maine,  January  12,  1797;  died  in  Portland,  Maine, 
April  5,  1867.  Educated  in  Hallowell  and  Monmouth  Academies,  Maine. 
A,  B.,  Bowdoin,  1815.  LL.  D.,  Bowdoin,  1847.  Admitted  to  the  Bar  in 
Gardiner,  Maine,  1818.  Member  of  Maine  Legislature,  1825-28,  and 
Speaker,  1828.  Member  of  U.  S.  House  of  Representatives  from  Maine, 
December  7,  1829-March  3,  1841.  Member  of  U.  S.  Senate  from  Maine, 
May  31,  1841-March  3,  1847.  Attorney-General  of  Maine,  1853-56.  Com- 
missioner of  Board  of  Mexican  Claims,  i849-'5o. 

JOHN  FRANKLIN  FARNSWORTH. 

ILLINOIS. 

Regent  on  behalf  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  appointed  December  21,  1865. 

Born  in  Eaton,  Quebec,  Canada,  March  27,  1820.  Admitted  to  the  Bar 
and  practised  law  in  Chicago.  Member  of  U.  S.  House  of  Representatives 
from  Illinois,  December  i,  1857-March  4,  1861,  December  7,  1863-March  4, 
1873.     Colonel,  Brigadier-General,  i862-'63. 

CORNELIUS  CONWAY  FELTON. 

MASSACHUSETTS. 

Regent  elected  by  Congress,  February  27,  1856;  reelected  March  2,  1861. 

Born  in  West  Newbury,  Massachusetts,  November  6,  1807;  died  in  Ches- 
ter, Pennsylvania,  February  26,  1862.  Educated  in  Franklin  Academy, 
Andover.  A.  B.,  Harvard,  1827.  LL.  D.,  Amherst,  1848;  and  Yale,  i860. 
Latin  tutor,  1829;  Greek  tutor,  1830;  Professor  of  Greek,  1832;  Professor 
of  Greek  Literature,  1834;  President  of  Harvard  College,  1860-62. 

THOMAS  WHITE  FERRY. 

MICHIGAN. 

Regent  ex  officio,  as  President  of  the  Senate  pro  tern.,  Acting  Vice-President, 

December  20,  1875. 

Born  in  Mackinac,  Michigan,  June  i,  1827;  died  in  Grand  Haven,  Michi- 
gan, October  14,  1896.  Educated  in  public  school.  Member  of  Michigan 
Legislature,  1850-56.  Member  of  U.  S.  House  of  Representatives  from  Mich- 
igan, December  4,  1865-March  3,  187 1.  Member  of  U.  S.  Senate  from 
Michigan,  March  4,  1871-March  3,  1883.  President //v  tern.  United  States 
Senate,  1875-79.     As  Acting  Vice-President  presided  and  delivered  the  ad- 


The  Board  of  Regents  93 

dress  in  Centennial  Exhibition,  Philadelphia,  1876.     Presided  at   impeach- 
ment trial  of  Secretary  Belknap  and  the  Joint  Electoral  Commission,  iSyG-'yy. 

WILLIAM  PITT  FESSENDEN. 

MAINE. 

Regent  on  behalf  of  the  Senate,  appointed  December  4,  1861 ;  reappointed 

March  7,  1865. 

Bom  in  Boscawen,  New  Hampshire,  October  16,  1806;  died  in  Portland, 
Maine,  September  8, 1869.  A.  B.,  Bowdoin,  1823.  LL.  D.,  Bowdoin,  1858  ; 
and  Harvard,  1864.  Admitted  to  the  Bar,  Bridgeton,  Maine,  1827.  Member 
of  Maine  Legislature,  1832-40,  1845-46,  and  1 853-54.  Presidential  Elector, 
1852.  Member  of  U.  S.  House  of  Representatives  from  Maine,  May  31,  1841- 
March  3,  1845.  Member  of  U.  S.  Senate  from  Maine,  July  4,  1854-December  6, 
1864,  December  4,  1865-April  10,  1869.  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  July,  18C4- 
March,  1865, 

MILLARD  FILLMORE. 

NEW  YORK. 

Regent  ex  officio,  as  Vice-President  of  the  United  States,  March  4,  1849-1850. 

Born  in  Summer  Hill,  Cayuga  County,  New  York,  February  7,  1800; 
died  in  Buffalo,  New  York,  March  7,  1874.  D.  C.  L.,  University  of  Oxford. 
Admitted  to  the  Bar,  Buffalo,  New  York,  1823.  Member  of  the  New  York 
Legislature,  1828-32.  Member  of  U.  S.  House  of  Representatives  from  New 
York,  December  2,  1833-March  3,  1835,  September  4,  1837-March  3,  1843. 
Comptroller  of  the  State  of  New  York,  1847.  Vice-President  of  the  United 
States,  March  4,  1849.     President  of  the  United  States,  July  9,  1850. 

GRAHAM  NEWELL  FITCH. 

INDIANA. 

Regent  on  behalf  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  appointed  January  7,  1850;  re- 
appointed January  2,  1852. 

Born  in  LeRoy,  New  York,  December  6,  1809;  died  in  Logansport,  In- 
diana, November  29,  1892.  Educated  in  Middlebury  and  Geneva,  New 
York.  M.  D.,  Medical  College,  Fairfield,  New  York.  Practised  medicine 
in  Logansport,  Indiana,  1834.  Professor  in  Rush  Jvledical  College,  Chicago, 
1844-49.  Professor  of  Surgery,  Indiana  Medical  College,  i878-'83.  Mem- 
ber of  Indiana  Legislature,  1836-39.  Member  of  U.  S.  House  of  Represen- 
tatives from  Indiana,  December  3,  1849-March  3,  1S53.  Member  of  U.  S. 
Senate  from  Indiana,  December  7,  1857-March  2,  1861.  Colonel  in  War  of 
the  Rebelhon,  1861-62.     Presidential  Elector,  1844,  1848,  1856. 

LAFAYETTE  SABINE  FOSTER. 

CONNECTICUT. 

Regent  as  President  of  the  Senate,  Acting  Vice-President  jjJrc  /<;«.,  April  15,  1865. 

Born  in  Franklin,  Connecticut,  November  22,  1806;  died  in  Norwich, 
Connecticut,  September   19,   1880.     A.   B.,  Brown,   182S.     LL.  D.,  Brown, 

7* 


94  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

185 1.  Admitted  to  the  Bar,  Centerville,  Maryland,  and  Norwich,  Connecti- 
cut, 1830,  '31.  Member  of  the  Connecticut  Legislature,  i839-'4i,  1846- 
'48,  and  i854-'7o;  and  Speaker,  1847-48,  1854,  and  1870.  Mayor  of  Nor- 
wich, Connecticut,  i85i-'52.  Member  of  U.  S.  Senate  from  Connecticut, 
March  4,  1855-March  4,  1867.  President  of  the  Senate /r<?  tern.,  1865-67. 
Justice  of  Supreme  Court  of  Connecticut,  i87o-'76.  Professor  of  Law  in 
Yale,  1869. 


MELVILLE  WESTON  FULLER. 

ILLINOIS. 

Regent  ex  officio,  as  Chief  Justice  of  the  United  States,  October  8,  1888. 

Born  in  Augusta,  Maine,  February  11,  1833.  A,  B.,  Bowdoin,  1853. 
LL.  D.,  Northwestern  University;  Bowdoin,  1888;  and  Harvard,  1890.  Stud- 
ied law  in  Bangor  and  at  Harvard.  Admitted  to  the  Bar,  1855.  President 
of  Council  of  Augusta  and  City  Solicitor,  1856.  Member  of  Illinois  Con- 
stitutional Convention,  1862.  Member  of  Illinois  Legislature,  1863-65. 
Chief  Justice  of  the  United  States,  1888. 


JAMES   ABRAM    GARFIELD. 

OHIO. 

Regent  on  behalf  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  appointed  December  21,  1865  ; 
reappointed  January  7,  1868,  February  2,  1870,  January,  1872,  January  14, 
1878,  April  14,  1879. 

Born  in  Bedford,  Cuyahoga  County,  Ohio,  November  19,  1831 ;  died  in 
Elberon,  New  Jersey,  September  19,  1881.  Educated  in  high  schools, 
Chester  and  Hiram,  Ohio.  A.  B.,  Williams,  1856.  A.  M.,  Williams,  1859. 
LL.  D.,  Williams,  1872  ;  and  University  of  Pennsylvania,  1881.  Tutor  of  Latin 
and  Greek  in  Hiram  College,  1856.  President  of  Hiram  College,  i857-'59. 
Member  of  Ohio  Senate,  i859-'6o.  Lieutenant-Colonel,  Colonel,  Brigadier- 
General,  Major-General,  1861-63.  Member  of  U.  S.  House  of  Represen- 
tatives from  Ohio,  December  7,  1863-June  16,  1880.  Elected  to  U.  S.  Senate 
from  Ohio,  1880.     President  of  the  United  States,  March  4,  1881. 


LUCIUS  JEREMIAH  GARTRELL. 

GEORGIA. 

Regent  on  behalf  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  appointed  December  14,  1857; 

reappointed  February  21,  i860. 

Born  in  Wilkes  County,  Georgia,  January  7,  1821 ;  died  in  Adanta,  Georgia, 
April  7,  1891.  Educated  in  Randolph-Macon,  Virginia,  and  Franklin  College, 
now  University  of  Georgia.  Admitted  to  the  Bar,  1842.  Solicitor-General 
of  Georgia,  i843-'47.  Member  of  Georgia  Legislature,  1847-51.  Presiden- 
tial Elector,  1856.  Member  of  U.  S.  House  of  Representatives  from  Georgia, 
December  7,  1857-March  2,  1861.  Colonel  and  Brigadier-General  in  Con- 
federate Army. 


The  Board  of  Regents  95 

RANDALL    LEE    GIBSON. 

LOUISIANA. 

Regent  on  behalf  of  the  Senate,  appointed  December  19,  1887;  reappointed 

March  28,  1889. 

Born  in  Spring  Hill,  Kentucky,  September  10,  1832;  died  in  Hot  Springs, 
Arkansas,  December  15,  1892.  Educated  in  Lexington,  Kentucky,  and 
Terre  Bonne,  Louisiana.  A.  B.,  Yale,  1853.  Graduated  in  law,  University 
of  Louisiana,  1855.  Declined  Secretaryship  of  Legation  to  Spain,  1855. 
Captain,  Colonel,  and  General  in  Confederate  Army.  Member  of  U.  S. 
House  of  Representatives  from  Louisiana,  December  6,  1875-March  3,  1S83. 
Member  of  U.  S.  Senate  from  I-ouisiana,  March  4,  1883-March  3,  1892. 
President  of  the  Board  of  Administration  of  the  Tulane  Educational  Fund. 
Trustee  of  the  Peabody  Educational  Fund.  Administrator  of  the  Howard 
Memorial  Library, 

ASA    GRAY. 

MASSACHUSETTS. 

Regent  elected  by  Congress,  January  19,  1874:    reelected  December  19,  1879, 

and  December  26,  1885. 

Born  in  Paris,  New  York,  November  18,  1810;  died  in  Cambridge,  Massa- 
chusetts, January  30,  1888.  Educated  in  Fairfield  Academy,  New  York, 
1825-29.  M.  D.,  College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons,  Fairfield,  1831. 
A.  M.,  Harvard,  1844.  LL.  D.,  Hamilton,  i860.  Harvard,  1875;  McGill, 
1884;  University  of  Michigan,  1887;  and  Edinburgh,  1887.  D.  Sc,  Cambridge, 
1887.  D.  C.  L.,  Oxford,  1887.  Botanist  to  United  States  Exploring  Expedition, 
1834-37.  Curator  New  York  Lyceum  of  Natural  History,  1836.  Elected 
Professor  of  Botany  and  Zoology,  University  of  Michigan  (declined),  1838, 
Professor  of  Natural  History,  Harvard,  1842-73.  Curator  of  the  Herbarium, 
Harvard,  1873.  Original  Member  of  National  Academy  of  Sciences,  1863. 
President  of  the  American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  i863-'73.  Pres- 
ident of  the  American  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  1872. 

GEORGE    GRAY. 

DELAWARE. 

Regent  on  behalf  of  the  Senate,  appointed  December  20,  1892;  reappomted  March 

20,  1893. 

Born  in  New  Castle,  Delaware,  May  4,  1840.  A.  B.,  Princeton,  1859. 
A.  M.,  Princeton,  1862.  LL.  D.,  Princeton,  1889.  Studied  law  in  Harvard. 
Admitted  to  the  Bar,  1863.  Attorney-General  of  Delaware,  1879-85.  Mem- 
ber of  LT.  S.  Senate  from  Delaware,  March  19,  1885-March  3,  1899. 

HANNIBAL    HAMLIN. 

MAINE. 

Regent  ex  officio,  as  Vice-President  of  the  United  States,  March  4.  1 861 -March  4, 
1865.     Regent  on  behalf  of  the  Senate,  appointed  January  iS,  1870. 

Born  in  Paris,  Maine,  August  27,  1809;  died  in  Bangor,  Maine,  July  4, 
1891.  Educated  in  Hebron  Academy,  Maine.  LL.  D.,  Waterville  (now 
Colby)  University,  1859.     Admitted  to  the  Bar,  Paris,  Maine,  1833.     Mem- 


96  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

ber  of  the  Maine  Legislature,  1836-40,  and  1847.  Speaker  of  the  Maine 
House,  1837-39,  ^"^  1840.  Member  of  U.  S.  House  of  Representatives  from 
Maine,  December  4,  1843-March  3,  1847.  Member  of  U.  S.  Senate  from 
Maine,  June  12,  1848-March  3,  1851,  March  3,  1857-March  3,  1861,  March 
3,  1869-March  3,  1881.  Governor  of  Maine,  1857.  Vice-President  of  the 
United  States,  i86i-'65.  Collector  of  Port  of  ^Boston,  i865-'66.  U.  S. 
Minister  to  Spain,  1881-85. 

GIDEON    HAWLEY. 

NEW  YORK. 

Regent  elected  by  Congress,  August  10,  1846;  reelected  December  19,  1848,  and 

December  27,  1854. 

Born  in  Huntington,  Connecticut,  September  26,  1785;  died  in  Albany, 
New  York,  July  16,  1870.  Educated  in  Academy,  Ballston,  New  York. 
A.  B.,  Union,  1809.  LL.  D.,  Rutgers,  1833.  Admitted  to  the  Bar  in  Albany, 
1813.  Secretary  of  the  Regents  of  the  University  of  New  York,  1814-41. 
State  Superintendent  of  Common  Schools,  i8i3-'2i;  known  as  "  the  Father 
of  the  Common  School  System  of  the  State."  Regent  of  the  University  of 
New  York,  1842-70.  Trustee  ot  Albany  Academy,  18 18.  Trustee  of  Al- 
bany Female  Academy,  182 1.  Member  of  Executive  Committee  of  State 
Normal  School,  i845-'52.     Master  in  Chancery,  181 2. 

GERRY   WHITING    HAZLETON. 

WISCONSIN. 

Regent  on  behalf  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  appointed  December  18,  1873. 

Born  in  Chester,  New  Hampshire,  February  24,  1829.  Educated  in  Pinker- 
ton  Academy,  New  Hampshire.  Admitted  to  the  Bar,  1856.  Member 
of  Wisconsin  Senate,  i860.  Collector  of  Internal  Revenue,  1866.  U.  S. 
Attorney  for  Wisconsin,  1869.  Member  of  U.  S.  House  of  Representatives 
from  Wisconsin,  March  4,  1871-March  3,  1875. 

JOHN    BROOKS    HENDERSON. 

CITY  OF  WASHINGTON. 

Regent  elected  by  Congress,  January  26,  1892. 

Born  near  Danville,  Virginia,  November  16,  1826.  LL.  D.,  University  of 
Missouri,  1882.  Admitted  to  the  Bar  in  Missouri,  1848.  Member  of  Missouri 
Legislature,  1856.  Presidential  Elector,  1856-60.  Member  of  U.  S.  Senate 
from  Missouri,  January  29,  1862-March  3,  1869.  Commissioner  to  the  In- 
dians, 1867.     Assistant  U.  S.  District  Attorney,  1875. 

THOMAS   ANDREWS    HENDRICKS. 

INDIANA. 

Regent  ex  officio,  as  Vice-President  of  the  United  States,  March  4,  1885. 

Born  in  Muskingum  County,  Ohio,  September  7,  1819;  died  in  Indianapolis, 
Indiana,  November  25,  1885.  A.  B.,  South  Hanover  College  1841.  Ad- 
mitted to  the  Bar  in  Shelbyville,  Indiana,  1843.     Member  of  Indiana  Legis- 

r 


The  Board  of  Regents  97 

lature,  1845.  Member  of  Constitutional  Convention,  1850.  Member  of 
U.  S.  House  of  Representatives  from  Indiana,  December  1,  1851-March  4, 
1853.  Commissioner  of  the  General  Land  Office,  i855-'57.  Member  of 
U.  S.  Senate  from  Indiana,  December  7,  1863-March  3,  1869.  Governor 
of  Indiana,  i873-'77.     Vice-President  of  the  United  States,  1885. 

BENJAMIN    HARVEY    HILL. 

GEORGIA. 

Regent  on  behalf  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  appointed  December  14,  1875. 

Born  in  Hillsborough,  Jasper  County,  Georgia,  September  14,  1823;  died 
in  Atlanta,  Georgia,  August  19,  1882.  A.  B.,  University  of  Georgia,  1844. 
Admitted  to  the  Bar  in  La  Grange,  Georgia,  1S45.  Member  of  the  Georgia 
House  of  Representatives,  1851  ;  and  Senate,  1859.  Member  of  Confederate 
Senate,  i86i-'65.  Member  of  U.  S.  House  of  Representatives  from  Georgia, 
December  6,  1875-March  3,  1879.  Member  of  U.  S.  Senate  from  Georgia, 
March  5,  1877-August  19,  1882,     Presidential  Elector,  1856,  i860. 

NATHANIEL   PETER    HILL. 

COLORADO. 

Regent  on  behalf  of  the  Senate,  appointed  May  19,  1881. 

Born  in  Montgomery,  New  York,  February  18,  1832.  A.  B.,  Brown,  1856. 
Tutor  in  Chemistry,  1858;  Professor  of  Chemistry  applied  to  the  Arts, 
1859-64,  Brown  University.  Member  of  the  Colorado  Territorial  Council, 
i872-'73.  Mayor  of  Black-Hawk,  Colorado,  1871.  Member  of  U.  S.  Senate 
from  Colorado,  March  3,  1879-March  3,  1885.  Member  of  International 
Monetary  Commission,  1891. 

HENRY   WASHINGTON    HILLIARD. 

ALABAMA. 

Regent  on  behalf  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  appointed  August  10,  1846;  re- 
appointed December  22,  1847,  and  January  7,  1850, 

Born  in  Fayetteville,  North  Carolina,  August  4,  1808;  died  in  Atlanta, 
Georgia,  December  17,  1892.  A.  B.,  South  Carolina  College,  1826.  A.  M., 
South  Carolina  College,  1829;  and  University  of  Alabama,  1834.  Ad- 
mitted to  the  Bar  in  Athens,  Georgia,  1829.  Professor  in  Alabama  University, 
i83i-'34.  Member  of  Alabama  Legislature,  1838.  U.  S.  Minister  to  Bel- 
gium, i842-'44.  Member  of  U.  S.  House  of  Rei)resentatives  from  Alabama 
December  i,  1845-March  3,  1851.  U.  S.  Minister  to  Brazil,  i877-'8i, 
Presidential  Elector,  1840,  1856,  i860.  Brigadier-General  in  Confederate 
Army,  1862. 

ROBERT    ROBERTS    HITT. 

ILLINOIS. 

Regent  on  behalf  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  appointed  August  11.  1S93;   re- 
appointed January  4,  1894,  and  December  20,  1895. 

Born  in  Urbana,  Ohio,  January  16,  1834.  Educated  in  Rock  River  Semi- 
nary (now  Mount  Morris  College),  Illinois.    A.  B.,  De  Pauw  University,  1855. 


98  The  Smithsonian  Institittion 

A.  M.,  De  Pauw,  1858.  LL.  D.,  De  Pauvv,  1894.  First  Secretary  of  Legation 
and  Charge  d'Afifaires  ad  interim  at  Paris,  December,  1874-March,  1881. 
Assistant  Secretary  of  State,  1882.  Member  of  U.  S.  House  of  Representatives 
from  Illinois,  November  7,  1882-March  3,  1899. 


EBENEZER   ROCKWOOD    HOAR. 

MASSACHUSETTS. 

Regent  on  behalf  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  appointed  December  18,  1873. 

Born  in  Concord,  Massachusetts,  February  21,  1816;  died  in  Concord, 
Massachusetts,  January  31,  1895.  A.  B.,  Harvard,  1835.  LL.  B.,  Harvard, 
1839.  LL.  D.,  Williams,  1861 ;  and  Harvard,  1868.  Admitted  to  the  Bar  in 
Concord  and  Boston,  1840.  Member  of  Massachusetts  Legislature,  1846. 
Judge  of  the  Court  of  Common  Pleas,  1849-55.  Judge  of  the  State  Supreme 
Court,  i859-'69.  Attorney-General  of  the  United  States,  1869-70.  Member 
of  the  Joint  High  Commission  that  framed  the  Treaty  of  Washington  with 
Great  Britain,  187 1.  Presidential  Elector,  1872.  Member  of  U.  S.  House  of 
Representatives  from  Massachusetts,  December  i,  1873-March  4,  1875. 

GEORGE    FRISBIE    HOAR. 

MASSACHUSETTS. 

Regent  on  behalf  of  the  Senate,  February  21,  1881. 

Born  in  Concord,  Massachusetts,  August  29,  1826.  Educated  in  Concord 
Academy.  A.  B.,  Harvard  College,  1846.  LL.  B.,  Harvard,  1849.  LL.  D., 
William  and  Mary,  1873;  Amherst,  1879;  Yale,  1885;  and  Harvard,  1886. 
Admitted  to  the  Bar  in  Worcester,  Massachusetts.  Member  of  Massachusetts 
House  of  Representatives,  1852  ;  and  State  Senate,  1857.  City  Solicitor,  i860. 
Member  of  U.  S.  House  of  Representatives  from  Massachusetts,  March  4, 
1869-March  4,  1877.  Member  of  U.  S.  Senate  from  Massachusetts,  March 
4,  1877-March  3,  1901.  President  of  American  Antiquarian  Society;  Ameri- 
can Historical  Association,  1895.  Member  of  the  Electoral  Commission, 
1876.     Overseer  of  Harvard  College,  1 874-'8o. 

WILLIAM   JARVIS    HOUGH. 

■    NEW  YORK. 

Regent  on  behalf  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  appointed  August  10,  1846. 

Born  in  Eaton,  Madison  County,  New  York,  March  6,  1795;  died  in  Syra- 
cuse, New  York,  October  4,  1869.  Admitted  to  the  Bar  in  Cazenovia,  New 
York.  Member  of  New  York  Legislature,  1855-56.  Member  of  U.  S.  House 
of  Representatives  from  New  York,  December  i,  1845-March  3,  1847, 

GARDINER   GREENE    HUBBARD. 

CITY  OF  WASHINGTON. 

Regent  elected  by  Congress,  February  27,  1895. 

Born  in  Boston,  Massachusetts,  August  25,  1822.  Educated  in  Boston. 
A.  B.,  Dartmouth,   1841.     LL.  D.,  Columbian,  1888;  and  Dartmouth,  1893. 


The  Board  of  Regents  99 

Admitted  to  the  Bar  in  Boston,  1843.  Founder  of  the  first  school  estab- 
hshed  in  United  States  for  teaching  the  deaf  to  speak,  in  Chelmsford,  Massa- 
chusetts, 1846,  afterwards  moved  to  Northampton  and  incorporated  as  the 
Clark  School  for  the  Deaf.  Member  of  State  Board  of  Education  of  Massa- 
chusetts for  ten  years.  Special  U.  S.  Commissioner  on  Railroad  Mail 
Transportation,  1876.  Commissioner  from  Massachusetts  to  the  Centennial 
Exposition,  1876.  President  of  the  Joint  Commission  of  the  seven  Scientific 
Societies  in  Washington,  1895.     President  National  Geographic  Society. 


JOHN    JAMES    INGALLS. 

KANSAS. 

Regent  ex  officio,  as  President  of  the  Senate /ri?  tern.,  February  26,  1887-89. 

Born  in  Middletown,  Massachusetts,  December  29,  1833.  A.  B.,  Williams, 
1855.  LL.  D.,  Williams,  1884.  Admitted  to  the  Bar,  1857.  Secretary  of 
Kansas  Territorial  Council,  i860.  Member  of  the  Kansas  Senate,  1862. 
Member  of  U.  S.  Senate  from  Kansas,  March  4,  1873-March  3,  1891. 

ANDREW   JOHNSON. 

TENNESSEE. 

Regent  ex  officio,  as  Vice-President  of  the  United  States,  March  4,  1865. 

Bom  in  Raleigh,  North  Carolina,  December  29, 1808;  died  in  Carter  County, 
Tennessee,  July  31,  1875.  Self-educated.  LL.  D.,  Columbia,  1865  ;  and  Uni- 
versity of  North  Carolina,  1865.  Alderman  in  Greenville,  Tennessee,  1828-30. 
Mayor,  1830-33.  Trustee  of  Rhea  Academy,  1831.  Member  of  Tennessee 
Legislature,  1835, 1839, 1841,  and  1843.  Presidential  Elector  for  State-at-large, 
1840,  Member  of  U.  S.  House  of  Representatives  from  Tennessee,  i843-'53. 
Governor  of  Tennessee,  1853-57.  Member  of  U.  S.  Senate  from  Tennessee, 
December  7,  1857-March  4,  '62-March  4,  1875-March  24,  1875.  Military 
Governor  of  Tennessee,  1862-64.  Vice-President  of  the  United  States,  1865. 
President  of  the  United  States,  April  14,  1865-March  4,  1869. 

JOSEPH    EGGLESTON    JOHNSTON. 

VIRGINIA. 

Regent  on  behalf  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  appointed  April  4,  1879. 

Bom  near  Farmville,  Virginia,  February  3,  1807 ;  died  in  Washington  City, 
March  21,  1891.  Graduated  LTnited  States  Military  Academy,  1829.  Second 
Lieutenant  in  Fourth  Artillery,  1829.  In  Black  Hawk  expedition,  1832.  First 
Lieutenant,  Fourth  Artillery,  1836.  Aide-de-camp  to  General  Scott  in  the 
Seminole  War.  First  Lieutenant,  Topographical  Engineers,  1838.  Brevetted 
Captain  for  gallantry  in  the  War  with  the  Florida  Lidians.  \\\  charge  of  many 
important  river  and  harbor  improvements,  i838-'42.  Boundary  surveys, 
1842-46.  Brevetted  Major,  Lieutenant-Colonel,  and  Colonel  for  gallantry  in 
the  Mexican  War.  Quartermaster-General  of  the  Army,  i86o-'6i.  Major- 
General  in  Confederate  Army,  1861-65.  Member  of  U.  S.  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives from  Virginia,  March  18,  1879-March  4,  1S81.  Commissioner  of 
Railroads  of  the  United  States,  1887. 


loo  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

WILLIAM    PRESTON   JOHNSTON. 

LOUISIANA. 

Regent  elected  by  Congress,  January  26,  1892. 

Born  in  Louisville,  Kentucky,  January  5, 1831.  A.  B.,  Yale,  1852.  LL.  D., 
Washington  and  Lee,  1875.  Colonel  in  Confederate  Army.  Professor  of  His- 
tory and  English  Literature  in  Washington  and  Lee  University,  1867-80. 
President  Louisiana  State  University,  1880.  Elected  President  Tulane  Uni- 
versity, 1884. 


WILLIAM    RUFUS   KING. 

ALABAMA. 

Regent  ex  officio,  as  Vice-President  of  the  United  States,  March  4,  1853. 

Born  in  Sampson  County,  North  Carolina,  April  6,  1786;  died  in  Dallas 
County,  Alabama,  April  8,  1853.  A.  B.,  University  of  North  Carolina,  1803. 
Admitted  to  the  Bar  in  Fayetteville,  North  Carohna,  1806.  Member  of  North 
Carolina  Legislature.  Solicitor  of  Wilmington  District.  Member  of  U.  S. 
House  of  Representatives  from  Alabama,  December  3,  1810-16.  Secretary 
of  Legation  to  Naples,  1816.  Secretary  of  Legation  to  Russia,  1818.  Dele- 
gate to  Convention  to  Organize  State  Government  for  Alabama,  1819.  Mem- 
ber of  U.  S.  Senate  from  Alabama,  December  6,  1819-June  17,  1844,  Decem- 
ber 4,  1848-53.  U.  S.  Minister  to  France,  1844-46.  Vice-President  of  the 
United  States,  1853. 


WALTER    LENOX. 

CITY   OF    WASHINGTON. 

Regent  i?.r  <j^r/^,  as  Mayor  of  Washington,  June,  1850-June,  1852. 

Born  in  Washington  City,  August  17,  1817  ;  died  in  Washington  City,  July 
16,  1874.  A.  B.,  Yale,  1837.  Member  and  President  of  City  Council,  also  an 
Alderman  of  Washington.    Mayor  of  Washington  City,  June,  1850-June,  1852, 


HENRY    CABOT    LODGE. 

MASSACHUSETTS. 

Regent  on  behalf  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  appointed  January  6,  1890; 

reappointed  January  15,  1892. 

Born  in  Boston,  Massachusetts,  May  12, 1850.  Educated  in  private  school. 
A.  B.,  Harvard,  1871.  LL.  B.,  Harvard,  1874.  Ph.  D.,  Harvard,  1876. 
LL.  D.,  Williams,  1893.  Admitted  to  the  Bar  in  Boston,  1876.  University 
Lecturer  on  American  History,  Harvard,  i876-'79.  Member  of  Massachu- 
setts Legislature,  1880-81.  Member  of  U.  S.  House  of  Representatives  from 
Massachusetts,  December  5,  1887-March  4,  1893.  Member  of  U.  S.  Senate 
from  Massachusetts,  March  4,  1893-March  3,  1899, 


The  Board  of  Regents  loi 

ROBERT    MCCLELLAND. 

MICHIGAN. 

Regent  on  behalf  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  appointed  December  22,  1847. 

Born  in  Greencastle,  Pennsylvania,  August  i,  1807;  died  in  Detroit,  Michi- 
gan, August  27,  1880.  A.  B.,  Dickinson,  1829.  Admitted  to  the  Bar  in 
Chambersburg,  Pennsylvania,  1831.  Member  of  Michigan  Constitutional 
Convention,  1835.  Member  of  Michigan  Legislature  and  Speaker,  i838-'43. 
Member  of  U.  S.  House  of  Representatives  from  Michigan,  1843-49.  Mem- 
ber of  Constitutional  Conventions  of  Michigan,  1850  and  '67.  Governor  of 
Michigan,  1851-53.     Secretary  of  the  Interior,  i853-'57. 

GEORGE   WASHINGTON    M^CRARY. 

IOWA. 

Regent  on  behalf  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  appointed  December  14,  1875. 

Born  near  Evansville,  Indiana,  August  29,  1835;  died  in  St.  Joseph,  Mis- 
souri, June  23,  1890.  Educated  in  public  school  and  Academy.  Ad- 
mitted to  the  Bar  in  Keokuk,  Iowa,  1856.  Member  of  the  Iowa  Legislature, 
i857-'65.  Member  of  U.  S.  House  of  Representatives  from  Iowa,  March  4, 
1869-March  4,  1877.  Secretary  of  War  Department,  1877-79.  J^^g^  of 
United  States  Circuit  Court,  1879-84. 

EDWARD    MCPHERSON. 

PENNSYLVANIA. 

Regent  on  behalf  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  appointed  December  19,  1861. 

Born  in  Gettysburg,  Pennsylvania,  July  31,  1830;  died  in  Gettysburg,  Penn- 
sylvania, December  14,  1895.  A.  B.,  Pennsylvania  College,  1848;  and  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania,  1848.  A.  M.,  Princeton,  1866.  LL.  1).,  University 
of  Pennsylvania,  1877.  Admitted  to  the  Bar.  Member  of  U.  S.  House 
of  Representatives  from  Pennsylvania,  December  5,  1859-March  4,  1863. 
Deputy  Commissioner  of  Internal  Revenue,  1863.  Cleik  of  the  House  of 
Representatives,  1863-73,  i88i-'83,  i889-'9i.  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  En- 
graving and  Printing,  i877-'78. 

JOHN    MACLEAN. 

NEW   JERSEY. 

Regent  elected  by  Congress,  January  11,  1868;  reelected  January  19,  1874, 
December  19,  1879,  and  December  26,  1885. 

Born  in  Princeton,  New  Jersey,  March  3,  1800;  died  in  Princeton,  New 
Jersey,  August  10,  1886.  A.  B.,  Princeton,  1816.  D.  D.,  Washington  Col- 
lege, 184 1.  LL.  D.,  University  of  the  State  of  New  York,  1854.  Tutor 
of  Greek  in  Princeton.  Professor  of  Mathematics  and  Natural  Philosophy  in 
Princeton,  1822-29.  Professor  of  Ancient  Languages,  i829-'47.  President 
of  Princeton,  i854-'68. 


I02  The  Smithsonian  Institittion 

WILLIAM    BEANS    MAGRUDER. 

CITY   OF   WASHINGTON. 

'^tg&n\.  ex  officio f  as  Mayor  of  Washington,  June,  1856-June,  1858. 

Born  in  Baltimore,  Maryland,  February  11,  181 1;  died  in  Georgetown, 
District  of  Columbia,  May  30,  1869.  Studied  medicine  in  Georgetown,  Dis- 
trict of  Columbia.  M.  D.,  University  of  Maryland,  1831.  Member  of  City 
Councils  of  Washington  twenty  years.  In  charge  of  Cholera  Hospital,  1832. 
Mayor  of  Washington  City,  June,  1856-June,  1858. 


GEORGE    PERKINS    MARSH. 

VERMONT. 

Regent  on  behalf  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  appointed  December  22,  1847. 

Born  in  Woodstock,  Vermont,  March  15,  1801;  died  in  Vallambrosa, 
Italy,  July  23,  1882,  A.  B.,  Dartmouth,  1820.  A.  M.,  Dartmouth,  i860. 
LL.  D.,  Harvard,  1859;  Delaware,  1859;  and  Dartmouth,  i860.  Admitted  to 
the  Bar  in  Burlington,  Vermont,  1823.  Member  of  the  Vermont  Legislature, 
1835.  Member  of  Supreme  Executive  Council  of  Vermont.  Member  of 
U.  S.  House  of  Representatives  from  Vermont,  December  7,  1842-March  3, 
1849,  U.  S.  Minister  to  Turkey,  1849-53.  Special  U.  S.  Commissioner  to 
Greece,  1852.  U.  S.  Minister  to  Italy,  1861-82.  Member  of  National  Acad- 
emy of  Sciences,  1866. 


JAMES    MURRAY    MASON. 

VIRGINIA. 

Regent  on  behalf  of  the  Senate,  appointed  March  6,  1849;   reappointed  March  6, 

185 1,  and  March  6,  1857. 

Bom  in  Fairfax  County,  Virginia,  November  3,  1798;  died  near  Alexandria, 
Virginia,  April  28,  1871.  A.  B.,  University  of  Pennsylvania,  1818.  Admitted 
to  the  Bar  in  Winchester,  Virginia.  Member  of  Virginia  Legislature,  1826- 
'32.  Member  of  the  Virginia  Constitutional  Convention,  1829.  Presidential 
Elector,  1833.  Member  of  U.  S.  House  of  Representatives  from  Virginia, 
September  4,  1837-March  3,  1839.  Member  of  U.  S.  Senate  from  Virginia, 
December  6,  1847-July  11,  1861. 


JOHN    WALKER   MAURY. 

CITY    OF    WASHINGTON. 

Regent  ex  officio,  as  Mayor  of  Washington,  June,  1852-June,  1854. 

Bom  in  Caroline  County,  Virginia,  May  15,  1809;  died  in  Washington 
City,  February  2,  1855.  Alderman  of  Washington  City,  i85i-'52.  Mayor 
of  Washington  City,  June,  1852-June,  1854.  President  of  the  Bank  of  the 
Metropolis.     Trustee  of  Columbian  University,  Washington  City. 


The  Board  of  Regents  103 

SAMUEL    BELL    MAXEY. 

TEXAS. 

Regent  on  behalf  of  the  Senate,  appointed  May  19,  188 1. 

Born  in  Tompkinsville,  Kentucky,  March  30,  1825  ;  died  in  Eureka  Springs, 
Arkansas,  August  16,  1895.  Educated  in  Monroe  County,  Kentucky. 
Graduated  United  States  Military  Academy,  1846.  Brevetted  First  Lieuten- 
ant for  gallant  conduct  in  the  Mexican  War.  Admitted  to  the  Bar  in 
Albany,  Kentucky,  1850.  Elected  to  Texas  State  Senate.  Brigadier-General, 
1862.  Major-General  of  Confederate  Army,  1864.  Member  of  U.  S.  Senate 
from  Texas,  March  5,  1875-March  3,  1887. 

JAMES    MEACHAM. 

VERMONT. 

Regent  on  behalf  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  appointed  January  2,  1852; 
reappointed  December  14,  1853,  and  February  26,  1856. 

Born  in  Rutland,  Vermont,  1810;  died  in  Middlebury,  Vermont,  August  22, 
1856.  A.  B.,  Middlebury,  1832.  Tutor  in  Middlebury.  Studied  theology. 
Professor  of  Elocution  and  English  Literature  in  Middlebury  College.  Mem- 
ber of  U.  S.  House  of  Representatives  from  Vermont,  March  3,  1849-August 
22,  1856. 

MONTGOMERY    CUNNINGHAM    MEIGS. 

CITY    OF   WASHINGTON. 

Regent  elected  by  Congress,  December  26,  1885. 

Born  in  Augusta,  Georgia,  May  3,  1816;  died  in  Washington  City,  January 
2,  1892.  Entered  University  of  Pennsylvania,  1S31.  Graduated  United  States 
Military  Academy,  1836.  First  Lieutenant  U.  S.  Engineers,  1838.  Captain, 
1853.  Corps  of  Engineers  engaged  in  engineering  works,  i84i-'5o.  Colonel 
of  the  Eleventh  U.  S.  Infantry,  1861.  Quartermaster-General  United  States 
Army,  1861.  Brigadier-General,  1862.  Major-General,  1864.  Designed  and 
constructed  the  Potomac  Aqueduct,  1852.  Superintended  building  of  the  new 
wings  and  iron  dome  of  the  United  States  Capitol  extension.  Built  the  Cap- 
tain John  Bridge  and  U.  S.  Pension  Bureau.  Member  of  National  Academy 
of  Sciences,  1865. 

SAMUEL   FREEMAN    MILLER. 

IOWA. 

Regent  ex  officio,  as  Acting  Chief  Justice  of  the  United  States,  March  24,  18S8,  and 
Chancellor /r^)  km.  pending  the  appointment  of  a  Chief  Justice. 

Born  in  Richmond,  Kentucky,  April  5,  1816;  died  in  Washington  City, 
October  13,  1890.  M.  D.,  Transylvania  University,  1837.  LL.  D.,  Iowa 
State  University,  1S65;  Iowa  College,  1870;  University  of  Michigan,  1887; 
and  National  University,  1890.  D.  C.  L.,  Georgetown  University,  1870.  Ad- 
mitted to  the  Bar  in  Kentucky,  1844.  Associate  Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court 
of  the  United  States,  1862-90.     Member  Electoral  Commission,  iS-jS-'-j-j. 


I04  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

JUSTIN    SMITH    MORRILL. 

VERMONT. 

Regent  on  behalf  of  the  Senate,  appointed  February  21,  1883  ;  reappointed 
March  23,  1885,  and  December  15,  1891. 

Born  in  Strafford,  Vermont,  April  14,  1810.  Educated  in  public  schools  and 
Academy.  A.  M.,  Dartmouth,  1857.  LL.D.,  Vermont  University  and  State 
Agricultural  College,  1874;  and  University  of  Pennsylvania,  1884.  Member 
of  U.  S.  House  of  Representatives  from  Vermont,  December  3,  1855-March 
4,  1867.  Member  of  U.  S.  Senate  from  Vermont,  March  4,  1867-March  3, 
1903. 

LEVI    PARSONS    MORTON. 

NEW   YORK. 

Regent  ex  officio,  as  Vice-President  of  the  United  States,  March  4,  1889- 

March  4,  1893. 

Born  in  Shoreham,  Vermont,  May  16,  1824.  Educated  in  public  schools 
and  Academy.  LL.  D.,  Dartmouth,  1881;  and  Middlebury,  1882.  Merchant 
and  banker.  Honorary  U.  S.  Commissioner  to  the  Paris  Exposition,  1878. 
Member  of  U.  S.  House  of  Representatives  from  New  York,  March  18,  1879- 
March  4,  1881.  U.  S.  Minister  to  France,  1881-85.  U.  S.  Commissioner- 
General  to  the  Paris  Electrical  Exposition,  1888.  Vice-President  of  the 
United  States,  i889-'93.     Governor  of  the  State  of  New  York,  1894-96. 


ROBERT    DALE    OWEN. 

INDIANA. 
Regent  on  behalf  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  appointed  August  10,  1846. 

Born  in  Glasgow,  Scotland,  November  9,  1800 ;  died  at  Lake  George,  New 
York,  June  17,  1877.  Educated  in  Berne,  Switzerland.  LL.  D.,  Uni- 
versity of  Indiana,  1872.  Member  of  Indiana  Legislature,  1835.  Member  of 
U.  S.  House  of  Representatives  from  Indiana,  December  4,  1843-March  3, 
1847.  Member  and  Chairman  of  Indiana  Constitutional  Convention,  1850. 
Member  of  Indiana  Legislature,  1851.  Charge  d'Afifaires  to  Naples,  1S53. 
U.  S.  Minister  to  Naples,  1855-58. 


PETER    PARKER. 

CITY    OF    WASHINGTON. 

Regent  elected  by  Congress,  January  11,  1868;  reelected  January  19,  1874,  and 

December  19,  1879. 

Born  in  Framingham,  Massachusetts,  June  18,  1804;  died  in  Washington 
City,  January  10,  1888.  A.  B.,  Yale,  1831.  A.  M.,  Yale,  1858.  M.  D.,  Yale, 
1834.  Studied  theology.  Went  to  China  as  a  missionary.  Established  a 
hosi)ital  in  Canton,  China.  Secretary  of  United  States  Embassy  and  Acting 
Charge  d'Afifaires,  China,  i845-'55.     Commissioner  to  China,  1855-57. 


The  Board  of  Regents  105 

JAMES   WILLIS    PATTERSON. 

NEW    HAMPSHIRE. 

Regent  on  behalf  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  appointed  December  23,  1863  ; 

reappointed  December  21,  1865. 

Born  in  Henniker,  New  Hampshire,  July  2,  1823;  died  in  Hanover,  New 
Hampshire,  May  4,  1893.  A.  B.,  Dartmouth,  1848.  LL.  D.,  Iowa  Col- 
lege, 1868.  Studied  theology  in  Yale.  Tutor,  1852-54;  Professor  of  Math- 
ematics, i854-'59;  Professor  of  Astronomy  and  Meteorology,  Dartmouth, 
1849-65.  Secretary  of  New  Hampshire  State  Board  of  Education.  Mem- 
ber of  the  Legislature,  i862-'77,  and  1878.  Member  of  U.  S.  House  of 
Representatives  from  New  Hampshire,  December  i,  1862-March  3,  1867. 
Member  of  U.  S.  Senate  from  New  Hampshire,  March  4,  i867-March  3, 
1873.     State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  in  New  Hampshire,  1880. 

JAMES   ALFRED    PEARCE. 

MARYLAND. 

Regent  on  behalf  of  the  Senate,  appointed  February  22,  1847;  reappointed 
June  19,  1856,  and  March  7,  1861. 

Born  in  Alexandria,  Virginia,  December  14,  1805;  died  in  Charlestown, 
Maryland,  December  20,  1862.  A.  B.,  Princeton,  1822.  LL.  D.,  Princeton; 
and  St.  John's  College,  1856.  Member  of  Maryland  Legislature,  1831.  Ad- 
mitted to  the  Bar  in  Baltimore,  1824.  Professor  of  Law,  Washington  College, 
Maryland.  Member  of  U.  S.  House  of  Representatives  from  Maryland, 
December  7, 1835-March  3,  1843.  Member  of  U.  S.  Senate  from  Maryland, 
January  10,  1843-July  17,  1862.  Offered  and  declined  Judgeship  of  United 
States  District  Court  of  Maryland,  and  Secretaryship  of  U.  S.  Department 
of  the  Interior. 

ISAAC    SAMUALS    PENNYBACKER. 

VIRGINIA. 

Regent  on  behalf  of  the  Senate,  appointed  August  10,  1846. 

Bom  in  Shenandoah  County,  Virginia,  September  12,  1807  ;  died  in  Wash- 
ington City,  January  12,  1847.  A.  B,,  Washington  College.  Admitted  to 
the  Bar  in  Harrisonburg,  Virginia.  Member  of  U.  S.  House  of  Representa- 
tives from  Virginia,  December  5,  1836-July  9,  1838.  District  Judge,  1839. 
DecHned  office  of  U.  S.  Attorney-General,  and  that  of  Justice  of  the  Supreme 
Court  of  Virginia  and  nomination  for  Governor.  Member  of  U.  S.  Senate 
from  Virginia,  December  8,  1845-March  3,  1847. 


WILLIAM    WALTER   PHELPS. 

NEW   JERSEY. 

Regent  on  behalf  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  appointed  January  7,  1884; 
reappointed  January  12,  1886,  and  January  10,  1888. 

Born  in  New  York  City,  August  29,  1839;  died  in  Teaneck,  New  Jersey, 
June   17,  1894.     A.  B.,  Yale,  i860.     A.  M.,  Yale,  1863.     LL.  D.,  Rutgers, 

8 


io6  The  Smithsonian  histitution 

1889;  and  Yale,  1890.  LL.  B.,  Columbia,  1863.  Admitted  to  the  Bar,  1863. 
Member  of  U.  S.  House  of  Representatives  from  New  Jersey,  December,  1873- 
March  3,  1875,  December  3,  1883-March  4,  1889.  U.  S.  Minister  to  Austria, 
1881.  Member  of  International  Conference  on  the  Samoan  Question  in  Ber- 
lin, 1889.  U.  S.  Minister  to  Germany,  1890-93.  Judge  of  New  Jersey 
Court  of  Errors  and  Appeals,  1893-94. 


LUKE    POTTER   POLAND. 

VERMONT. 

Regent  on  behalf  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  appointed  March  7,  1867  ; 

reappointed  February  2,  1870. 

Born  in  Westford,  Vermont,  November  i,  1815;  died  in  Waterville,  Ver- 
mont, July  2,  1887.  Educated  in  public  schools.  A.  M.,  University  of 
Vermont,  1857.  LL.  D.,  University  of  Vermont,  1861.  Admitted  to  the 
Bar,  1836.  Member  of  State  Constitutional  Convention,  1843.  Prosecuting 
Attorney  for  Lamoille  County,  1844-45.  Judge  of  Vermont  Supreme  Court, 
i848-'6o.  Chief  Justice  of  Vermont,  1860-65.  Member  of  Legislature,  1878. 
Member  of  U.  S.  Senate  from  Vermont,  December  4,  1865-March  3,  1867. 
Member  of  U.  S.  House  of  Representatives  from  Vermont,  March  4,  1867- 
March  4,  1875,  December  3,  1883-March  3,  1885. 


NOAH    PORTER. 

CONNECTICUT. 

Regent  elected  by  Congress,  January  26,  1878;  reelected  March  3,  1884. 

Born  in  Farmington,  Connecticut,  December  14,  181 1 ;  died  in  New  Haven, 
Connecticut,  March  4,  1892.  A.  B.,  Yale,  1831.  A.  M.,  Yale.  D.  D.,  Uni- 
versity of  City  of  New  York,  1858.  LL.  D.,  Heidelberg,  1884;  Edinburgh, 
1886;  Western  Reserve  College,  1870;  and  Trinity,  1871.  Master  of  Hop- 
kins Grammar  School,  New  Haven,  1831-33.  Tutorin  Yale,  1833-35.  P^^' 
tor  of  Congregational  Churches  in  Connecticut,  i836-'43,  and  in  Massachu- 
setts, 1843-46.  Professor  of  Moral  Philosophy  and  Metaphysics  in  Yale, 
1846-71.     President  of  Yale  University,  i87i-'86. 


WILLIAM    CAMPBELL   PRESTON. 

SOUTH    CAROLINA. 

Regent  elected  by  Congress,  August  10,  1846. 

Born  in  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania,  December  27,  1794;  died  in  Columbia, 
South  Carolina,  May  22,  i860.  A.  B.,  College  of  South  Carolina,  181 2. 
LL.  D,,  Washington  and  Lee,  1842;  and  Harvard,  1846.  Admitted  to  the 
Bar.  Studied  law  in  the  University  of  Edinburgh.  Member  of  South  Caro- 
lina Legislature,  1828-32.  Member  of  U.  S.  Senate  from  South  Carolina, 
1836.     Professor  of  Belles-lettres  and  President  o(  College  of  South  Carolina, 

1845-5 1- 


The  Board  of  Regents  107 

JOHN    VAN    SCHAICK    LANSING   PRUYN. 

NEW   YORK. 

Regent  on  behalf  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  appointed  January  7,  1868. 

Born  in  Albany,  New  York,  June  22,  181 1 ;  died  in  Clifton  Springs,  New 
York,  November  21,  1877.  Educated  in  private  schools.  Graduated  in 
Albany  Academy,  1826.  A.  M.,  Rutgers,  1835.  LL.  D.,  Union,  1845;  and 
University  of  Rochester,  1852.  Admitted  to  the  Bar,  1832.  Member  of  New 
York  Legislature,  1861.  Member  of  U.  S.  House  of  Representatives  from 
New  York,  December  7,  1863-March  3,  1865,  March  4, 1867-March  3,  1869. 
Regent  of  University  of  State  of  New  York,  1844,  for  thirty-three  years, 
during  the  last  fifteen  of  which  he  was  Chancellor  (1862-77).  President  of 
St.  Stephen's  College.  President  of  State  Commission  of  Charities.  Presi- 
dent of  the  Board  of  State  Survey. 


RICHARD    RUSH. 

PENNSYLVANIA. 

Regent  elected  by  Congress,  August  10,  1846;  reelected  December  24,  1850,  and 

January  28,  1857. 

Born  in  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania,  August  29,  1780;  died  in  Philadelphia, 
Pennsylvania,  July  30,  1859.  A.  M.,  Princeton,  1797.  Admitted  to  the  Bar  in 
Philadelphia,  1800.  Attorney-General  of  Pennsylvania,  181 1.  Comptroller 
of  the  United  States  Treasury,  181 1.  Attorney-General  of  the  United  States, 
1814-17.  U.  S.  Secretary  of  State,  1817.  U.  S.  Minister  to  England,  1817- 
'25.  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  1825.  Commissioner  to  England  to  obtain 
the  legacy  of  James  Smithson,  i836-'38.     U.  S.  Minister  to  France,  1847-51. 


AARON  AUGUSTUS  SARGENT. 

CALIFORNIA. 

Regent  on  behalf  of  the  Senate,  appointed  January  13,  1874. 

Born  in  Newburyport,  Massachusetts,  September  28,  1827  ;  died  in  San 
Francisco,  California,  August  14,  1887.  Admitted  to  the  Bar,  1854.  District 
Attorney  of  Nevada  County,  California,  1856.  Member  of  U.  S.  House  of 
Representatives  from  California,  July  4,  1861-March  3,  1863,  March  3,  1869- 
March  3,  1873.  Member  of  U.  S.  Senate  from  California,  March  4,  1873- 
March  3,  1879.  U.  S.  Minister  to  Germany,  1882.  Declined  mission  to 
Russia. 

WILLIAM  WINSTON   SEATON. 

CITY    OF   WASHINGTON. 

'Re'g(in\.  ex  officio,  as  Mayor  of  Washington,  August  10,  1846-June,  1850. 

Born  in  King  William  County,  Virginia,  January  11,  1785  ;  died  in  Wash- 
ington City,  June  16,  1866.  Educated  in  Richmond,  Virginia.  Mayor  of 
Washington  City,  June,  1840-June,  1850.  Journalist.  Editor  of  the  Na- 
tional Intelligencer,  i8i2-'66. 


io8  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

ALEXANDER  ROBY  SHEPHERD. 

CITY    OF    WASHINGTON. 

Regent  ex  officio,  as  Governor  of  the  District  of  Columbia,  September  13,  1873- 

June  20,  1874. 

Born  in  Washington  City,  January  31,  1835.  President  of  Common  Coun- 
cil of  Washington,  1861.  Member  of  Levy  Court  of  District  of  Columbia, 
1867.  Alderman,  1870.  Member  of  Board  of  Public  Works,  1871.  Gov- 
ernor of  District  of  Columbia,  September  13,  1873-June  20,  1874. 


JOHN    SHERMAN. 

OHIO. 

Regent  ex  officio,  as  President  of  the  Senate /ri?  tern.,  December  7,  1885- 

February  26,  1887. 

Born  in  Lancaster,  Ohio,  May  10,  1823.  Educated  in  public  schools. 
Mount  Vernon,  and  Homer's  Academy,  Lancaster,  Ohio.  Admitted  to  the 
Bar,  Springfield,  Ohio,  1844.  Member  of  U.  S.  House  of  Representatives 
from  Ohio,  December  3,  1855-61.  Member  of  U.  S.  Senate  from  Ohio,  March 
4,  i86i-'77,  1881-99.  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  March,  1877-81.  Presi- 
dent of  the  Senate  pro  tern,,  December  7,  1885-February  26,  1887. 


WILLIAM  TECUMSEH  SHERMAN. 

CITY   OF    WASHINGTON. 

Regent  elected  by  Congress,  January  30,  1871  ;  reelected  March  25,  1878. 

Born  in  Lancaster,  Ohio,  February  8,  1820;  died  in  New  York  City,  Feb- 
ruary 14,  1891.  Graduated  United  States  Military  Academy,  1840.  LL.  D., 
Dartmouth,  1866;  Yale,  1876;  and  Princeton,  1878.  Served  in  Indian  wars 
in  Florida,  in  California,  etc.,  1840-53.  Counsellor-at-Law  in  Leaven- 
worth, Kansas,  1858-59.  Superintendent  of  the  Louisiana  State  Military 
Academy,  i860.  Colonel  of  Thirteenth  Infantry,  1861.  Brigadier-General, 
1 86 1.     Major-General,  1862.     Lieutenant-General,  1866.    General,  1869-84.' 


OTHO    ROBARDS  SINGLETON. 

MISSISSIPPI. 

Regent  on  behalf  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  appointed  January  7,  1884; 

reappointed  January  12,  1886. 

Born  in  Jessamine  County,  Kentucky,  October  14,  1814  ;  died  in  Washing- 
ton City,  January  11,  1889.  A.  B.,  St.  Joseph's  College,  Kentucky,  1836. 
Graduated  Lexington  Law  School,  1838.  Admitted  to  the  Bar.  Member 
of  Mississippi  Legislature,  i838-'46.  Presidential  Elector,  1852.  Member 
of  U.  S.  House  of  Representatives  from  Mississippi,  December  5,  1853- 
March  3,  1855,  December  i,  i857-March  4,  1861,  December  6,  1875-March 
4,  1887.     Representative  in  Confederate  Congress,  i86i-'65. 


The  Board  of  Regents  109 

BENJAMIN    STANTON. 

OHIO. 

Regent  on  behalf  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  appointed  February  26,  1856; 
reappointed  Ueccmber  14,  1857,  and  Fel)ruary2i,  i860. 

Born  near  Mount  Pleasant,  Ohio,  June  4,  1809;  died  in  Wheeling,  West 
Virginia,  June  2,  1872.  Admitted  to  the  13ar  in  Steubenville,  Ohio,  1834. 
Member  of  Ohio  Senate,  i84i-'42.  Member  of  Ohio  Constitutional  Con- 
vention, 1850.  Member  of  U.  S.  House  of  Representatives  from  Ohio,  Decem- 
ber I,  1851-March  3,  1861.     Lieutenant-Governor  of  Ohio,  i862-'64. 


ALEXANDER    HAMILTON    STEPHENS. 

GEORGIA. 

Regent  on  behalf  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  appointed  January  14,  1878. 

Born  near  Crawfordsville,  Georgia,  February  11,  1812;  died  in  Atlanta, 
Georgia,  March  4,  1883.  A.  M.,  Franklin  College  (now  State  University), 
1832.  Admitted  to  the  Bar,  1834.  Member  of  Georgia  Legislature,  i836-'43. 
Member  of  U.  S.  House  of  Representatives  from  Georgia,  December  4,  1843- 
March  3,  1859,  December  i,  1873-March  4,  1881.  Vice-President  of  Con- 
federate States,  1 86 1.  Elected  Professor  of  Political  Science  and  History  in 
the  University  of  Georgia,  1868.     Governor  of  Georgia,  1882. 

ADLAI    EWING   STEVENSON. 

ILLINOIS. 

Regent  ex  officio,  as  Vice-President  of  the  United  States,  March  4,  1893- 

March  4,  1897. 

Born  in  Christian  County,  Kentucky,  October  23,  1835.  Educated  in 
Illinois  Wesleyan  University,  and  Centre  College,  Kentucky.  Admitted 
to  the  Bar,  1857.  Master  in  Chancery,  1861-65.  State  Attorney,  1864-68. 
Member  of  U.  S.  House  of  Representatives  from  Illinois,  December  6, 
1875-March  4,  1877,  March  18,  1879-March  4,  1881.  First  Assistant  Post- 
master-General, 1885.    Vice-President  of  the  United  States,  March  4,  i893-'97. 

JOHN   WHITE   STEVENSON. 

KENTUCKY. 

Regent  on  behalf  of  the  Senate,  appointed  December  10,  1872. 

Born  in  Richmond,  Virginia,  May  4,  1812;  died  in  Covington,  Kentucky, 
August  10,  1886.  Educated  in  Richmond.  A.  B.,  University  of  Virginia, 
1832.  Admitted  to  the  Bar,  1841.  Member  of  the  Kentucky  Legisla- 
ture, 1847.  Member  of  State  Constitutional  Convention,  1849.  Member  of 
U.  S.  House  of  Representatives  from  Kentucky,  December  1,  IS57-^Llrch  4, 
1861.  Lieutenant-Governor,  1867;  and  Governor  of  Kentucky,  1867-71. 
Member  of  U.  S.  Senate  from  Kentucky,  March  4,  IS7I-^L1^ch  3.  1877. 
Professor  of  Law  in  Cincinnati  Law  School,  1877.  President  of  the  American 
Bar  Association,  1884.  Commissioner  to  prepare  "Code  of  Practice,"  1854. 
Presidential  Elector,  1852,  1856. 

8* 


no  The  Smithsonian  Instittition 

DAVID    STUART. 

MICHIGAN. 

Regent  on  behalf  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  appointed  December  14,  1853. 

Born  in  Brooklyn,  New  York,  March  12,  i86i;  died  in  Detroit,  Michi- 
gan, September  12,  1868.  Educated  in  Amherst  College,  1842.  A.  B.,  Brown. 
Admitted  to  the  Bar  in  Detroit,  Michigan.  Prosecuting  Attorney  for  Wayne 
County,  Michigan.  Member  of  U.  S.  House  of  Representatives  from  Michi- 
gan, December  5,  1853-March  3,  1855.  Attorney  in  Chicago.  Lieutenant- 
Colonel  of  Forty-second  Illinois  Infantry  Volunteers,  1861.  Colonel  Second 
Regiment,  Douglas  Brigade,  Fifty-fifth  Illinois  Infantry,  1861.  Brigadier- 
General  of  Volunteers,  1862. 

ROGER   BROOKE   TANEY. 

MARYLAND. 

Regent  ex  officio,  as  Chief  Justice  of  the  United  States,  August  10,  1846. 

Born  in  Calvert  County,  Maryland,  March  17,  1777;  died  in  Washington 
City,  October  12,  1864.  Educated  in  schools  in  Maryland.  A.  B.,  Dickin- 
son, 1795.  LL.  D.,  Dickinson,  1831 ;  and  Union,  1835.  Admitted  to  the 
Bar,  Annapolis,  Maryland,  1799.  Member  of  Maryland  Legislature,  1800-01. 
Attorney-General  of  Maryland,  1827.  Attorney-General  of  the  United  States, 
1 83 1.  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  1833.  Chief  Justice  of  the  United  States, 
March  15,  1836-October  12,  1864. 


EZRA   B    TAYLOR. 

OHIO. 

Regent  on  behalf  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  appointed  January  9,  1882. 

Born  in  Nelson,  Portage  County,  Ohio,  July  9,  1823.  Educated  in  public 
schools  and  academies.  Admitted  to  the  Bar,  1845.  Prosecuting  Attorney, 
1854.  Removed  to  Warren,  Ohio,  1861.  Judge  of  Court  of  Common  Pleas, 
1877.  Member  of  U.  S.  House  of  Representatives  from  Ohio,  March  18, 
1879-March  4,  1893. 

JOSEPH    GILBERT   TOTTEN. 

CITY   OF   WASHINGTON. 

Regent  elected  by  Congress,  August  10,  1846;  reelected  December  24,  1850,  and 

January  28,  1857. 

Born  in  New  Haven,  Connecticut,  August  23,  1788;  died  in  Washington 
City,  April  22,  1864.  A.  M.,  Brown,  1829.  Graduated  United  States  Mili- 
tary Academy,  1805.  Secretary  U.  S.  Survey  of  Ohio  and  the  Territories, 
1806-08;  Military  Engineer,  i8o8-'64;  First  Lieutenant,  1810;  Captain, 
1813;  Major,  1818;  Lieutenant-Colonel,  1828;  Colonel  and  Chief  Engineer 
U.  S.  Army,  1838;  Inspector  U.  S.  Military  Academy,  1838-64;  State 
Commissioner  for  preservation  of  New  York  and  Boston  harbors.      Served 


The  Board  of  Regents  1 1 1 

in  Mexican  War,  1846.  Member  of  Lighthouse  Board,  1851-58,  1860-64. 
Brigadier-General,  1863.  Major-General,  1864.  Original  Member  of  Na- 
tional Academy  of  Sciences,  1863. 


JOHN  THOMAS  TOWERS. 

CITY  OF  WASHINGTON. 

Regent  ex  officio,  as  Mayor  of  Washington,  June,   1854-June,   1856. 

Born  in  Alexandria,  Virginia,  February  21,  181 1  ;  died  in  Washmgton  City, 
August  II,  1857.     Mayor  of  Washington  City,  June,  1854-June,  1856. 

LYMAN  TRUMBULL. 

ILLINOIS. 

Regent  on  behalf  of  the  Senate,  appointed  December  4,  1861 ;  reappointed 

March  21,  1867. 

Born  in  Colchester,  Connecticut,  October  12,  1813;  died  in  Chicago,  Illi- 
nois, June  25,  1896.  LL.  D.,  Shurtleff,  1852  ;  Yale,  1858;  and  Northwestern, 
1870.  Principal  of  Academy  in  Georgia.  Admitted  to  the  Bar,  1837.  Illinois 
Legislature,  1840.  Secretary  of  State  of  Illinois,  1841-42.  Judge  of  Supreme 
Court  of  Illinois,  1848.  Elected  Member  of  U.  S.  House  of  Representatives 
from  Illinois,  1854.  Member  of  U.  S.  Senate  from  Illinois,  March  4,  1855- 
March  3,  1873. 

BENJAMIN  FRANKLIN  WADE. 

OHIO. 

Regent  ex  officio,  as  President  of  the  Senate /r<7  tevi.,  March  2,  1867. 

Born  near  Springfield,  Massachusetts,  October  27,  1800;  died  in  Jefferson, 
Ohio,  March  2,  1878.  Public  school  education.  Admitted  to  the  Bar  in 
Jefferson,  Ohio,  1828.  Prosecuting  Attorney  of  Ashtabula  County,  Ohio, 
i835-'37.  Member  of  Ohio  Legislature,  1837-41.  Presiding  Judge  of  Third 
Judicial  District,  Ohio,  i847-'5i.  Member  of  U.  S.  Senate  from  Ohio,  March 
4,  1851-March  3,  1869.  U.  S.  Commissioner  to  Santo  Domingo,  1871. 
President /r^  tern,  of  the  Senate,  April,  1865,  and  March  2,  1867. 


MORRISON  REMICK  WAITE. 

OHIO. 

Regent  ex  officio,  as  Chief  Justice  of  the  United  States,  March  7,  1874. 

Born  in  Lyme,  Connecticut,  November  29,  1816;  died  in  Washington  City, 
March  23,  1888.  A.  B.,  Yale,  1837.  LL.  D.,  Yale,  1872  ;  Kenyon,  1874; 
University  of  Ohio,  1879;  and  Columbia,  1887.  Admitted  to  the  Bar,  Maumee 
City,  Ohio,  1839.  Member  of  Ohio  Legislature,  1849-50.  Counsel  of  United 
States  before  the  Tribunal  of  Arbitration  in  Geneva,  Switzerland.  1871-72. 
President  of  Ohio  Constitutional  Convention,  1873.  Chief  Justice  of  the 
United  States,  March  7,  1874-March  23,  1888. 


I  12 


The  S7nithsonian  htstitutmt 


RICHARD  WALLACH. 

CITY  OF  WASHINGTON. 

Regent  ex  officio,  as  Mayor  of  Washington  City,  August  26,  1861-June,  1868. 

Born  in  Alexandria,  Virginia,  April  3, 1816 ;  died  in  Washington  City,  March 
4,  1 88 1.  Educated  in  Columbian  College,  Admitted  to  the  Bar  in  Washing- 
ton City,  1836.  U.  S.  Marshal  for  District  of  Columbia,  1849-53.  Member 
of  Common  Council,  1848-49.  Mayor  of  Washington  City,  August  26,  1861- 
June,  1868.  Under  his  administration  the  first  fine  public-school  buildings  in 
the  city  were  erected. 

HIRAM  WARNER. 

GEORGIA. 

Regent  on  behalf  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  appointed  February  26,  1856, 

Born  in  Hampshire  County,  Massachusetts,  October  29,  1802  ;  died  in 
Atlanta,  Georgia,  1881.  Admitted  to  the  Bar  in  Knoxville,  Georgia,  1825. 
Member  of  Georgia  Legislature,  1828-31.  Judge  of  Superior  Court  of 
Georgia,  1833-40.  Judge  of  Supreme  Court  of  Georgia,  1845-53.  Member 
of  U.  S.  House  of  Representatives  from  Georgia,  December  3,  1855-March 
3>  1857.     Judge  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Georgia  and  Chief  Justice,  1872. 

JAMES  CLARKE  WELLING. 

CITY  OF  WASHINGTON. 

Regent  elected  by  Congress,  May  13,  1884;  reelected  May  22,  1890. 

Born  in  Trenton,  New  Jersey,  July  14, 1825 ;  died  in  Hartford,  Connecticut, 
September  4,  1894.  A.  B.,  Princeton,  1844.  LL.  D.,  Columbian  University, 
1868.  Studied  Law.  Associate  Principal  of  New  York  Collegiate  School, 
1848.  Literary  editor  of  the  National  Intelligencer  in  Washington,  i85o-'56; 
its  Chief  Editor  and  Manager,  i856-'65.  Clerk  of  United  States  Court  of 
Claims,  1865-67.  President  of  St.  John's  College,  Maryland,  1867.  Profes- 
sor of  Belles-lettres  in  Princeton,  1870-71,  President  of  Columbian  Uni- 
versity, 1871-94.  President  of  Board  of  Trustees  of  Corcoran  Art  Gallery, 
i877-'94. 

JOSEPH  WHEELER. 

ALABAMA. 

Regent  on  behalf  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  appointed  January  10,  1888; 
reappointed  January  6,  1890,  January  15,  1892,  January  4,  1894,  and  December 
20,  1895. 

Born  in  Augusta,  Georgia,  September  10,  1836.  Graduated  United  States 
Military  Academy,  1859.  Lieutenant  United  States  Cavalry,  i86o-'6i.  Colo- 
nel, Brigadier-General,  and  Lieutenant-General  in  Confederate  Army,  and 
Senior  Cavalry  General,  1861-65.  Admitted  to  the  Bar,  1866.  Member  of 
U.  S.  House  of  Representatives  from  Alabama,  March  4,  1881-March  3, 
1883,  March  4,  1885-March  4,  1899. 


The  Board  of  Regents  113 

WILLIAM  ALMON  WHEELER. 

NEW  YORK. 

Regent  ex  officio,  as  Vice-President  of  the  United  States,  March  4,  1877- 

March  4,  1881. 

Born  in  Malone,  New  York,  June  30,  1819;  died  in  Malone,  New  York, 
June  4,  1887,  A.  B.,  University  of  Vermont,  1842.  A.  M.,  Dartmouth, 
1865.  LL.  D.,  University  of  Vermont,  1867;  and  Union,  1877.  Admitted 
to  the  Bar  in  Malone,  New  York,  1845.  U.  S.  District  Attorney  of  Frankhn 
County,  New  York,  1845-49.  Member  of  New  York  Legislature,  i849-'5o. 
Member  and  President //v  tern,  of  New  York  Senate,  i858-'59.  Member  of 
U.  S.  House  of  Representatives  from  New  York,  December  3,  1860-July  17, 
1862,  March  4,  i869-March3,  1877.  President  of  New  York  Constitutional 
Convention,  i867-'68.  Vice-President  of  the  United  States,  March  4,  1877 
March  4,  1881. 

ANDREW  DICKSON  WHITE. 

NEW  YORK. 

Regent  elected  by  Congress,  February  15,  1888;  reelected  March  19,  1894. 

Born  in  Homer,  New  York,  November  7,  1832.  Educated  in  Hobart  Col- 
lege, New  York.  A.  B.,  Yale,  1853.  A.  M.,  Yale,  1856.  Ph.  D.,  Jena, 
1889.  LL.  D.,  University  of  Michigan,  1867  ;  Cornell,  1886  ;  and  Yale,  1888. 
L,  H.  D.,  Columbia,  1887.  Professor  of  History  and  English  Literature 
in  University  of  Michigan,  i857-'62.  Member  of  New  York  Senate,  1863- 
'64.  President  of  Cornell  University,  1867,  1881-85.  U.  S.  Commissioner 
to  Santo  Domingo,  1871.  U.  S.  Minister  to  Germany,  i879-'8i.  U.  S. 
Honorary  Commissioner  to  Paris  Exposition,  1878.  U.  S.  Minister  to  Russia, 
1892-95.  Member  of  U.  S.  Venezuelan  Commission,  1896.  First  President 
of  American  Historical  Association,  1884. 

HENRY  WILSON. 

MASSACHUSETTS. 

Regent  ex  officio,  as  Vice-President  of  the  United  States,  March  4,  1873- 

March  4,  1877. 

Born  in  Farmington,  New  Hampshire,  February  16,  181 2;  died  in 
Washington  City,  November  22,  1875.  A.  M.,  Williams,  i860.  LL.  D., 
Dartmouth,  1874.  Member  of  Massachusetts  Legislature,  i84o-'43,  1850. 
President  of  Massachusetts  Senate,  i85i-'52.  Member  of  State  Constitutional 
Convention,  1853,  Member  of  U.  S.  Senate  from  Massachusetts,  February 
10,  i855-March  3,  1873.     Vice-President  of  the  United  States,  i873-'75. 

WILLIAM  LYNE  WILSON. 

WEST  VIRGINIA. 

Regent  on  behalf  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  appointed  January  7,  1884  ;  re- 
appointed January  12,  1886.     Regent  elected  by  Congress,  January  14,  1896. 

Born  in  Jefferson  County,  Virginia,  May  3,  1843.  Educated  in  Charles- 
town    Academy.     A.    B.,    Columbian,    i860.      LL.   D.,   Columbian,    1883; 


114  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

Hampden-Sidney,  1886,  and  University  of  Mississippi;  Tulane;  and  Central 
College,  Missouri,  1895.  Professor  of  Latin,  Columbian  College,  1865-71. 
Admitted  to  the  Bar,  1871.  President  of  West  Virginia  University,  1882. 
Member  of  U.  S.  House  of  Representatives  from  West  Virginia,  March 
4,  1883-March  4,  1895.  Presidential  Elector,  1880.  Postmaster- General, 
i895-'97. 

ROBERT  ENOCH  WITHERS. 

VIRGINIA. 

Regent  on  behalf  of  the  Senate,  appointed  March  i,  1877. 

Born  in  Campbell  County,  Virginia,  September  18,  182 1.  M.  D.,  Univer- 
sity of  Virginia,  1840.  Practised  medicine,  1840-58.  Major  and  Colonel  in 
Confederate  Army,  1861.  Lieutenant-Governor  of  Virginia,  January  i,  1874. 
Member  of  U.  S.  Senate  from  Virginia,  March  4,  1875-March  3,  1881. 

THEODORE  DWIGHT  WOOLSEY. 

CONNECTICUT. 

Regent  elected  by  Congress,  April  2,  1862;  reelected  January  11,  1868. 

Born  in  New  York  City,  October  31,  1801 ;  died  in  New  Haven,  Connec- 
ticut, July  I,  1889.  A.  B.,  Yale,  1820.  D.  D.,  Harvard,  1847.  LL.  D., 
Wesleyan,  1845;  and  Harvard,  1886.  Studied  law  in  Philadelphia,  1821  ; 
Theology  in  Princeton,  i82i-'23.  Tutor  in  Yale,  i823-'25.  Licensed  to 
preach,  1825.  Professor  of  Greek  Languages  and  Literature  in  Yale,  1831-46. 
President  of  Yale  University,  1846-71. 


THE   THREE    SECRETARIES 


By  George  Brown  Goode 


JOSEPH    HENRY 


I. 


j^HE  early  history  of  American  science  is  very 
closely  connected   with    the   life   of  Professor 


m  Henry.  Born  with  the  present  century,  he 
participated  in  the  early  movements  for  the 
^'Sz^^^^^w^g^  national  organization  of  science.  In  his  later 
years  he  was  an  acknowledged  leader  in  the  work  of  main- 
taining and  extending  these,  in  accordance  with  the  tenden- 
cies of  modern  thouo-ht. 

Between  1827  —  when  he  entered  the  little  company  of 
American  investigators,  at  that  time  few  in  number,  and  for 
the  most  part  young  and  inexperienced — and  1878,  when  he 
died,  a  recognized  leader  of  a  numerous  and  well-organized 
army  of  trained  men,  there  intervened  a  full  half  century,  and 
one  which  was  of  great  significance  in  the  history  of  the 
Western  continents,  since  it  was  peculiarly  a  formative 
period  for  all  those  interests  upon  which  the  moral  and 
intellectual  welfare  of  our  people  depends. 


"5 


ii6  The  Smithsonian  htstitntion 

For  two  decades  he  lived  in  the  laboratory  and  the  lecture- 
room,  and  at  the  end  of  that  period  he  was  accepted  as  one  of 
the  world's  great  investigators,  distinguished  alike  for  skill 
and  originality  in  experiment  and  for  breadth  and  philo- 
sophic comprehensiveness  in  deduction.  Three  other  dec- 
ades of  his  life  were  given  to  the  organization  and  develop- 
ment of  the  scientific  and  educational  interests  of  the  nation. 

It  is  impossible  to  estimate  the  extent  of  the  influence  of 
those  fifty  years  of  intense,  devoted  toil,  of  constant,  pains- 
taking effort,  all  directed  toward  one  consistent  end.  Few 
men  have  combined  so  fully  the  characteristics  of  the  scholar, 
the  teacher,  the  organizer,  and  leader ;  and  few  have  been 
so  placed  that  their  capacities  in  such  widely  different  fields 
of  activity  could  be  constantly  employed. 

Henry's  success  as  an  administrator  was  unquestionably 
due  to  the  versatility  of  his  talents  and  to  the  catholicity  of 
his  sympathies,  which  forbade  favoritism  toward  individual 
interests  or  men.  His  lofty  character  and  self-sacrificing  de- 
votion were  so  manifest  in  his  face  and  in  his  actions  that  all 
were  impressed  by  them,  and  thereby  rendered  incapable  of 
opposition.  Rivalry  and  enmity  never  entered  into  his  rela- 
tions to  those  with  whom  he  worked.  The  noblest  and  best 
of  his  associates  were  always  valued  and  devoted  friends,  and 
there  were  few  of  the  greatest  of  his  countrymen,  whether 
statesmen,  divines,  or  men  of  letters,  who  were  not  proud  to 
say  that  they  knew  him  well  and  loved  him. 

The  organization  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  was  the 
task  to  which  his  later  years  were  devoted.  This  will  always 
be  regarded,  by  the  few  who  appreciate  the  necessities  and 
difficulties  of  scientific  administration,  as  his  most  important 
achievement.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  he  himself  so  re- 
garded it,  since  he  felt  justified  in  practically  abandoning  the 
career  of  an  investigator  at  the  time  when  it  was  full  of  the 


The  Three  Secretaries  117 

most  brilliant  promise,  notwithstanding  the  protests  of  many 
who  considered  it  a  waste  of  high  talent  for  him  to  give  up 
his  own  investigations  for  the  sake  of  providing  opportunities 
for  the  work  of  others. 

The  story  of  his  administration  will  be  found  interwoven 
with  that  of  the  Institution  in  every  chapter  of  this  book.  In 
this  place  attention  will  be  directed  chiefly  to  his  contribu- 
tions to  science  and  to  his  personal  traits  and  interests. 


II. 

Joseph  Henry  was  born  in  Albany,  December  17,  1799.  His 
father  was  William  Henry,  his  mother  was  Annie  Alexander. 
His  grandparents  on  both  sides,  the  Henrys  and  the  Alexan- 
ders, came  in  the  same  ship  from  Scotland  to  the  colony  of 
New  York  on  June  17,  1775,  landing  while  the  first  guns 
of  the  American  Revolution  were  sounding. 

During  early  childhood  he  lived  in  Albany,  and  from  the 
age  of  seven  to  thirteen  near  the  country  village  of  Galway, 
in  the  adjoining  county  of  Saratoga. 

He  was  seemingly  an  idle  boy,  whose  mind  was  full  of 
romance,  and  whose  time  was  chiefly  occupied  in  the  read- 
ing of  novels,  poetry,  and  Shakspere.  His  young  life  was 
full  of  dreams,  and  the  efforts  of  his  relatives  to  induce  him 
to  give  attention  to  practical  matters  were  for  a  time  fruitless. 
He  was  apprenticed  to  a  watchmaker ;  but,  notwithstanding 
his  natural  taste  for  mechanism,  the  occupation  was  uncon- 
genial, and  was  soon  abandoned.  For  the  time  the  theater 
was  more  to  his  taste.     When  in  Albany  ^  visiting  his  rela- 

1  There  was  from  1813  to  1816  an  excel-  Samuel  Drake,  Henry  Placide,  Norah  M. 
lent  theater  in  Albany  under  the  manage-  Ludlow,  and  Frances  Ann  Denney  (Mrs. 
ment  of  Mr.  John  Bernard,  one  of  the  best  Drake),  all  of  whom  were  noted  in  the  his- 
of  the  English  comedians,  author  of"  Retro-  tory  of  the  American  stage.  See  Sol  Smith's 
spectus  of  the  Stage  "  and  "  Rctrospectus  of  "  Theatrical  Apprenticeship,"  which  was  pub- 
America,  1 797-1 81 1."     In  his  company  were  lished  in  Philadelphia  in  1845. 


ii8  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

tives  this  was  his  chief  interest.  He  became  an  amateur 
actor,  organized  a  juvenile  theatrical  company,  "The  Ros- 
trum," and  translated  a  play  from  the  French,  which  his 
young  friends  acted  under  his  direction.  Thus,  perhaps, 
were  laid  the  foundations  of  subsequent  success  as  a  public 
speaker  and  presiding  officer. 

His  taste  for  books  was  first  aroused  by  Sir  Henry  Brooke's 
"  Fool  of  Quality,"  which  he  chanced  to  open  when  a  boy  of 
eight  or  ten.  This  philosophical  romance  aroused  his  interest 
in  social  problems,  and  led  him  through  the  pathway  of  fiction 
to  form  the  habit  of  reading. 

President  Porter  has  pointed  out  the  intimate  relationship 
between  this  early  aimless  life  and  his  later  career: 

"  His  early  musings  and  questionings,  his  boyish  sports 
and  adventures,  were  fondly  remembered  by  him  as  the  in- 
spiration of  his  rational  and  scientific  life.  '  The  cultivation 
of  the  imagination,'  he  writes,  '  should  be  considered  an  es- 
sential part  of  a  liberal  education;  and  this  may  be  spread 
over  the  whole  course  of  instruction,  for,  like  the  reasoning 
faculties,  the  imagination  may  continue  to  improve  until  late 
in  life.'  '  Memory,  imitation,  imagination,  and  the  faculty  of 
forming  mental  habits  exist  in  early  life,  while  the  judgment 
and  reasoning  faculties  are  of  slow  growth.'  'The  order  of 
nature  is  that  of  art  before  science,  the  entire  concrete  first 
and  the  entire  abstract  last.'  These  are  wise  and  weighty 
words,  but  they  are  of  special  interest  when  we  bethink  our- 
selves that  the  writer,  when  he  penned  them,  was  doubtless 
all  the  while  thinking  of  a  dreaming  boy,  half  buried  in  the 
grass,  looking  up  wistfully  into  the  sky,  thinking  wondrous 
thoughts  too  deep  for  tears,  perhaps  peopling  with  phantoms 
and  fairies  that  world  of  nature  which  he  subsequently  pene- 
trated by  those  wise  questionings  and  ingenious  theories 
which  his  sagacious  experiments  turned  into  solid  verities. 
He  certainly  could  have  been  thinking  of  no  one  else  when 
in  the  same  connection  he  so  positively  affirms,  '  The  future 


'^    i^>:| 


^  nnk#  vwvs  r  •  >^  ■ 


JOSEPH    HEI^RT. 

FIEST  SECRETARY  OF  THE  S:M1THS0XIAX   IXSTITUTIOX. 

1846-1878. 


f'ical  company,      ^.■ 

um    the   F^ "*-        ^-  cii   hl- 

irection.       ihus,   perhaps, 
success  : 


<^  V_/  AV>_ 


boy  ol 
aroused  h 
thrc- 

'  ■"^•lons.aij./ 

iciiCi"  oa. 


ultivation 

e  cor 

:1 

the  reasoning 

late 

/  of 

.  .  -if 

the.  pntire  con>-_ . 

^'-=^6  and  V-       ._y 


oms 
pene- 

venties. 
'Ise  \v' 
•  ^Mi^^rV^e  Jst^-V^^^  ^'  he  (v 

,T^0ITTJTTT8"ZI   ^AIT108HTIM8  HHT  '50  YHATHaoaa  T8fll'5 

.8T8r-».^8I 


TJie   Three  Secretaries  119 

character  of  a  child,  and  that  of  a  man  also,  is  in  most  cases 
formed  probably  before  the  age  of  seven  years.'  " 

It  was  not  until  181 5  that  he  discovered  the  real  tendency 
of  his  mind  toward  scholarship,  through  the  instrumentality 
of  a  work  entitled  "  Lectures  on  Experimental  Philosophy, 
Astronomy,  and  Chemistry,  intended  chiefly  for  the  Use  of 
Young  Persons,"  published  in  London,  in  1809,  by  the  Rev- 
erend George  Gregory,  D.D.,  editor  of  the  "New  Annual 
Register."  The  book,  which  the  chance  of  fortune  placed 
in  his  hands,  is  still  preserved  by  his  family,  and  upon  one 
of  its  blank  leaves,  written  by  the  hand  of  Henry,  are  the 
following  words : 

"  This  book,  although  by  no  means  a  profound  work,  has, 
under  Providence,  exerted  a  remarkable  influence  on  my 
life.  It  accidentally  fell  into  my  hands  when  I  was  about 
sixteen  years  old,  and  was  the  first  book  I  ever  read  with 
attention.  It  opened  to  me  a  new  world  of  thought  and 
enjoyment ;  invested  things  before  almost  unnoticed  with 
the  highest  interest;  fixed  my  mind  on  the  study  of  nature, 
and  caused  me  to  resolve  at  the  time  of  reading  it  that  I 
would  immediately  commence  to  devote  my  life  to  the  acqui- 
sition of  knowledge.  J.  H." 

The  purpose  of  his  life  having  been  determined,  his  future 
might  easily  have  been  predicted  by  any  one  familiar  with  his 
peculiar  mental  and  physical  endowments.  An  iron  constitu- 
tion, capable  of  fatigueless  effort  for  sixteen  hours  or  more 
each  day,  year  in  and  year  out,  and  an  indomitable  will,  even 
more  powerful  in  control  of  self  than  in  that  of  others,  to- 
gether with  a  mind  clear  and  original,  shaped  by  many 
generations  of  ancestors  living  in  the  rural  simplicity  of  old 
Scotland;  a  pleasing  presence,  and  an  attractive  personality, 
were  his  heritage.     The  community  in   which  he  lived  was 


I20  The  Smithsoman  Institution 

intelligent  and  liberal,  and  all  gates  were  open  to  a  young 
man  of  integrity  and  enterprise. 

He  now  entered  upon  serious  work  —  first  as  a  pupil  in  a 
night  school ;  then  in  the  Albany  Academy,  as  scholar  and 
teacher ;  later  as  a  medical  student,  a  private  tutor,  and  a 
surveyor.  At  the  age  of  twenty-six  he  was  appointed  Pro- 
fessor of  Mathematics  in  the  Albany  Academy,  and  his 
scientific  life  was  fairly  begun. 

His  famous  paper  in  Silliman's  "American  Journal  of 
Science,"  printed  in  January,  183 1,  demonstrated  his  right  to 
a  place  among  advanced  investigators  in  the  field  of  electro- 
magnetism,  and  led  to  his  election,  in  1832,  to  the  professor- 
ship of  Natural  Philosophy  in  the  College  of  New  Jersey, 
where  he  remained  for  fourteen  years.  Of  his  life  at  Prince- 
ton Professor  Asa  Gray  has  written  : 

"  Here  he  taught  and  investigated  for  fourteen  fruitful  and 
happy  years ;  here  he  professed  the  faith  that  was  in  him, 
entering  into  the  communion  of  the  Presbyterian  Church,  in 
which  he  and  his  ancestors  were  nurtured ;  and  here  he 
developed  a  genius  for  education.  One  could  count  on  his 
being  a  clear  expositor,  and  his  gifts  for  experimental  illus- 
tration and  for  devising  apparatus  had  been  already  shown. 
But  now,  as  a  college  professor,  the  question,  how  to  educate, 
came  before  him  in  a  broader  way.  He  appreciated,  and  he 
made  his  associates  and  pupils  appreciate,  the  excellence  of 
natural  philosophy  for  mental  discipline,  for  training  at  once 
both  the  observing  and  the  reasoning  faculties.  A  science 
which  rises  from  the  observation  of  the  most  familiar  facts, 
and  the  questioning  of  these  by  experiment,  to  the  considera- 
tion of  causes,  the  ascertaining  of  laws,  and  to  the  most  re- 
condite conceptions  respecting  the  constitution  of  matter  and 
the  interplay  of  forces,  offers  discipline  to  all  the  intellectual 
powers,  and  tasks  the  highest  of  them.  Professor  Henry 
taught  not  only  the  elementary  facts  and  general  principles 
from  a  fresh  survey  of  both,  but  also  the  methods  of  philo- 


The  Three  Secretaries  121 

sophical  investigation,  and  the  steps  by  which  the  widest 
generahzations  and  the  seemingly  intangible  conceptions  of 
the  higher  physics  have  been  securely  reached.  He  exercised 
his  pupils  in  deducing  particular  results  from  admitted  laws, 
and  in  then  ascertaining  whether  what  was  thus  deduced  ac- 
tually occurred  in  nature ;  and  if  not,  why  not.  Though  very 
few  of  a  college  class  might  ever  afterward  undertake  a  phys- 
ical or  chemical  investigation,  all  would,  or  should,  be  con- 
cerned in  the  acquisition  of  truth  and  its  relations ;  and  by 
knowing  how  truth  was  won  and  knowledge  advanced  in  one 
field  of  inquiry,  they  would  gain  the  aptitude  which  any  real 
investigation  may  give,  and  the  confidence  that  springs  from 
a  clear  view  and  a  sure  grasp  of  any  one  sul^ject. 

"  He  understood,  as  few  do,  the  importance  of  analogy  and 
hypothesis  in  science.  Premising  that  hypothesis  should  al- 
ways be  founded  on  real  analogies  and  used  interrogatively, 
he  commended  it  as  the  prerequisite  to  experiment,  and  the 
instrument  by  which,  in  the  hands  of  sound  philosophers,  most 
discoveries  have  been  made.  This  free  use  of  hypothesis  as 
the  servant  and  avant-courier  of  research  —  as  means  rather 
than  end  —  is  a  notable  characteristic  of  Henry." 

In  1830  he  married  his  cousin  Miss  Harriet  L.  Alexander, 
who  on  the  death  of  her  father,  Alexander  Alexander,  an 
active  and  successful  business  man  of  Schenectady,  had  come 
to  live  in  Albany.  It  was  largely  through  Henry's  influence 
that  her  elder  brother,  Stephen  Alexander,  was  called  to 
Princeton  in  1833,  where  he  subsequently  became"  professor 
of  astronomy.  Mrs.  Henry  survived  her  husband  but  a  few 
years,  and  died  in  Washington  City  on  March  25,  1882. 

The  memory  of  Henry  is  lovingly  cherished  at  Princeton, 
where  a  bronze  tablet  by  Augustus  St.  Gaudens  was  erected 
in  1885,  to  commemorate  his  connection  with  the  University.-^ 

IThe  memorial  address  delivered  by'Ed-  of  the  most  eloquent  and  satisfactory  appre- 
ward  N.  Dickerson,  LL.  D.,  upon  the  occa-  ciations  of  the  cliaracter  and  achievements  of 
sion  of  the  presentation  of  this  tablet,  is  one       Professor  Henry. 


122  The  Smithsonian  Institution 


III. 


Henry's  experimental  work  was  done,  for  the  most  part, 
between  1826  and  1847.  Many  of  his  broader  generaHzations 
were  published  later,  though  these  were  largely  based  upon 
the  work  of  early  years. 

His  studies  in  electricity  began  in  1827,  while  he  was  a 
teacher  in  the  Albany  Academy,  and  it  was  not  long  before 
Sir  David  Brewster  was  moved  to  say:  "On  the  shoulders 
of  young  Henry  has  fallen  the  mantle  of  Franklin  ! "  His 
laboratory  work  in  Albany  included  the  only  continuous  series 
of  physical  investigations  which  any  one  had  up  to  that  time 
attempted  in  America. 

In  the  course  of  these  researches  he  transformed  an  ineffi- 
cient piece  of  electrical  apparatus  —  the  significance  of  which 
had  been  but  partially  understood  by  Ampere,  Arago,  and  even 
Sturgeon,  by  whom  it  had  been  greatly  improved  —  into  the 
powerful  electro-magnet,  and  laid  the  foundation  for  the  most 
important  discoveries  of  the  century, —  not  only  his  own,  but 
those  of  the  great  masters  of  Europe.  The  electro-magnet 
in  1828  was  still  an  ineffective  instrument.  Barlow  had  tested 
its  capabilities  in  London  three  years  before,  and  had  found 
its  effect  so  diminished  at  the  distance  of  only  two  hundred 
feet  that  he  pronounced  telegraphy  by  its  use  impossible. 

In  Henry's  hands  the  feeble  toy  of  Sturgeon  was  converted 
into  instruments  of  infinite  possibilities.  He  made  two  dis- 
tinct forms  of  magnets,  one  capable  of  excitation  at  a  distance, 
which  he  named  the  "intensity  magnet";  another  having 
possibilities  of  infinite  development  of  strength,  to  which  he 
gave  the  name  of  "  quantity  magnet." 

He  so  named  the  magnets  because  he  had  discovered  that 
with  the  one,  in  order  to  overcome  the  resistance  opposed  to 
the  passage  of  electricity  by  the  long,  fine  wire  of  which  it 


The   Three  Secretaries  123 

was  composed  and  the  long  circuit  in  which  it  was  placed,  it 
was  necessary  to  use  an  "intensity  battery,"  —  that  is,  a  bat- 
tery of  many  plates  —  for  the  reason  that  this  battery  pos- 
sesses more  electromotive  force  ;  while  with  the  other,  formed 
of  many  coils  of  short,  thick  wire,  offering  less  resistance,  a 
"battery  of  quantity"  should  be  employed.  "I  was  the  first," 
he  wrote,  "  to  point  out  this  connection  of  the  two  kinds  of 
battery  with  the  two  forms  of  the  magnet  in  my  paper  in 
Silliman's  Journal,  January,  1831,  and  clearly  to  state  that 
when  magnetism  was  to  be  developed  by  means  of  a  com- 
pound battery,  one  long  coil  was  to  be  employed,  and  when 
the  maximum  effect  was  to  be  produced  by  a  single  battery 
a  number  of  single  strands  were  to  be  used." 

The  importance  of  this  discovery  of  the  necessary  law  of 
proportion  between  the  electromotive  force  in  the  battery  and 
the  resistance  in  the  magnet  cannot  be  too  highly  estimated  ; 
not  only  does  the  telegraph  depend  upon  this  law,  but  every 
action  of  galvano-magnetism. 

As  has  well  been  said  by  his  daughter,  "  he  married  the 
intensity  magnet  to  the  intensity  battery,  the  quantity  mag- 
net to  the  quantity  battery,  discovered  the  law  by  which  their 
union  was  effected,  and  rendered  their  divorce  forever  impos- 
sible." The  intensity  magnet  is  that  which  is  to-day  in  use 
in  every  telegraph  system. 

With  the  discovery  of  these  two  agents  began  a  new  epoch 
in  science  and  in  the  arts.  They  brought  the  force  of  electric- 
ity, hitherto  only  in  part  subdued,  fully  under  the  control  of 
man.  Before  Henry,  the  only  electro-magnet  which  had  been 
made,  though  under  the  influence  of  a  battery  of  125  plates, 
was  incapable  of  lifting  more  than  nine  pounds  ;  but  he,  after 
a  few  months  of  experiment,  produced  one  which,  with  one 
pair  of  plates,  sustained  39  pounds,  or  fifty  times  its  own 
weight;   in    1830,    750;    in    1831,    2300;    and   in    1834,   3500 


124  ^^^  Smithsonian  Institution 

pounds.  These  improvements  rendered  possible  not  only  his 
own  subsequent  discoveries,  but  also  those  of  Faraday,  which 
began  first  to  assume  importance  after  the  invention  of 
Henry's  magnets. 

The  quantity  magnet  perfected  by  Henry  in  1830  was  the 
means  by  which  both  he  and  Faraday  discovered  magneto- 
electricity.  It  has  been  used  in  almost  all  electrical  work, 
scientific  or  practical,  which  has  since  been  attempted.  Stur- 
geon wrote  in  1832  :  "  Henry  has  been  enabled  to  produce  a 
magnetic  force  which  completely  eclipses  every  other  in  the 
whole  annals  of  magnetism ;  and  no  parallel  is  to  be  found 
since  the  miraculous  suspension  of  the  celebrated  Oriental 
impostor  in  his  iron  coffin."^ 

"The  importance  of  this  discovery,"  wrote  Professor  Wil- 
liam B.  Taylor  of  the  intensity  magnet,  "  can  hardly  be  over- 
estimated. The  magnetic  'spool'  of  fine  wire — of  a  length 
tens  and  even  hundreds  of  times  that  ever  before  employed 
for  this  purpose  —  was  in  itself  a  gift  to  science,  which  really 
forms  an  epoch  in  the  history  of  electro-magnetism.  It  is 
not  too  much  to  say  that  almost  every  advancement  which 
has  been  made  in  this  fruitful  branch  of  physics  since  the  time 
of  Sturgeon's  happy  improvement,  from  the  earliest  researches 
of  Faraday  downward,  has  been  directly  indebted  to  Henry's 
magnets.  By  means  of  the  Henry  '  spool '  the  magnet  almost 
at  a  bound  was  developed  from  a  feeble  childhood  to  a  vigor- 
ous manhood.  And  so  rapidly  and  generally  was  the  new 
form  introduced  abroad  among  experimenters,  few  of  whom 
had  ever  seen  the  papers  of  Henry,  that  probably  very  few  in- 
deed have  been  aware  to  whom  they  were  really  indebted  for 
this  familiar  and  powerful  instrumentality.  But  the  historic 
fact  remains,  that  prior  to  Henry's  experiments  in  1829,  no 
one  on  either  hemisphere  had  ever  thought  of  winding  the 
limbs  of  an  electro-magnet  on  the  principle  of  the  'bobbin,' 
and  not  till  after  the  publication  of  Henry's  method  in  January 
of  1 83 1,  was  it  ever  employed  by  any  European  physicist. 

"^  Philosophical  Magazine,  London,  March,  1832,  Volume  xi,  page  199. 


The  TJiree  Secretaries  125 

"  But  in  addition  to  this  large  grift  to  science,  Henry  (as 
we  have  seen)  has  the  preeminent  claim  to  popular  gratitude 
of  having  first  practically  worked  out  the  differing  functions 
of  two  entirely  different  kinds  of  electro-magnet :  the  one 
surrounded  with  numerous  coils  of  no  great  length,  desig- 
nated by  him  the  '  quantity'  magnet,  the  other  surrounded 
with  a  continuous  coil  of  very  great  length,  designated  by 
him  the  '  intensity '  magnet.  The  latter  and  feebler  system 
(requiring  for  its  action  a  battery  of  numerous  elements,) 
was  shown  to  have  the  singular  capability  (never  before 
suspected  or  imagined)  of  subtle  excitation  from  a  distant 
source.  Here  for  the  first  time  is  experimentally  established 
the  important  principle  that  there  must  be  a  proportion  be- 
tween the  aggregate  internal  resistance  of  the  battery  and 
the  whole  external  resistance  of  the  conjunctive  wire  or  con- 
ducting circuit.  This  was  a  very  important  though  uncon- 
scious experimental  confirmation  of  the  mathematical  theory 
of  Ohm,  embodied  in  his  formula  expressing  the  relation  be- 
tween electric  flow  and  electric  resistance,  which,  though  pro- 
pounded two  or  three  years  previously,  failed  for  a  long  time 
to  attract  any  attention  from  the  scientific  world. 

"  Never  should  it  be  forgotten  that  he  who  exalted  the 
'quantity'  magnet  of  Sturgeon  from  a  power  of  twenty  pounds 
to  a  power  of  twenty  hundred  pounds,  was  the  absolute  crea- 
tor of  the  'intensity'  magnet;  and  that  the  principles  in- 
volved in  this  creation,  constitute  the  indispensable  basis  of 
every  form  of  the  electro-magnetic  telegraph  since  invented."^ 

The  first  labor  in  which  this  infant  giant  was  employed 
was  to  demonstrate  the  practicability  of  the  telegraph.  By 
its  aid  Henry  was  enabled  in  1829  or  1830  to  pass  a  current 
throuorh  a  wire  1060  feet  in  length  and  to  lift  at  its  end  a 
considerable  weight. 

"This  was  the  first  discovery  of  the  fact  that  a  galvanic 
current  could  be  transmitted  to  a  great  distance  with  so  little 
diminution  of  force  as  to  produce  mechanical  effects."  So 
said  Henry  in  1857,  critically  reviewing  the  progress  of  elec- 

1  Taylor,  W'illiam  B.     "Memorial  of  Joseph  Henry,"  page  226. 

9* 


126  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

trical  science  during  the  period  of  nearly  thirty  years  which 
had  elapsed  since  this  early  experiment  was  made/ 

To  strike  signals  upon  a  bell  at  the  distance  of  8000  feet 
was  a  result  accomplished  in  the  same  year  in  the  commence- 
ment hall  of  the  Albany  Academy.  The  importance  of  this 
experiment  in  connection  with  the  history  of  the  telegraph  is 
discussed  at  greater  length  elsewhere. 

All  these  experiments  were  made  in  the  autumn  and  early 
winter  of  1829  or  1830,  as  seems  to  be  very  clearly  shown  by 
Miss  Mary  A.  Henry  in  her  recent  essays.^  The  fixing  of 
these  dates  is  of  considerable  moment,  since  upon  them  de- 
pend the  dates  of  two  other  discoveries,  that  of  self-induction 
and  that  of  magneto-electricity. 

The  former,  that  of  the  so-called  "extra  current,"  made 
August,  1829  or  1830,  though  it  was  not  announced  until 
1832,^  is  now  conceded  to  him  by  all*  and  it  was  chiefly  in 
recognition  of  the  discovery  of  self-induction  that  his  name 
was  given  to  the  standard  unit  of  inductive  resistance 
at  the  International  Congress  of  Electricians  in  Chicago,  in 
August,  1893,  thus  bestowing  upon  him,  as  Mendenhall  ex- 
presses it,  "  the  high  honor  of  a  place  in  the  galaxy  of  famous 
physicists  whose  names  shall  be  perpetuated  in  the  metro- 
logical  nomenclature  of  all  languages."  At  this  congress, 
composed  of  twenty-six  representative  men  of  science,  from 
nine  great  nations,  Professor  von  Helmholtz  presided. 

"  It  was  gratifying  to  the  American  delegates  in  the 
Chamber  at  Chicago,"  writes  Mendenhall,^  "  that  the  motion 

1 "  Smithsonian  Report,"  1857,  page  1 10.  3  A7tierkan  Journal  of  Science,  1832,  Vol- 

2  Henry,  Mary  A.,  "America's  Part  in  the  ume  xxil,  page  403. 

Discovery  of  Magneto-Electricity  —  A  Study  4  This  was,  in  1834,  rediscovered  by  Fara- 

of  the  Work  of  Faraday  and  Henry."     I-V,  day,  who  did  not  until  some  time  after  per- 

The  Electrical  Engineer,  1892,  Volume  xiil,  ceive  the  relation  of  his  work  to  that  which 

page  27  et  seq.     "The  Electro-Magnet;   or  had  preceded. 

Joseph  Henry's  Place  in  the  History  of  the  5  Mendenhall,  T.    C,  "The  Henry,"  At- 

Electro-Magnetic   Telegraph,"   I-XII ;    //'/(/.,  lantic  Monthly,  \o\\\m&  i.xxill,  pages  613- 

XVII,  1894,  page  I  et  seq.  614,  No.  439,  May,  1894. 


The  Three  Secretaries  127 

to  adopt  *  henry  '  as  the  name  of  this  unit  came  from  Professor 
Mascart,  the  distinguished  leader  of  the  French  delegation, 
for  among  the  French,  some  years  ago,  another  name,  the 
'quadrant'  or  'quad'  had  been  proposed,  and  since  that 
time  much  used ;  that  it  was  seconded  by  one  of  the  leading 
delegates  from  England,  Professor  Ayrton,  who  had  himself, 
a  few  years  ago,  proposed  the  word  'sec-ohm,'  as  being  a 
proper  name  for  the  unit  of  induction,  a  proposition  which  for 
a  time  found  much  favor;  and  finally,  that  it  received  the 
unanimous  approval  of  the  entire  Chamber,  thus  furnishing  a 
testimonial  of  the  highest  order  of  the  estimation  in  which  the 
work  of  Joseph  Henry  is  held,  and  a  recognition  of  his  rank 
as  a  natural  philosopher  which  some  of  his  own  countrymen 
have  been  somewhat  tardy  to  appreciate  and  acknowledge." 

The  discovery  of  magneto-electric  induction  in  1830  fol- 
lowed that  of  the  extra  or  self-inductive  current,  which,  for  that 
matter,  Henry  always  maintained  should  be  considered  to  be 
identical  with  magneto-electricity,^  and  in  connection  with 
which  he,  first  of  all  men,  obtained  electrical  manifestations 
from  a  magnet. 

"An  electric  current,"  writes  Kennelly,  "was  in  18 19  found 
[by  Oersted]  to  have  magnetic  properties.  Here  in  1830 
the  converse  relation  was  first  noticed,  [by  Henry]  that  a 
conductor  in  motion  through  magnetized  space  developed 
electrical  properties.  The  propositions  in  these  terms  did 
not  receive  full  proof  or  recognition  for  some  years,  but  Henry 
seems  to  have  been  the  first  to  observe  an  electrical  cur- 
rent induced  by  a  magnet." - 

Faraday  made  the  same  discovery  in  1831  with  the  aid  of 
Henry's  two  forms  of  magnets,  and  was  the  first  to  print  the 

1  The  Electrical  Engineer,  March  9,  1892,       American  Inventions,"  in  "  The  United  States 
Volume  XVII,  page  249.  of  America,"  edited  by  X.   S.   Shaler,  New 

2  Kennelly,  A.  E.,  in  chapter  on  "Typical       York,  1894,  Volume  II,  page  143. 


128  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

results  of  his  observations.^  Since  discovery  without  announce- 
ment cannot  claim  a  place  in  history,  except  as  a  matter  of 
biographical  incident,  this  discovery  is  generally  accredited 
to  him.  It  is  proper  that  this  should  be  so,  and  Henry  him- 
self was  too  generous  a  man  ever  publicly  to  claim  any  honor 
in  this  connection.  He  often,  however,  mentioned  to  his 
friends  the  fact  that  he  had  anticipated  Faraday  by  nearly  a 
year.^ 

It  is  even  pathetic  to  read  the  words  of  praise  which  he 
somewhere  printed  concerning  Faraday,  speaking  of  him  as 
"the  discoverer  of  magneto-electricity,  which  had  made  his 
name  immortal." 

It  surely  cannot  be  unjust  to  the  memory  of  Faraday  that 
Henry  should  stand  in  the  records  of  science  as  an  original 
and  independent  discoverer  of  magneto-electricity,  nor  just 
to  Henry,  not  to  state  the  fact,  that,  although  anticipated  in 
publication,  he  was  actually  the  first. 

While  in  Albany  he  constructed  the  electro-magnetic  en- 
gine, which  will  be  referred  to  later,  and  also,  as  his  daughter 
has  shown,  began  the  construction  of  an  instrument  corre- 
sponding to  the  modern  dynamo.^ 

After  his  removal  to   Princeton,   he   carried   on   many  re- 

1  It  was  by  the  same  means  that  Faraday  Unfortunately  he  failed  to  publish  his  dis- 
subsequently  investigated  the  phenomena  covery.  In  continuing  his  remarks,  he  added 
of  magnetism,  and  the  effect  of  magnetic  that  Faraday,  some  time  after,  successfully 
action  upon  polarized  light.  See  Franklin  L.  tried  the  same  experiment,  and  at  once  an- 
Pope,  Joicrnal  of  the  American  Electrical  nounced  it,  before  Professor  Henry's  success 
Society,  1879,  Volume  II,  page  126.  was  publicly  known." 

2  George  W.  Carpenter,  his  associate  and  The  Reverend  Doctor  Cuyler,  one  of  his 
assistant  in  Albany,  in  1826-32,  writes :  "In  earliest  pupils  in  Princeton,  said  he  often 
a  well  remembered  conversation  with  me  he  spoke  to  him  of  his  disappointment  about 
alluded  to  an  incident  in  his  own  experience.  that  discovery.  "  I  ought  to  have  published 
After  retinng  one  night, he  worked  out  men-  earlier,"  he  used  to  say.  "I  ought  to  have 
tally  how  he  could  probably  draw  a  spark  pul^lislied,  but  I  had  so  little  time.  I  desired 
from  the  magnet.  Upon  rising  in  the  morning  to  get  out  my  results  in  good  form,  and  how 
he  hurried  to  his  working  room,  arranged  could  I  know  that  another  on  the  other  side  of 
the  apparatus,  tried  the  experiment,  when  the  Atlantic  was  busy  with  the  same  thing?  " 
success  crowned  his  labor.  He  had  accom-  3  The  Electrical  Engineer,  Volume  Xlli, 
plished  what  had  never  been  done  before.  pages  54,  251. 


The   T J  tree  Secretaries  129 

searches,  all  of  which  are  described  in  Doctor  Taylor's  well- 
known  discourse.^  There  he  prosecuted  his  later  studies 
upon  induction.  He  developed  his  apparatus  for  the  combi- 
nation of  circuits,  the  principle  of  which  underlies  the  various 
forms  and  uses  of  the  relay  magnet,  and  the  receiving  magnet 
and  local  battery,  since  employed  in  the  telegraph.  He  car- 
ried on  his  classical  investigations  upon  successive  orders  of 
induction.^  He  found  that  a  second  induced  current  could 
induce  a  third,  and  the  third  a  fourth,  and  so  on  indefinitely  ; 
that  a  current  of  intensity  could  produce  one  of  quantity,  and 
the  converse ;  and  that  these  currents  could  be  induced  at  a 
distance.  He  obtained  an  induced  current  in  one  room  from  a 
primary  current  in  the  next  room.  From  two  wires  stretched 
perpendicularly  several  hundred  feet  apart,  and  finally  con- 
necting the  tin  roof  of  his  house  with  his  study,  he  mag- 
netized needles  by  induction  from  a  thundercloud  eight  miles 
away. 

The  discovery  of  the  oscillatory  character  of  the  discharge 
from  the  Leyden  jar  —  one  of  his  most  important  contribu- 
tions to  science  —  followed  in  1842.  He  ascertained  that  in 
the  discharge  of  a  jar  an  equilibrium  is  not  instantaneously 
effected  by  the  spark,  but  is  attained  only  after  several  oscil- 
lations of  the  flow;  a  fact  which  was  not  only  in  itself  signifi- 
cant, but  led  to  important  advances  in  theory.^  As  Doctor 
Oliver  Lodge  has  shown,  the  explanations  offered  by  him  in 
connection  with  these  early  experiments  were  almost  pro- 
phetic of  the  great  generalizations  subsequently  made  by 
Clerk-Maxwell  and  others,  but  which  in  the  state  of  electrical 


1  Taylor,  William  B.,  "  The  Scientific  Work  3  See  Barker,  George  F.,  "  Physics,"  New 

of  Joseph   Henry."     Bulletin  of  the  Philo-  York,   1892,  page   613;     Lodge,  Oliver  J., 

sophkal  Society  of  Washington,   1878,  Vol-  "  Modern    Views    of   Electricity,"    London, 

ume    II,  page  230.     "Memorial   of  Jo;,eph  1889,  page  369;   Taylor,  W.  B.,  "Memorial 

Henry,"   1880,  pages  205-425.  of   Joseph    Henry,"    page    255;     Houston, 

'-2  Transactions  American  Philosophical  So-  Edwin  J.,"  Electricity  a  Hundred  Years  Ago 

ciety,  1838,  Volume  vi,  page  303.  and  To-day,"  New  York,  1894,  page  61. 


130  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

science  at  that  day  it  was  impossible  that  any  finite  mind 
should  have  reached. 

In  addition  to  his  brilliant  contributions  to  electrical  science, 
he  carried  on  studies  in  many  other  departments  of  physics. 
Those  in  meteorology  were  very  extensive.  His  experiments 
upon  the  effect  of  the  discharge  of  lightning  from  the  clouds, 
and  upon  the  condition  of  lightning-rods  while  transmitting 
discharges  of  electricity,  were  perhaps  the  most  conspicuous 
of  these.  In  molecular  physics  his  attention  was  given  to 
capillary  absorption  and  the  cohesion  of  liquids,  as  well  as 
to  a  discussion  of  the  atomic  hypothesis  of   Newton. 

He  made  investigations  on  certain  phenomena  connected 
with  light  and  heat.  By  his  experiments  on  the  phosphoro- 
genic  ray  of  the  sun,  he  first  demonstrated  that  it  is  polariza- 
ble  and  refrangible  by  the  laws  which  govern  light.  In  con- 
nection with  Professor  Alexander,  he  carried  on  a  series  of 
experiments  on  the  relative  heat-radiating  power  of  the  sun- 
spots.  He  reflected  heat  from  concave  mirrors  of  ice,  and 
from  his  experiments  drew  conclusions  as  to  the  source  of  the 
heat  derived  from  the  moon.  He  constructed  a  thermal-tele- 
scope, composed  of  a  common  pasteboard  tube,  covered  with 
gilt  paper  and  blackened  internally,  with  which  he  measured 
the  heat  of  distant  objects  :  with  this  he  could  detect  the  heat 
of  a  man's  face  a  mile  off,  and  that  of  a  house  five  miles  off; 
and  with  it  ascertained  that  the  coldest  spot  of  the  sky  is  at 
the  zenith.  He  also  invented  the  method  now  generally  em- 
ployed for  determining  by  the  use  of  electricity  the  velocity 
of  the  flight  of  projectiles. 

Not  only  in  ingenious  experiment  and  the  interpretation  of 
its  results,  not  only  in  the  practical  application  of  Nature's 
laws,  but  still  more  in  his  philosophical  comprehension  of 
Nature  was  manifested  the  greatness  of  Henry.  The  English 
physicist  Fleming,  in  a  recent  work,  writes : 


The   Three  Secretaries  i  ^  i 


"At  the  head  of  this  long  line  of  illustrious  investigators 
stand  the  preeminent  names  of  Faraday  and  Henry.  On 
the  foundation-stones  of  truth  laid  down  by  them  all  sub- 
sequent builders  have  been  content  to  rest.  The  'Experi- 
mental Researches'  of  the  one  have  been  the  guide  of  the 
experimentalist  no  less  than  the  instructor  of  the  student, 
since  their  orderly  and  detailed  statement,  alike  of  triumph- 
ant discovery  and  of  suggestive  failure,  make  them  indepen- 
dent of  any  commentator.  The  '  Scientific  Writings'  of 
Henry  deserve  hardly  less  careful  study,  for  in  them  we  have 
not  only  the  lucid  explanations  of  the  discoverer,  but  the  sug- 
gestions and  ideas  of  a  most  profound  and  inventive  mind, 
and  which  indicate  that  Henry  had  earl)-  touched  levels  of 
discovery  only  just  recently  becoming  fully  worked." 

Such  praise  as  this  is  excellent  evidence  of  the  influence  of 
Henry's  discoveries  upon  the  marvelous  progress  of  electri- 
city during  the  past  five  or  ten  years,  and  what  Fleming  has 
written  concerning  electricity  is  equally  true  of  his  work  in 
many  other  branches  of  science. 


IV. 

The  relation  of  Henry  to  the  beginnings  of  the  telegraph 
have  been  for  half  a  century  the  subject  of  much  discussion 
and  of  controversies  in  which,  during  his  lifetime,  he  stead- 
fastly refused  to  participate.  In  1857,  however,  statements 
were  made  concerning-  some  of  his  acts  which  he  felt  it  his 
duty  to  bring  to  the  attention  of  the  Board  of  Regents,  by 
whom  his  relation  to  the  whole  matter  was  carefully  inves- 
tigated. The  testimony  presented  by  himself  and  others  at 
this  time  is  of  the  greatest  interest  and  importance. 

It  is  not  my  purpose  to  make  far-reaching  claims  for  him, 
yet  a  biographical  sketch  would  be  incomplete  which  should 


132  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

make  no  reference  to  the  facts  upon  which  such  claims  have 
been  founded  by  others. 

His  own  position  in  regard  to  these  matters  should  not  be 
misunderstood.  He  was  professedly  a  discoverer,  and  not  an 
"inventor."  He  said:  "My  ambition  is  to  add  to  the  sum 
of  human  knowledge  by  the  discovery  of  new  truths  which 
may  be  of  some  use  to  the  world.  The  practical  application 
of  these  I  leave  to  others."  When  asked  why  he  had  not 
patented  his  application  of  the  electro-magnet  to  the  tele- 
graph, he  only  replied,  simply:  "I  thought  it  unbecoming 
the  dignity  of  true  science  to  curtail  the  use  of  discovery  to 
personal  and  selfish  uses ;  on  the  contrary,  I  thought  it  right 
to  give  it  to  the  world  as  a  means  of  advancing  humanity." 

His  testimony  on  behalf  of  the  defendant  in  the  Supreme 
Court  case  of  Morse  vs.  O'Reilly,  in  1849,  is  convincing  evi- 
dence of  his  magnanimity,  for  he  made  no  allusion  to  his  own 
experiment  in  Albany  in  which  long-distance  telegraphic 
signals  had  been  made.  "  Had  he  done  so,"  writes  Pope, 
"and  had  others  then  living  and  familiar  with  the  circum- 
stances been  brought  forward  to  corroborate  his  statement, 
the  result  would  inevitably  have  proved  fatal  to  Morse's 
claim  to  the  process  of  producing  sound-signals  at  a  distance 
by  electro-magnetism,  and  would  virtually  have  thrown  the 
whole  invention  open  to  the  public,  a  result  which  Henry 
could  not  but  have  foreseen." 

Before  Henry's  magnets,  and  his  discoveries  in  relation  to 
them,  had  been  made,  the  modern  telegraph  was  still  an  im- 
possibility. It  is  true  that  when  he  began  his  work  the  idea 
of  an  electro-telegraph  was  nearly  a  century  old.  Morrison, 
of  Greenock,  Scotland,  had  as  early  as  i  753  suggested  a  prac- 
tical mode  of  transmitting  messages  by  frictional  electricity, 
and  galvanic  and  chemical  telegraphs  had  been  in  use  from 
the  time  of  Salva  of  Barcelona  to  that  of  the  first  projects  of 


The  Three  Secretaries  133 

Davy  and  Morse.  The  modern,  or  electro-magnetic,  tele- 
graph was  not  proposed,  however,  until  1820,  after  the  revi- 
val by  Oersted  of  the  knowledge  of  the  power  of  the  galvanic 
current  to  deflect  a  suspended  magnetic  needle. 

The  "  needle-telegraph,"  that  in  which  intelligence  is  trans- 
mitted by  the  motion  of  the  galvanoscopic  indicator,  was  the 
form  to  which  the  attention  of  European  theorists  and  in- 
vestigators was  now  directed.  Ampere,  before  1823,  had 
worked  out  the  theory  of  a  telegraph  with  several  needles. 
The  first  operative  system  of  this  type  was  that  devised  in 
1828  by  Triboaillet,  who  employed  a  single  wire  and  a  gal- 
vanoscopic indicator.  Schilling  exhibited  in  Russia  in  1832 
a  single-circuit  instrument  with  thirty-six  needles.  This  was 
improved  and  used  in  experimental  work  at  a  distance  of 
9000  feet  in  Gottingen,  in  1833,  by  Gauss  and  Weber,  who 
utilized  the  discoveries  of  Henry  and  Faraday.^  The  needle- 
indicator  used  by  these  investigators  was  essentially  the  same 
as  that  still  occasionally  employed,  especially  in  connection 
with  long  submarine  cables. 

The  other  form  of  telegraph  is  that  in  which  sounds  and 
permanent  signs  are  made  by  the  attraction  of  an  electro- 
magnet. It  was  this  system  which  Henry  devised  and  used 
in  a  simple  form,  and  this  which  Morse  and  his  staff, 
acting  avowedly  under  the  advice  of  Henry,  were  first  to 
develop  into  a  practical  agency  for  the  transmission  of 
words.  Henry  was  the  first,  as  already  remarked,  to  demon- 
strate the  fact  that  a  galvanic  current  could  be  transmitted  to 
a  great  distance  with  so  little  diminution  of  force  as  to  pro- 
duce mechanical  effects  adequate  to  telegraphic  uses.  He 
actually  constructed,  and  operated  in  Albany,  as  early  as 
1830,  the  first  electro-magnetic  machine  for  producing  at  will 
sounds  that  could  be  heard  at  a  distance,  and  published  at 

1  Gray,  Thomas,  "Proceedings  and  Addresses,  Patent  Centennial  Celebrations,"  page  i8i. 


134  The  Smithsonian  Instihition 

this  time  a  statement  that  the  improvements  made  by  him 
were  "directly  appHcable  to  the  project  of  forming  an  electro- 
magnetic telegraph."^ 

In  other  words,  he  was  the  first  to  construct  and  use  an 
electro-magnetic  acoustic  telegraph  of  a  type  similar  to  that 
which  is  at  present  more  generally  employed  than  any  other 
form.  The  code  of  signals  now  in  general  use  was  yet  to  be 
invented.  Provided  with  such  a  code,  any  operator  could,  by 
the  use  of  Henry's  apparatus,  have  transmitted,  in  183 1,  mes- 
sages of  unlimited  length,  though  of  course  at  slow  speed. ^ 

Before  Henry  made  his  magnets,  and  his  discoveries  in  re- 
lation to  them,  the  telegraph  was  an  impossibility,  for  until 
then  science  was  not  ripe  for  the  telegraph.  Henry's  inten- 
sity magnet  was  the  only  electro-magnet  which  had  ever 
responded  to  electrical  influence  at  any  distance.  Before  it 
was  created  there  could  be  no  electro-magnetic  telegraph. 
Equally  essential  was  his  discovery  of  the  law  by  which  mag- 
net and  battery  were  bound  together  in  mutual  proportion. 

Henry  was  also  the  first  to  use  the  earth  for  a  return  cir- 
cuit, although  the  credit  for  this  is  usually  given  to  Steinheil. 
This  practice  was  in  some  degree  foreshadowed  by  Watson 
and  Franklin,  both  of  whom  used  water  to  conduct  a  return 
current.  Watson  in  this  manner  lighted  alcohol  on  the  further 
side  of  a  pond  ;  Franklin,  across  the  river  Schuylkill.  Watson 
passed  a  current  through  the  earth ;  Franklin  immediately 
showed  by  experiment  that  this  was  due  to  the  constant 
moisture  of  the  earth.  It  was  Henry,  however,  who  first 
practically  used  the  earth  for  a  return  current.      It  is  true  that 

3  Atnerican  Journal  of  Science,  January,  telegraph  was  the  invention  of  the  steel  style 

1831,  Volume  XIX,  page  404.  in  the  extremity  of  the  sounding  lever,  and  a 

2  The  introduction  of  the  second  voltaic  bat-  grooved  roller  into  which  it  could  strike  the 

tery  rendered  possible  results  in  respect  to  paper  as  it  was  drawn  onward  over  the  roller 

speed  not  at  that  time  within  the  range  of  to  emboss  upon  it  the  alphabetical  characters, 

human  achievements.     All  that  was  needed  (F.  O.  J.  Smith,  letter  to  the  Regents  of  the 

to  perfect  Henry's  invention  into  a  recording  Smithsonian  Institution,  March  30,  1S72.) 


The  Three  Secretaries  135 

in  his  testimony  before  the  Supreme  Court  in  1849,  he,  with 
characteristic  modesty,  alluded  to  Steinheil  as  a  discoverer  of 
this  use  of  the  earth, ^  In  1876,  however,  with  the  fuller 
knowledge  which  he  then  possessed,  he  wrote  to  Reverend 
S.   B.   Dod  in  Princeton : 

"  I  think  the  first  actual  line  of  telegraph,  using  the  earth 
as  a  conductor,  was  made  in  the  beginning  of  1836.  A  wire 
was  extended  across  the  front  campus  of  the  college  grounds, 
[in  Princeton]  from  the  upper  story  of  the  library  building  to 
the  philosophical  hall  on  the  opposite  side,  the  ends  termi- 
nating in  two  wells.  Through  this  wire,  signals  were  sent, 
from  time  to  time,  from  my  house  to  my  laboratory."^ 

Another  step  was  his  device,  used  in  Princeton  as  early  as 
1833,  of  opening  one  circuit  by  means  of  another.  By  this 
he  was  able  to  carry  out  his  plan  of  utilizing  the  power  of  a 
quantity  magnet  at  great  distances,  through  the  agency  of  the 
more  sensitive  intensity  magnet.  Of  the  utmost  importance 
has  this  combination  proved  to  the  telegraph  —  its  principle 
underlying  all  the  various  forms  and  uses  of  the  relay  magnet 
and  the  receiving  magnet  and  local  battery  since  employed.^ 

"One  morning,"  writes  Professor  Trowbridge,  "he  came 
into  my  laboratory  at  Cambridge,  and,  after  I  had  shown  him 
various  pieces  of  scientific  apparatus,  he  stood  before  an  elec- 
tro-magnet which  was  working  a  relay  and  looked  long  at 
the  magnet,  and  then  at  the  battery  which  was  coupled  for 
quantity,  and  remarked  in  a  quiet  tone,  as  if  half  to  himself. 
'  If  I  had  patented  that  arrangement  of  magnet  and  battery 
I  should  have  reaped  great  pecuniary  reward  for  my  discovery 
of  the  practical  method  of  telegraphy.'  " 

1 "  Smithsonian  Report,"  1857,  page  113.  3  A    circuit-breaker    made    and    used    by 

2  "Memorial    of   Joseph    Henry, "'    i8So,       Henry  in    Princeton  is  now  in   the    United 
page  150.  States  National  Museum. 


136  The  Smithsonian  Instittition 

Sir  Charles  Wheatstone,  who,  with  his  associate,  Sir  Wil- 
liam Fothergill  Cooke,  developed  the  system  of  Schilling  after 
it  left  the  hands  of  Gauss  and  Weber,  was  the  first  to  bring 
tlie  telegraph  into  practical  commercial  use ;  and  although 
his  plan,  involving  as  it  did  the  employment  of  a  number  of 
separate  line  wires  and  needle-indicators,  was  soon  abandoned 
on  account  of  its  expense  and  perplexity,  it  is  still  the  popular 
belief  in  England  that  Wheatstone  was  the  inventor  of  the 
electric  telegraph.  The  reason  for  this  is,  in  part,  that  he  was 
the  first  in  England  to  secure  patents  for  the  telegraph;  and, 
in  part  also,  that  he  at  one  time  claimed  to  have  been  the 
discoverer  of  the  intensity  magnet.  There  is,  nevertheless, 
good  reason  to  believe  that  Wheatstone  was  directly  indebted 
to  Henry  for  the  information  which  enabled  him  to  utilize  the 
intensity  magnet  in  connection  with  his  telegraph.  He  was 
engaged  in  his  experiments  when  visited  by  Henry  and 
Bache  at  King's  College,  in  April,  1837,  and  his  apparatus 
was  examined  and  his  plans  discussed  by  them.  He  had  al- 
ready found  the  electro-magnet  inefficient  as  a  sound-signal, 
and  was  endeavoring  to  introduce  a  secondary  circuit  as  a 
remedy  for  the  diminution  of  force  encountered  in  the  long 
circuit.  Henry  has  recorded  that  he  then  explained  to 
Wheatstone  a  different  method  of  bringing  the  second  gal- 
vanic circuit  into  action,  and  it  was  Henry's  method  which 
Wheatstone  employed  in  his  final  successes.^ 

"It  is  evident,"  writes  Mr.  Fahie,  an  English  expert,  "that 
it  was  not  until  after  the  interview  with  Henry  that  Wheat- 
stone recognized  the  applicability  of  Ohm's  law  to  tele- 
graphic circuits."^  Mr.  Fahie,  however,  ignores  the  fact  that 
it  was  Henry's  discovery,  and  not  Ohm's  formula,  which  was 

1  Cooke  records  that  on  many  occasions  in  2  Fahie,  J.  J.,  "  A  History  of  Electric  Tele- 
March  and  April   the  efforts  of  Wheatstone  graphy   to   the  Year  1837,"    London,  1884, 
and  himself  to  excite  magnetism  at  long  dis-  page  515. 
tances  were  unsuccessful. 


The  Three  Secretaries  137 

adopted  by  Wheatstone,  for  Ohm's  law  was  at  that  time  un- 
known in  England,  as  well  as  in  America. 

Although  Wheatstone  in  his  controversy  with  Cooke,  in 
1 84 1,  claimed  as  his  own  the  discovery  that  electro-magnets 
may  be  so  constructed  as  to  produce  the  required  effects  by 
means  of  a  direct  current,  even  in  very  long  circuits,  he  sub- 
sequently, in  1856,  referring  to  the  same  early  experiments, 
wrote:  "With  this  law  and  its  applications,  no  persons  iii 
England  who  had  loefore,  occupied  themselves  with  experi- 
ments relating  to  electric  telegraphs,  had  been  acquainted."^ 
This  can  only  be  interpreted  as  an  admission  of  Henry's 
priority."  There  was  never,  it  is  true,  an  acknowledgment 
from  Wheatstone  of  his  indebtedness  to  Henry  for  advice 
which  enabled  him  to  perfect  his  experiment  in  1837;  but,  as 
has  been  pointed  out,  it  is  a  very  significant  fact  that  in 
March,  1837.  the  magnet  was  discarded  by  Wheatstone ;  in 
April  his  interview  with  Henry  took  place,  and  in  April  the 
magnet  was  again  employed  and  the  success  of  the  English 
telegraph  secured. 

The  following  summary  is  quoted  from  a  well-known  Eng- 
lish authority : 

"  It  was  only  by  Henry's  discoveries  that  the  electro-mag- 
netic telegraph  of  Morse  became  possible,  and  Morse  himself, 
before  he  became  involved  in  patent  ligitation,  freely  acknow- 
ledged his  indebtedness  to  Henry.  But  Professor  Henry,  long 
before  Morse's  telegraph  came  before  the  world,  had  sug- 
gested the  application  of  his  electro-magnets  to  telegraphy, 
and  had  even  constructed  a  form  of  bell-telegraph  for  experi- 
mental purposes  which  answered  remarkably  well.  Henry, 
however,    had   for   his   object    'the   advancement  of  science, 

1  Cooke,  William   Fothergill,  "  The  Elec-  2  The   Electrical   Engineer,  January    13, 

trie  Telegraph:    Was  it  Invented   by   Pro-  1892,  Volume  xili,  page  30  (footnote) ;   Pope, 

fessor  Wheatstone  ?  "    Part  li,  London,  1857,  Franklin    Leonard,    "Life    and    Work    of 

page  57.     A  series  of  controversial  papers  Joseph  Henry,"  iS"]^,  Journal  0/ the  Ameri- 

between  Cooke  and  Wheatstone.  can  Electrical  Society,  Volume  11,  page  134. 

10 


138  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

without  any  special  or  immediate  reference  to  its  application 
to  the  wants  of  life  or  useful  purposes  in  the  arts.'  He 
sought  no  patents  for  inventions,  and  solicited  no  remunera- 
tion for  his  labors,  other  than  credit  for  having  done  what  it 
was  in  him  to  do  for  the  promotion  of  scientific  knowledge. 
He  gave  freely  to  the  world  the  results  of  his  researches,  and 
others  devoted  themselves  to  the  practical  applications  of  the 
principles  which  he  discovered.  Of  these  were  not  only 
Morse  in  America,  but  Wheatstone  and  Cooke  in  this  coun- 
try. It  has  been  amply  demonstrated  that  these  inventors 
were  at  a  standstill  in  the  early  part  of  1837  for  the  want  of  a 
means  of  producing  a  strong  effect  at  the  receiving  station. 
Although  Henry  had  clearly  shown  the  advantage  of  employ- 
ing closely  wound  coils  of  fine  wire  in  1831,  Wheatstone 
knew  nothing  apparently  of  this,  and  remained  in  ignorance 
until  April,  1837,  when  he  was  enlightened  by  Professor 
Henry  himself.  We  are  firmly  convinced  that  Henry  did 
more  for  the  advancement  of  the  telegraph  than  has  ever  yet 
been  adequately  acknowledged."  ^ 

Another  practical  outgrowth  of  his  early  investigations  in 
connection  with  which  his  name  has  less  frequently  been 
mentioned,  because  perhaps  there  has  been  less  controversy 
in  regard  to  its  history,  was  the  production  of  mechanical 
power  by  electro-magnetism. 

Henry  in  1829  constructed  the  first  electro-magnetic  motor, 
an  oscillating  machine  with  automatic  pole-changer.  This  he 
described  in  1831."  In  1833  Sturgeon  constructed  the  first 
rotary  motor,  which  he  exhibited  to  the  learned  men  in  Lon- 
don, giving  to  Henry  credit  for  priority  in  construction  of 
electro-magnetic  engines. 

The  English  electrician  Joule  writes : 

"It  is  to  the  ingenious  American  philosopher  that  we  are 
indebted  for  the  first  form  of  the  working  model  of  an  engine 

1  Electrical  Revic7v,  London,  August  12,  1887,  Volume  xxi,  page  162. 
2  American  Jomita I  of  Science,  183 1,  Volume  xx,  page  340. 


The  Three  Secretaries  139 

upon  the  principle  of  reciprocating-  polarity  of  soft  iron  by 
electro-dynamic  agency."  ^ 

Henry's  oscillating  machine  was  the  forerunner  of  all  our 
modern  electrical  motors.  The  rotary  motor  of  to-day  is  the 
direct  outgrowth  of  his  improvement  in  magnets. 

It  should  also  be  stated  that  he  had  as  early  as  1832,  or 
before,  applied  one  of  his  great  magnets  to  the  separation  of 
magnetic  iron  from  other  substances,  and  in  1833  this  system, 
which  has  since  become  one  of  great  industrial  importance, 
was  put  into  actual  use  at  the  Penfield  Iron-Works,  in  the 
village  of  Port  Henry,  named  at  that  time  in  honor  of  the 
Albany  professor. 

Thomas  Davenport,  a  blacksmith  from  Salisbury,  Vermont, 
who  visited  the  Port  Henry  iron-works  about  this  time, 
bought  one  of  the  magnets  and  used  it  in  the  experiments 
which  led  not  only  to  the  construction  by  him  of  the  earliest 
operating  rotary  motors,  but  which  within  two  years  led "  to 
the  beginning  of  the  electric  railroad;  for  he  exhibited  in 
1835,  in  Springfield,  Troy,  and  Philadelphia,  not  only  rotary 
motors  in  action,  but  a  model  engine  carrying  its  own  magnet, 
which  ran  around  upon  a  circular  track. 

Even  more  sicrnificant  than  the  invention  of  this  enoflne 
was  Henry's  philosophic  and  far-reaching  appreciation  of 
what  it  meant  for  the  future.  "So  far  from  giving  way  to  the 
natural  enthusiasm  of  the  successful  inventor,"  writes  Pope, 
**  Henry  proceeded,  with  calm  sobriety  of  judgment,  to  fore- 
cast the  future  possibilities  of  the  new  motor.  He  was  soon 
led  to  see  that  under  the  conditions  of  knowledge  then  exist- 
ing, the  power  could  only  be  derived  from  the  oxidation  of 
zinc   in   a  galvanic  battery,  and  hence  the   heat  energy  re- 

1  Joule,  James  P., "  Historical  Sketch  of  the  cal,  Statistical,  and  Technical."'  A  paper  read 
Rise  and  Progress  of  Electro-magnetic  En-  before  the  New  York  Electric  Club,  January 
gines  for  Propelling  Machinery."  22,  1891,  by  Franklin  Leonard  Pope.     See 

2  "  Notes  on  the  Electric  Railway :  Histori-  The  Electrical  Etigimer,  January  28,  1891. 


140  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

quired  in  the  original  smelting  of  the  metal  must  represent  at 
least  an  equal  amount  of  power.  Hence  his  conclusion  that 
the  fuel  required  for  that  purpose  might  with  better  advan- 
tage be  employed  directly  in  performing  the  required  work. 

"While  feeling  thus  sure  that  electricity  could  not  hope  to 
compete  with,  much  less  to  supersede,  steam  as  a  primary 
source  of  power,  Henry,  nevertheless,  did  not  hesitate  to  pre- 
dict that  the  electric  motor  was  destined  in  the  future  to  oc- 
cupy an  extensive  field  of  usefulness,  particularly  in  applica- 
tions in  which  absolute  theoretical  economy  was  subordinate 
to  more  important  considerations. 

"  Time  has  shown  that  Henry's  conception  of  the  legitimate 
held  of  the  electric  motor  was  prophetically  accurate.' 


"  1 


V. 

With  the  oreanization  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  in 
1846  came  an  entire  change  in  Henry's  life.  Many  years 
before,  while  he  was  still  a  teacher  in  Albany,  Smithson  had 
died  in  Genoa,  leaving  his  bequest  "for  the  increase  and  dif- 
fusion of  knowledge  among  men."  When  Henry  first  visited 
Europe,  in  1837,  the  bequest  had  only  just  become  known, 
and  the  claim  of  the  United  States  was  in  course  of  prosecu- 
tion in  London.  To  this  circumstance  may,  perhaps,  be  at- 
tributed the  interest  which  he  seemed  always  to  have  felt  in 
the  disposition  of  the  Smithson  fund.  In  the  fall  of  1846,  after 
the  Regents  of  the  new  Institution  had  been  appointed,  a 
committee  of  their  own  number  was  chosen  to  digest  a  plan 
to  carry  out  the  provisions  of  the  Act  to  establish  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution.  Henry's  advice  was  sought  by  them,  and 
the  plan  proposed  by  him  was  embodied  in  the  report  which 
they  presented  to  the  Board  on  the  first  of  December.     It 

1  The  Electrical  Engineer,  London,  February  13,  1891,  Volume  Vll,  page  169. 


The  Three  Secretaries  141 

was  with  a  knowledge  of  this  fact  that,  at  their  meeting  of 
December  3,  he  was  elected  to  the  Secretaryship,  after  the 
following  resolutions  had  been  passed: 

"  Resolved,  That  it  is  essential,  for  the  advancement  of  the 
proper  interests  of  the  trust,  that  the  Secretary  of  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution  be  a  man  possessing  weight  of  character, 
and  a  high  grade  of  talent ;  and  that  it  is  further  desirable 
that  he  possess  eminent  scientific  and  general  acquirements ; 
that  he  be  a  man  capable  of  advancing  science  and  promoting 
letters  by  original  research  and  effort,  well  qualified  to  act  as 
a  respected  channel  of  communication  between  the  Institution 
and  scientific  and  literary  individuals  and  societies  in  this  and 
foreign  countries  ;  and,  in  a  word,  a  man  worthy  to  represent 
before  the  world  of  science  and  of  letters  the  institution  over 
which  this  Board  presides." 

"  It  does  not  need  to  be  said,"  writes  Doctor  Welling,  "  that 
Professor  Henry  did  not  seek  this  appointment.  It  came  to 
him  unsolicited,  but  it  came  to  him  from  the  Board  of  Regents, 
not  only  by  the  free  choice  of  its  members,  but  also  at  the 
suggestion  and  with  the  approval  of  European  men  of  science 
like  Sir  David  Brewster,  Faraday,  and  Arago,  as  also  of 
American  scientific  men  like  Bache  and  Silliman  and  Hare. 
I  well  remember  to  have  heard  the  late  George  M.  Dallas  (a 
member  of  the  constituent  Board  of  Regents  by  virtue  of  his 
office  as  Vice-President  of  the  United  States)  make  the  re- 
mark on  a  public  occasion,  immediately  after  the  election  of 
Professor  Henry  as  Director  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution, 
that  the  Board  had  not  had  the  slightest  hesitation  in  tender- 
ing the  appointment  to  him  *  as  being  peerless  among  the 
recoQfnized  heads  of  American  science.'  " 

He  accepted  the  election  on  December  7,  and  on  the  21st 
appeared  at  a  meeting  of  the  Board  of  Regents  and  en- 
tered upon  the  duties  of  his  ofiice.     The  first  duty  imposed 

10* 


142  The  Smithsonian  Instihttion 

upon  him  by  the  Board  was  the  preparation  of  a  program 
of  organization,  which  was  presented  on  December  8,  1847, 
and  in  its  essential  features  adopted  on  the   13th.     By  this 
•'Plan  of  Organization"  and  the  brief  essay  in  which  it  was 
explained  and  illustrated,  the  future  character  of  the  Institu- 
tion was  determined.    It  was  shown  that  the  Institution  is  not 
a  national  establishment   in   the   sense  in  which  institutions 
dependent  on  the  government  are  so,  and  that  its  operations 
ought  to  be  mingled  as  little  as  possible  with  those  of  the 
government,  and  its  funds  applied  exclusively  and  faithfully 
to  the  diffusion  of  knowledge  among  men  ;  that  the  bequest 
is  intended  for  the  benefit  of  mankind  in  general,  and  that  its 
influence  ought  not  to  be  restricted  to  a  single  district  or  even 
nation  ;  that  the  terms  "increase"  and  "diffusion"  of  know- 
ledge are  logically  distinct,  and  should  be  literally  interpreted 
with   reference  to  the  will ;   that  the  increase  of  knowledge 
should    be    effected    by   the   encouragement    of  original    re- 
searches of  the  highest  character  and  its  diffusion  by  the  pub- 
lication of  the  results  of  original  research,  by  means  of  the 
publication  of  a  series  of  volumes  of  original  memoirs ;  that 
the  operations  of  the  Institution  should  not  be  restricted  in 
favor  of  any  particular  kind  of  knowledge,  though  if  prefer- 
ence is  to  be  given  to  any  branches  of  research,  they  should 
be  to  the  higher  and  apparently  more  abstract,  to  the  dis- 
covery of  new  principles  rather  than  of  isolated  facts. 

These  were,  in  brief,  the  principles  announced  in  this  mas- 
terly treatise. 

In  the  second  part  of  the  program  propositions  were 
made  in  regard  to  the  promotion  of  certain  interests  pre- 
scribed in  the  plan  adopted  by  Congress:  the  accumulation 
and  care  of  collections  of  objects  of  nature  and  art,  the  de- 
velopment of  a  library,  the  providing  of  courses  of  lectures, 
and  the  organization  of  a  national  system  of  meteorological 
observation. 


The  Three  Secretaries  143 

It  was  from  the  beginning  Henry's  belief  that  expenditures 
from  the  Smithson  fund  for  objects  such  as  those  last  men- 
tioned were  not  justifiable,  and  that  museums,  libraries,  and 
lectures,  being  in  one  sense  local  objects,  should  be  supported 
from  the  revenues  of  the  government.  Still  more  strenuously 
was  he  opposed  to  the  erection  of  an  expensive  building,  and 
by  painstaking  economy  during  his  long  period  of  office  he 
succeeded  in  restoring  to  the  fund  the  amount  which,  in  his 
opinion,  had  been  improperly  invested  in  stone  and  mortar. 
He  never  ceased  to  urge  upon  the  Regents  and  upon  Con- 
gress the  impropriety  of  burdening  the  legacy  of  the  founder 
with  expenditures  which  he  deemed  in  large  degree  local, 
either  to  the  City  of  Washington  or  to  the  United  States,  and 
to  urge  that  "the  bequest  was  intended  for  the  benefit  of  man 
in  general."  As  the  result  of  this  policy  he  had  the  satis- 
faction, before  his  death,  of  seeing  the  library,  which  soon 
became  great  and  cumbersome,  received  and  cared  for  at 
government  expense  in  connection  with  the  Library  of  Con- 
gress; the  meteorological  service  transformed  into  a  perma- 
nent weather  bureau  and  transferred  to  the  War  Department ; 
the  National  Museum  supported  by  direct  appropriations,  and 
the  system  of  international  exchanges  in  large  part  main- 
tained by  government  grants;  while  the  resources  of  the  In- 
stitution were  left  comparatively  free,  to  be  used  for  the 
increase  and  diffusion  of  knowledge  for  the  benefit  of  the 
entire  world. 

Concerning  the  details  of  his  administrative  work,  more 
cannot  be  said  than  that  in  the  routine  of  each  day  he  em- 
ployed the  same  conscientious  methods  and  the  same  powers 
of  mind  which  he  had  been  accustomed  to  use  in  his  investi- 
gation of  the  laws  of  nature.  But  for  the  man,  the  devotion 
with  which  he  worked,  and  the  fact  that  his  life  was  spared  to 
labor  for  the  Institution  for  nearly  a  third  of  a  century,  it  is 


144  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

not  impossible  that  the  uncanny  predictions  of  John  Quincy 
Adams  as  to  the  fate  of  the  Smithsonian  bequest  might  have 
been  fulfilled. 

It  was  much  for  the  Institution  to  have  secured  as  an  or- 
ganizer a  man  of  such  commanding  abilities,  of  such  wide 
and  lofty  aims,  and  one  whose  character  was  noble  beyond 
the  possibility  of  any  tarnish.  It  was  much,  on  the  other 
hand,  for  Henry  to  abandon  the  life  of  an  investigator,  at  the 
very  time  when  the  promise  of  the  future  was  so  brilliant. 
He  was  fully  conscious  of  his  own  great  powers  and  that  he 
was  sacrificing,  as  he  expressed  it,  "future  fame  to  present 
reputation."  He  understood,  however,  the  opportunities  for 
good  which  the  new  position  would  afford,  and,  with  a  full 
appreciation  of  what  he  was  doing,  cheerfully  sacrificed  his 
own  scientific  career  to  what  he  knew  would  be  for  all  time  a 
powerful  aid  to  the  work  of  investigators  without  number. 
By  this  act  he  did  much  toward  establishing  the  profession 
of  scientific  administration  —  a  profession  which  in  the  com- 
plexity of  modern  civilization  is  becoming  more  and  more  es- 
sential to  scientific  progress.  That  he  himself  appreciated 
this  fact  is  clearly  shown  in  his  loving  eulogy  of  his  friend 
Alexander  Dallas  Bache ;  and  yet  it  is  not  impossible  that  he 
was  mistaken  in  supposing  that  this  change  of  activities  had 
lessened    the    chance    of  future    fame.     For    so  lono-  as  the 

o 

Smithsonian  Institution  endures,  the  name  of  its  first  Sec- 
retary will  be  remembered  with  it. 


VI. 

After  his  election  to  the  Secretaryship,  Professor  Henry, 
although  by  a  special  resolution  of  the  Board  of  Regents, 
January  26,  1847,  "requested  to  continue  his  researches  in 
physics,  and  to  present  such  facts  and  principles  as  may  be 


TJie  Three  Secretaries  145 

developed  for  publication  in  the  '  Smithsonian  Contributions,'" 
did  not  find  it  consistent  with  his  duties,  as  he  understood 
them,  to  take  time  necessary  for  any  continuous  laboratory 
work  in  connection  with  the  labors  of  organizing  and  shap- 
ing the  character  of  the  new  foundation. 

His  annual  reports,  which  were  models  of  full  and  exact 
administrative  treatment,  were  always  written  by  himself,  and 
abounded  in  critical  and  philosophical  remarks  bearing  not 
only  upon  the  work  of  the  Institution,  but  also  upon  the  sig- 
nificance of  the  work  in  which  it  was  engaged,  and  its  rela- 
tions to  the  scientific  questions  of  the  day.  During  the  first 
ten  years  his  papers  were  but  few.  At  the  meeting  of  the 
American  Association  in  1850,  he  remarked,  at  the  conclusion 
of  a  brief  conversation,  that  for  the  last  three  and  a  half 
years  all  his  time  and  all  his  thought  had  been  given  to  the 
details  of  the  business  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  ;  he  had 
been  obliged  to  withdraw  himself  entirely  from  scientific  re- 
search ;  but  he  hoped,  now  the  Institution  had  been  gotten 
under  way,  and  the  Regents  had  allowed  him  some  able  as- 
sistants, that  he  would  be  enabled,  in  part  at  least,  to  return 
to  his  first  love  —  the  investigation  of  the  phenomena  of 
nature. 

His  anticipations  were  not,  however,  to  be  realized  in  the 
manner  hoped  for.  His  subsequent  work  in  science  was  for 
the  most  part  that  which  grew  out  of  his  official  connections, 
and  his  published  papers  such  as  embodied  trains  of  thought 
suggested  by  the  administrative  work  which  he  was  directing. 
His  studies  upon  direct  and  reflected  sound  grew  out  of 
his  experiments  to  remedy  the  defects  of  a  Smithsonian  hall 
intended  for  public  speaking.  His  generalizations  in  regard 
to  the  primary  powers  in  connection  with  which  he  expressed 
his  views  on  the  correlation  of  physical  and  organic  forces, 
were   developed  in  an  address  upon  "The  Improvement  of 


14^  The  Smithsoniait  Institution 

the  Mechanical  Arts,"deHvered  at  an  exhibition  of  the  Wash- 
ington Mechanics'  Institute.  His  classical  "Thoughts  on 
Education  "  were  delivered  by  him  on  the  occasion  of  his  re- 
tirement from  the  presidency  of  the  Association  for  the  Ad- 
vancement of  Education.  Out  of  the  wealth  of  his  obser- 
vations and  reflections  in  connection  with  the  Smithsonian 
meteorological  work  was  developed  his  memoir  upon  "Meteor- 
ology in  Connection  with  Agriculture,"  which  was  published 
in  the  reports  of  the  Commissioner  of  Agriculture  for  five 
successive  years,  1855  to  1859.  This  forms  a  volume  of  four 
hundred  pages,  by  far  the  most  extensive  of  his  published 
writings,  which  is  still  a  standard  work  of  reference  among 
students  of  this  science.  There  was,  indeed,  no  subject  in 
which  he  took  a  keener  interest  than  meteorology,  and  to  his 
practical  methods  was  due  the  daily  weather  map,  essentially 
in  its  present  form.  How  early  this  interest  began  is  shown 
by  the  following  extracts  from  his  note-books,  hitherto  un- 
printed. 

Under  date  of  February  9,  1849,  occurs  the  following 
entry : 

"  I  have  had  in  my  mind  a  fine  scheme  with  the  telegraph. 
Instantaneous  observations,  on  the  Aurora,  on  the  thunder- 
storm, the  beginning  of  storms,  etc.,  etc." 

Also,  under  date  of  March  12,  the  following: 

"  Mr.  Redfield  highly  approves  plan  of  using  telegraph  for 
meteorological  purposes.  The  following  places  should  be 
made  stations:  Portland,  Boston,  New  York,  Philadelphia, 
Baltimore,  Washington,  Norfolk,  Charleston,  Savannah,  Mo- 
bile, Pensacola,  Augusta,  Nashville,  New  Orleans  (northern 
and  southern). 

"Galena,  St.  Louis,  Chicago,  Buffalo,  Albany,  Boston 
(western). 


The   Three  Secretaries  147 

"Times  —  mornino-,  noon,  and  night,  or  morning  and  night. 
Most  important  observations  :  i.  Barometer.  2.  Face  of  the 
sky.  3,  Direction  and  force  of  the  wind.  The  rise  of  the 
barometer  will  precede  a  fall." 

Under  May  19,  is  the  following  entry  : 

"Wrote  to  Judge  McLean  to  give  me  an  account  of  his 
obs.  on  thunderstorms.  Thunder  storms  come  from  the 
west  at  Washington  —  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river  divide, 
one  part  down,  the  other  to  Baltimore.  Prepare  circulars 
relative  to  storms  of  this  kind." 

The  "Instructions  for  Meteorological  Observers"  were  writ- 
ten by  his  own  hand.  The  instruments  for  distribution  were 
tested  by  him,  and  that  magnificent  corps  of  observers  whose 
contributions,  covering  a  period  of  thirty  years,  constitute 
a  considerable  portion  of  the  foundation  of  meteorological 
science,  was  kept  together  by  his  personal  labor  in  corre- 
spondence. 

His  original  study  was  not  limited,  however,  to  electricity 
or  to  physics.  He  entered  every  field  into  which  human 
thought  may  enter. 

He  was,  perhaps,  the  first  to  work  out  a  theory  of  the  cor- 
relation of  physical,  chemical,  and  vital  forces.  This  was  in 
1844.      His  conclusions  were  essentially  as  follows:  ^ 

"They  who  are  disposed  to  continue  the  speculation  .  .  . 
may  extend  the  generalization  so  as  to  reduce  all  mechanical 
motion  on  the  surface  of  the  earth  to  a  source  from  without. 
Thus  .  .  .  the  mechanical  power  exerted  by  animals  is  due 
to  the  passage  of  organized  matter  in  the  body  from  an  un- 
stable to  a  stable  equilibrium  [or,  as  it  were,]  (from  the  combus- 

"^  Proceedings  of  the  American  Philosophical  page  215;  The  London,  Edinburgh,  and 
Society,  1844,  Volume  iv,  page  127;  Anier-  DuUin  Philosophical  Magazine,  1845,  Vol- 
ican  Journal  of  Scietue,  1845,  Volume  XI.VIII,       ume  xxvi,  page  541. 


148  The  Smithsonian  Institutioti 

tion  of  fuel).^  It  would  therefore  appear  to  follow  that  animal 
power  is  referable  to  the  same  sources  as  that  from  the  com- 
bustion of  fuels  [namely,  the  decomposing-  energy  of  the  sun's 
rays].  .  .  .  Vitality  is  that  mysterious  principle  which  propa- 
gates a  form  and  arranges  the  atoms  of  organizable  matter, 
while  the  power  with  which  it  operates,  is  derived  from  the 
divellent  power  of  the  sunbeam."  ^ 

Later,  in  1857,  his  theory  was  more  fully  elaborated,  and 
even  then  long  antedated  Doctor  William  B.  Carpenter's  bet- 
ter known  essay,  "On  the  Application  of  the  Principle  of  the 
Conservation  of  Force  to  Physiology,"  1884,  in  which  much 
of  the  same  ground  was  gone  over  as  if  for  the  first  time, 
the  author  being  evidently  in  ignorance  of  Henry's  previous 
paper.  Others  had,  however,  been  at  work  between  1844 
and  1857,  and  it  was  to  this  fact  that  Professor  Lovering 
alluded  when  he  said : 

"  In  this  connection  Henry's  views  on  the  correlation  of 
the  physical  and  organic  forces  may  be  recalled,  which  only 
lacked  the  fuller  development  and  wider  publication  which  he 
finally  gave  to  them  to  have  secured  for  him  the  first  com- 
plete announcement  of  one  of  the  grandest  generalizations  of 
modern  science."  ^ 

The  latest  and  most  comprehensive  generalization  in  phy- 
sics—  that  which  culminated  in  the  researches  of  Hertz  — 
seems  also  in  a  certain  way  to  have  been  foreseen  by  Joseph 
Henry,  much  as  those  of  Joule  were  foreseen  by  Lord  Bacon 
and  by  Thompson. 

"Faraday's  immortal  researches,  Clerk  Maxwell's  pro- 
phetic investigations,   and   Hertz's   convincing   experiments," 

1  This  condensation  is  Henry's  own,  and  is  2  «<  Scientific  Writings  of  Josepli  Henry," 

contained  in  Professor  Taylor's  "  Memorial       Volume  I,  page  222. 
of  Joseph  Henry,"  page  273.  3  «  Memorial  of  Joseph  Henry,"  page  438. 


The  Three  Secretaries  149 

writes  Preece,  "have  definitely  and  conclusively  proved  the 
existence  of  one  medium  throughout  all  space,  called  the 
ether,  through  which  waves  of  energy,  called  radiations,  are 
propagated  with  the  same  velocity,  but  in  different  forms  and 
with  different  frequencies,  although  all  of  the  same  charac- 
ter. At  one  end  of  the  scale  we  have  actinic  disturbances 
producing  photographic  impressions ;  at  the  other  end  of  the 
scale  electric  waves  producing  electro-magnetic  disturbances, 
while  the  intermediate  radiations  give  light  and  heat."  ^ 

Compare  now  the  summary  of  present  opinions  just  quoted, 
omitting  only  the  words  within  the  brackets  (which  I  have 
myself  added),  with  what  Henry  wrote  nearly  half  a  century 
before : 

"We  cannot  avoid  the  conclusion  [that]  all  the  phenomena 
of  the  imponderables  result  from  the  different  actions  of  one 
all-pervading  principle.  .  .  .  An  iron  rod,  rapidly  hammered, 
becomes  red  hot,  or,  in  other  words,  emits  heat  and  light. 
The  same  rod,  insulated  by  a  non-conductor,  exhibits  electri- 
cal attraction  and  repulsion.  Again,  if  this  rod  be  struck  with 
a  hammer  while  in  a  vertical  position,  it  becomes  magnetic. 
We  have  here  the  evolution  of  the  four  classes  of  phenomena 
by  a  simple  agitation  of  the  atoms.  We  cannot,  in  accor- 
dance with  the  known  simplicity  of  the  operations  of  nature, 
for  a  moment  imagine  that  these  different  results  are  to  be 
referred  to  as  many  different  and  independent  principles."^ 

So  far  as  theory  goes,  it  would  seem  that  Clerk  Maxwell's 
proposition  in  1865,  that  light  is  an  electro-magnetic  distur- 
bance, was  simply  a  variation  of  the  previous  proposition  of 
Henry,  and  that  Henry's  utterance  was  an  indication  of  the 
deep  insight  into  the  inevitable  future  course  of  experimental 
research  in  this  direction.     The  facts  brought  out  by  Max- 

1  "  Electric    Signalling    without    Wires,"  '^  Proceedings  of  (he  American  Association 

Journal  of  t/ie  Sociefy  of  Arts,  Volume  XLII,  for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  1851,  Vol- 
pages  274,  275,  February  23,  1S94.  ume  VI,  pages  S4-91. 


150  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

well,  taken  in  connection  with  the  experiments  of  Hertz,  have 
demonstrated  that  optics  is  a  department  of  electricity. 

"To  produce  radiation,"  comments  Barker,  "it  is  necessary- 
only  to  produce  electric  oscillations  of  sufficiently  short  period. 
An  atom  of  sodium  vibrates  five  hundred  million  times  in  one 
millionth  of  a  second.  Could  we  produce  electric  atomic 
oscillations  at  this  rate  and  permanently  maintain  them  we 
could  produce  light.  The  problem  of  the  age  is,  how  to  con- 
vert some  other  form  of  energy  into  the  energy  of  light. 
That  this  is  possible  in  theory,  Rayleigh  long  ago  showed. 
That  it  is  actually  accomplished  in  nature,  Langley's  remark- 
able measurements  upon  the  glow-worm  abundantly  confirm."^ 

Another  evidence  of  the  penetration,  as  well  as  the  inde- 
pendence of  his  thought  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  he  was 
among  the  earliest  of  American  men  of  science  to  approve 
the  theory  of  evolution,  as  announced  by  Darwin.  In  1864 
he  wrote  to  Asa  Gray,  who  soon  after  the  publication  of  the 
"  Origin  of  the  Species"  had  become  one  of  the  warmest  and 
most  influential  of  its  authorized  champions,  in  these  words: 

"I  have  given  the  subject  of  evolution  much  thought,  and 
have  come  to  the  conclusion  that  it  is  the  best  working  hy- 
pothesis which  you  naturalists  have  .got.  It,  in  fact,  gives 
you  the  first  basis  or  real  scientific  foundation  to  stand  upon 
which  you  have  ever  had." 

Doctor  Gray  was  at  that  time  in  the  midst  of  a  vigorous 
controversy  upon  this  subject  with  many  of  the  principal 
American  naturalists,  the  most  uncompromising  of  whom  was 
Agassiz.  Although  Henry's  views  were  not  made  public,  it 
was  generally  understood  that  he  sympathized  with  Darwin 
and  Gray.  Agassiz,  at  that  time  a  Regent  of  the  Institution, 
earnestly  remonstrated  with  him  and  urged  that  he  should 

1  Barker,  George  F.,  "  Physics,"  New  York,  1892,  page  873. 


The   Three  Secretaries  151 

take  no  stand  for  or  against  the  theory;  and  his  remon- 
strances were  supported  by  those  of  a  number  of  his  friends 
in  Washington,  members  of  the  church  which  he  was  accus- 
tomed to  attend,  who  were  greatly  disturbed  that  he  should 
entertain  opinions  which  seemed  so  heterodox  and  dangerous. 
His  attitude  was  never  shaken,  however,  although  he  never 
felt  called  upon  to  express  his  views  publicly.  "  I  am  a  physi- 
cist, and  not  a  naturalist,"  said  he,  "and  it  is  not  proper  for 
me  to  participate  in  this  discussion  ;  but  if  there  is  any  science 
in  natural  history,  this  is  the  first  step  which  has  ever  been 
taken  to  demonstrate  it." 

Much  of  his  most  careful  work  was  in  connection  with  eco- 
nomic problems  submitted  to  him  individually,  or  as  a  member 
of  various  commissions,  by  the  government  of  the  United 
States.  In  1851  he  was  actively  concerned  in  the  modes  of 
testing  building  materials,  in  connection  with  the  examination 
of  marble  for  the  extension  of  the  United  States  Capitol.  In 
1855  he  used  the  great  tower  of  the  Institution  building  for 
experiments  to  test  a  new  process  for  procuring  alcohol,  for 
which  a  patent  had  been  granted. 

In  1852,  when  the  Lighthouse  Board  of  the  United  States 
was  organized.  President  Fillmore  appointed  him  one  of  its 
members ;  and  on  this  Board  he  served  until  his  death,  and 
from  1 87 1  to  1877  was  its  chairman.  He  thus  had  opportunity 
to  make  his  famous  researches  on  sound  in  relation  to  foe- 
signaling,  in  connection  with  which  grew  up  his  discussion  of 
the  subject  with  Professor  Tyndall,  These  researches  were 
of  the  highest  scientific  value,  and  at  the  same  time  led  to 
immediate  practical  results  of  the  greatest  importance.  He 
also  conducted  the  experiments  on  illuminants  which  resulted 
in  a  complete  revolution  in  the  methods  of  lighthouses,  re- 
placing sperm-oil  by  lard-oil  in  1866,  which  substitution,  com- 
petent authorities  estimated  in  1877,  ^"'^^  already  saved  to  the 


152  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

government  not  less  than  one  million  dollars.  To  these  ex- 
periments he  gave  much  attention,  devoting  to  them  the  time 
of  his  summer  holiday  for  many  years.  It  is  generally  con- 
ceded that  the  high  efficiency  of  our  national  lighthouse  system 
is  largely  due  to  his  labors. 

During  the  Civil  War  he  was,  together  with  Professor 
Bache  and  Admiral  Davis,  the  member  of  a  commission  to 
examine  and  report  upon  various  investigations  and  experi- 
ments intended  to  facilitate  the  operations  of  war  and  to  im- 
prove the  art  of  navigation.  Many  of  the  experiments  were 
conducted  at  the  Institution.  From  the  top  of  the  great 
tower,  night  after  night,  lights  were  flashed  to  distant  stations, 
in  connection  with  tests  of  methods  of  signaling;  and  many  a 
time  Professor  Henry's  companion  in  these  studies  was  Presi- 
dent Lincoln,  glad  to  leave  the  scene  of  turmoil  in  which  his 
days  were  passed  and  to  seek  rest  and  inspiration  in  the  quiet 
companionship  of  such  a  man  as  Henry. 

Out  of  the  labors  of  this  commission  grew  the  National 
Academy  of  Sciences,  established  in  1863  by  act  of  Congress, 
to  advance  science  and  to  report  upon  such  questions  of  sci- 
entific character  as  might  be  connected  with  the  operations 
of  the  government.  Bache  was  its  first  president,  and  Henry 
succeeded  him,  holding  that  place  until  his  death. 


VII. 

It  has  already  been  shown  that  his  original  investigations 
during  his  thirty  years  at  the  Smithsonian  Institution  were 
not  of  great  extent ;  but  his  influence,  not  only  upon  the  de- 
velopment of  scientific  work  in  the  United  States,  but  upon 
its  character,  cannot  be  overestimated.  His  official  position 
brought  him  into  constant  contact,  either  personally  or  by 
letter,  with  all  in  the   United  States  who  were  engaged  in 


The  Three  Secretaries  153 

scientific  work,  and  the  inspiration  and  the  direct  control  which 
he  exercised  were  constant  and  far-reaching.  The  cordial 
hospitality  of  his  home  in  Washington  was  never  forgotten 
by  any  to  whom  it  was  given,  and  all  who  came  to  it  received 
a  hearty  welcome.  He  lived,  from  1855  until  his  death,  in 
the  east  wins;-  of  the  Smithsonian  buildinor.  His  wife,  whom  as 
Miss  Harriet  L.  Alexander  he  married  in  1830,  and  his  three 
daughters,  aided  him  to  make  it  one  of  the  centers  in  the 
intellectual  life  of  Washington,  and  there  were  few  distin- 
guished visitors  to  the  city  who  did  not  enter  his  doors. 

Many  remember  his  presence  at  the  meetings  of  the  Amer- 
ican Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  and  the 
impression  made  by  his  brief  addresses,  often  simply  a  few 
words  of  greeting,  not  even  reported  in  the  proceedings.  In 
his  later  years,  in  1871,  the  Philosophical  Society  of  Washing- 
ton was  organized,  and  he  was  its  president  as  long  as  he 
lived.  The  meetings,  occurring  every  two  weeks  through  the 
winter,  were  events  in  Washington,  and  were  attended  not 
only  by  students  of  science,  but  by  many  of  the  greatest 
of  our  public  men,  while  visiting  men  of  science  who  made 
communications  were  not  few.  Here,  for  the  first  time,  was 
announced  the  discovery  of  the  telephone.  The  discussions 
were  often  remarkable  for  their  brilliancy  and  weight,  and  the 
society  in  those  days,  unaffected  by  the  withdrawal  of  special- 
ists to  form  organizations  devoted  to  particular  branches,  was 
a  very  remarkable  one.  The  spirit  of  Henry  dominated  the 
whole,  and  his  stately  presence  as  he  presided  and  his  im- 
pressive remarks  when,  as  not  infrequently  happened,  he  par- 
ticipated in  the  discussions,  made  every  meeting  memorable. 
His  address  on  the  organization  of  a  scientific  society,  at  the 
time  of  its  foundation,  presents  the  highest  ideal  of  what  a 
local  scientific  society  should  be.  And  the  height  of  his 
ideals  for  science  and  for  men  of  science  is  shown  by  his 
II 


154  The  SiuitJisouian  Institution 

closing  address  to  the  National  Academy  of  Sciences,  a  few 
days  before  his  death  : 

"Whatever  might  have  been  thought  as  to  the  success  of 
the  Academy,  when  first  proposed  by  the  late  Professor  Louis 
Agassiz,  the  present  meeting  conclusively  proves  that  it  has 
become  a  power  of  great  efficiency  in  the  promotion  of  sci- 
ence in  this  country.  To  sustain  this  effect  however  much 
caution  is  required  to  maintain  the  purity  of  its  character  and 
the  propriety  of  its  decisions. 

"  For  this  purpose  great  care  must  be  exercised  in  the 
selection  of  its  members.  It  must  not  be  forgotten  for  a 
moment  that  the  basis  of  selection  is  actual  scientific  labor  in 
the  way  of  original  research,  (that  is  in  making  positive  addi- 
tions to  the  sum  of  human  knowledge,)  connected  with  unim- 
peachable moral  character. 

"It  is  not  social  position,  popularity,  extended  authorship, 
or  success  as  an  instructor  in  science,  which  entitles  to  mem- 
bership, but  actual  new  discoveries ;  nor  are  these  sufficient 
if  the  reputation  of  the  candidate  is  in  the  slightest  degree 
tainted  with  injustice  or  want  of  truth.  Indeed,  I  think  that 
immorality  and  great  mental  power  actually  exercised  in  the 
discovery  of  scientific  truths  are  incompatible  with  each  other, 
and  that  more  error  is  introduced  from  defect  in  moral  sense 
than  from  want  of  intellectual  capacity." 

A  few  clays  before  his  death,  unable  to  pursue  his  custom- 
ary routine  of  work,  his  mind  became  more  than  usually  con- 
cerned upon  the  mystery  of  existence  and  the  meaning  of 
human  life  ;  and  at  this  time,  without  the  knowledge  of  his 
family,  he  wrote  to  his  friend  Mr.  Patterson  a  letter,  in  which 
he  recorded  the  results  of  his  lifelong  thoughts  upon  this 
subject : 

"After  all  our  speculations,"  he  wrote,  "an  attempt  to 
grapple  with  the  problem  of  the  universe,  the  simplest  con- 
ception which  explains  and  connects  the  phenomena  is  that 


The   Three  Secretaries  155 

of  the  existence  of  one  Spiritual  Being  —  infinite  in  wisdom, 
in  power,  and  all  divine  perfections,  which  exists  always  and 
everywhere — which  has  created  us  with  intellectual  faculties 
sufficient,  in  some  degree,  to  comprehend  His  operations  as 
they  are  developed  in  Nature  by  what  is  called  '  Science.' 

"This  Being  is  unchangeable,  and,  therefore,  His  operations 
are  always  in  accordance  with  the  same  laws,  the  conditions 
being  the  same.  Events  that  happened  a  thousand  years 
ago  will  happen  again  a  thousand  years  to  come,  provided 
the  condition  of  existence  is  the  same.  Indeed,  a  universe 
not  governed  by  law  would  be  a  universe  without  the  evidence 
of  an  intellectual  director. 

"  In  the  scientific  explanation  of  physical  phenomena,  we 
assume  the  existence  of  a  principle  having  properties  suffi- 
cient to  produce  the  effects  which  we  observe ;  and  when  the 
principle  so  assumed  explains,  by  logical  deductions  from  it, 
all  the  phenomena,  we  call  it  a  theory.  Thus,  we  have  the 
theory  of  light,  the  theory  of  electricity,  etc.  There  is  no 
proof,  however,  of  the  truth  of  these  theories,  except  the 
explanation  of  the  phenomena  which  they  are  invented  to 
account  for. 

"  This  proof,  however,  is  sufficient  in  any  case  in  which 
every  fact  is  fully  explained,  and  can  be  predicted  when  the 
conditions  are  known.  In  accordance  with  this  scientific 
view,  on  what  evidence  does  the  existence  of  a  Creator  rest  ? 

''  Fn'st.  It  is  one  of  the  truths  best  established  by  experi- 
ence in  my  own  mind,  that  I  have  a  thinking,  willing /'r/;^- 
ciple  within  me,  capable  of  intellectual  activity  and  of  moral 
feeling. 

"  Second.  It  is  equally  clear  to  me  that  you  have  a  similar 
spiritual  principle  within  yourself,  since  when  I  ask  you  an 
intelligent  question  you  give  me  an  intellectual  answer. 

"  Third.  When  I  examine  the  operations  of  Nature,  I 
find  everywhere  through  them  evidences  of  intellectual  ar- 
rangement, of  contrivances  to  reach  definite  ends,  precisely 
as  I  find  in  the  operations  of  man  ;  and  hence  I  infer  that 
these  two  classes  of  operations  are  results  of  similar  intelli- 
gence. 


156  The  Sjuithsonian  Institution 

"Again,  in  my  own  mind,  I  find  ideas  of  right  and  wrong, 
of  good  and  evil.  These  ideas,  then,  exist  in  the  universe, 
and,  therefore,  form  a  basis  of  our  ideas  of  a  moral  universe. 
Furthermore,  the  conceptions  of  good  which  are  found  among 
our  ideas  associated  with  evil,  can  be  attributed  only  to  a 
Being  of  infinite  perfections,  like  that  which  we  denominate 
*  God.'  On  the  other  hand,  we  are  conscious  of  having  such 
evil  thoughts  and  tendencies  that  we  cannot  associate  our- 
selves with  a  Divine  Being,  who  is  the  Director  and  Governor 
of  all,  or  even  call  upon  Him  for  mercy,  without  the  interces- 
sion of  One  who  may  affiliate  himself  with  us." 

Notwithstanding  his  sacrifice  of  investigation  to  adminis- 
tration, there  is  no  greater  name  in  American  science.  What 
Franklin  was  to  the  last  century,  Henry  is  to  this,  and  as  the 
years  go  by  his  fame  is  growing  brighter.  The  memorial 
service  in  his  honor,  held  in  1878,  in  the  hall  of  the  United 
States  House  of  Representatives,  was  a  national  event.  In 
1883  his  monument  in  bronze,  by  the  greatest  of  American 
sculptors,  was  erected  by  Congress  in  the  Smithsonian  Park. 
The  bestowal  of  his  name  upon  the  unit  of  induction  in  1893 
was  an  indication  of  his  foreign  appreciation,  while,  as  a  still 
nobler  tribute  to  his  fame,  his  statue  has  been  placed  under 
the  great  rotunda  of  the  National  Library,  the  science  of  the 
world  and  of  all  time  being  symbolized  by  these  two  great 
men,  Newton  and  Henry. 


The  Three  Secretaries  157 


SPENCER   FULLERTON    BAIRD 

I. 

NO  name  occupies  a  more  honorable  place  in  the  annals 
of  American  science  than  that  of  Professor  Baird,  His 
personal  contributions  to  systematic  biology  were  of  great 
extent.  His  influence  in  inspiring  and  training  men  to  enter 
the  field  of  natural  history  was  very  potent.  As  an  organ- 
izer, working  at  a  most  fortunate  time,  he  knew  how  to 
utilize  his  extraordinary  opportunities,  and  he  has  left  his  im- 
press forever  fixed  upon  the  scientific  and  educational  institu- 
tions of  the  United  States,  more  especially  upon  those  under 
government  control. 

He  was  one  of  those  rare  men,  perhaps  more  frequently 
met  with  in  the  New  World  than  elsewhere,  who  give  the 
impression  of  being  able  to  succeed  in  whatever  they  under- 
take. Although  he  chose  to  be  a  naturalist,  and  of  necessity 
became  an  administrator,  no  one  who  knew  him  could  doubt 
that  he  would  have  been  equally  eminent  as  a  lawyer,  physi- 
cian, mechanic,  historian,  business  man,  soldier,  or  statesman. 


II. 

It  is  always  interesting  to  search  for  the  sources  of  intellec- 
tual force  and  capacity,  especially  so  in  this  country,  where 
the  races  of  the  Old  World  have  mingled  with  such  rapidity 
and  in  such  volume  as  to  develop  very  remarkable  phases  in 
the  problem  of  heredity. 

For  an  inquiry  of  this  kind  there  is  excellent  material  in 
the  case  of  Professor  Baird,  for  though  he  gave  little  atten- 
II* 


158  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

tion  to  such  matters  in  his  later  busy  life,  there  is  still  in  ex- 
istence an  elaborate  "genealogical  tree,"  prepared  by  himself 
at  the  age  of  sixteen,  by  the  aid  of  which  it  has  been  practi- 
cable to  identify  his  ancestors  up  to  and  including  all  those  of 
the  fifth  degree,  thirty  in  number,  and  in  many  lines  far  beyond. 

His  grandparents  were  all  the  children  of  colonial  Pennsyl- 
vanians.  He  was  emphatically  an  American,  for  over  eighty 
per  centum  of  his  progenitors  in  the  sixth  degree  were  living 
in  the  colonies  during  the  seventeenth  century.  Out  of  the 
total  number  of  thirty-two,  one,  or  perhaps  two,  were  of 
Swedish  blood;  one  a  Huguenot,  and  one  or  two  others  from 
the  Palatinate  —  companions  of  Pastorius  in  the  founding  of 
the  first  German  community  in  America.  The  others  were 
either  natives  of  Great  Britain  or  their  descendants  estab- 
lished in  the  American  colonies.  Of  these  there  were  several 
of  Scotch,  Irish,  or  Scotch-Irish  blood,  and  one  or  two  from 
Wales. 

Although  in  one  sense  only  agencies  in  the  concentration 
and  transmission  of  the  various  traits  derived  from  previous 
generations,  his  immediate  ancestors — with  their  personal 
traits,  the  results  of  education  and  environment  —  were  those 
who  had  the  most  direct  influence  upon  his  character. 

His  father,  Samuel  Baird  (i  786-1833),  was  a  lawyer,  a 
man  of  fine  culture,  an  independent  and  original  thinker,  and 
a  lover  of  nature  and  of  outdoor  sports. 

His  mother,  Lydia  McFunn  Biddle  (i  797-1861),  who  sur- 
vived her  husband  nearly  forty  years,  was  a  woman  of  fine 
executive  powers,  fascinating  manners,  and  of  a  sunny  and 
equable  temperament. 

His  father's  father,  Samuel  Baird,  served  as  a  quartermas- 
ter in  the  Revolutionary  Army ;  he  was  a  surveyor,  and  was 
interested  in  the  opening  of  coal-mines  in  eastern  Pennsyl- 
vania, in  association  with  his  cousin,  Colonel  Thomas  Potts, 


SPENCER  FULLEBTON  BAIRD. 

SECOND  SECRETARY  OF  THE  SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION. 

1878-1887. 


158  ""  ■'  Hon 

uusy  life,  there  is  still  in  ex- 
)gical  tree,"  prepared  by  himself 
aid  of  which  it  has 
ors  no  to  r^nd  including  all  those  of 

^^-  lines  fell  .^v,_)«^.id. 
asyl- 
^hty 

ig  tin  ^enth  centurv, 

.otal   number  of  thirty -two,   one,   or  p*^-'  '' 

"dish  blood  ^^  not,  and  or 

is  in  the  fo 
commu! 


ic  or  two 

les  in  the  con 

.  from  nre\ 

^    ancestors — wx-u  lin^i     perse """ 
t  education  and  en 

'  influence  upon  his  charr 

6-1833),  was  a  la^ 

.  -id  origii.„-  ^-- 

...  -  >orts. 


4aartermas- 

■    ,     ;  -".S 

.'  ennsyl- 

.TIOITUTITBIHI  TlAI'KOgHTlMa  MITT  '50  YaATaaOEfB  a"HO'ja8 

.V881 -8TttI 


The   Three  Secretaries  i59 

who  was  the  first  to  discover  the  valuable  properties  of  an- 
thracite coal,  and  who  interested  Franklin  and  Rittenhouse 
in  devising  methods  for  its  use  as  a  fuel.  Samuel  Baird's 
father,  Thomas  Baird,  was  of  Scotch- Irish  origin  ;  he  came 
to  the  colony  before  the  middle  of  the  century,  and  following 
the  current  of  westward  travel,  settled  as  a  frontiersman  in 
the  beautiful  Cumberland  Valley,  near  the  present  site  of 
Chambersburg,  the  westernmost  of  the  Pennsylvania  settle- 
ments, and  at  the  very  verge  of  civilization.  His  wife,  Mary 
Douglass,  was  of  the  same  race.  At  the  close  of  the  Revolu- 
tion, her  husband  having  died,  she,  with  all  her  children  but 
the  eldest  son,  joined  the  train  of  emigrants  which  for  a  quar- 
ter of  a  century  she  had  seen  wending  westward  past  her 
door,  and  removed  to  the  new  territory  of  Kentucky,  and 
later  to  Fort  Vincennes,  Indiana,  where  she  was  still  living 
in  1785. 

His  father's  mother,  Rebecca  Potts  (i 753-1830),  was  the 
daughter  of  Thomas  Potts  (1721-62),  of  Colebrookdale,  and 
eranddauofhter  of  Thomas  Potts,  who  came  from  Wales  to 
Germantown  early  in  the  eighteenth  century,  and  was  a 
pioneer  in  the  development  of  the  American  iron  industry. 
His  descendants  owned  the  region  in  which  the  Continental 
Army  was  encamped  in  1778.  The  Valley  Forge  belonged 
to  Colonel  Dewees,  the  husband  of  Rebecca  Potts'  sister,  in 
whose  house  she  was  living  at  that  time,  while  Washington 
occupied  the  home  of  her  uncle  on  the  other  side  of  Valley 
Creek.  During  that  long  winter  Mrs.  Washington  taught 
her  how  to  net,  and  gave  her  a  silver  netting-needle,  still 
treasured  by  the  family.  Her  mother  was  the  daughter  of 
William  Pyewell  (1685-1769),  of  Philadelphia,  one  of  the 
earliest  wardens  of  Christ  Church,  and  her  grandmothers 
were  Magdelen  Robeson,  descended  from  Swedish  colonists 
on  the  Delaware,  and  Mary  Rutter.  of  Huguenot  origin. 


i6o  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

Professor  Baird's  mother's  father,  William  McFunn  Biddle, 
was  the  son  of  William  McFunn,  an  officer  of  the  British 
Navy,  who  was  present  with  the  fleet  at  the  siege  of  Quebec, 
and  while  stationed  on  the  Delaware  was  married,  in  1752,  to 
Lydia  Biddle.  Ordered  to  duty  at  Antigua,  he  contracted  a 
disease  which  caused  his  death,  at  Philadelphia,  in  i  768.  In 
that  most  interesting  volume,  the  "  Autobiography  of  Charles 
Biddle,"  are  occasional  references  to  Captain  McFunn,  who 
was  evidently  a  bluff  and  hardy  English  seaman  of  the  old 
heroic  type.  His  son,  William  Biddle  McFunn,  became,  by 
transposition  of  his  two  last  names,  William  McFunn  Biddle. 
He  was  a  banker,  an  accomplished  musician,  and  the  friend 
of  Robert  Morris,  and  became  involved  in  some  of  the  ambi- 
tious projects  which  "the  financier  of  the  Revolution"  or- 
ganized in  the  early  days  of  the  Republic — especially  the 
American  Land  Company.  At  one  time  the  richest  young 
man  in  Philadelphia,  he  went  with  Morris  to  a  debtor's  cell, 
where  he  remained  until  relieved  by  the  passage  of  the  first 
United  States  bankrupt  law,  in  1800.  His  mother,  Lydia 
Biddle,  belonged  to  an  old  Philadelphia  family,  for  many  gen- 
erations prominent  in  commercial  and  banking  enterprises 
and  as  officers  in  the  Army  and  Navy,  the  descendants  of 
William  Biddle,  one  of  the  first  Quaker  colonists  of  Penn- 
sylvania. She  was  descended  maternally  from  Nicholas 
Scull,  the  friend  of  Franklin,  one  of  the  earliest  members  of 
the  American  Philosophical  Society,  and  the  first  surveyor- 
general  of  Pennsylvania. 

His  mother's  mother,  Lydia  Spencer  Biddle,  survived  her 
husband  for  half  a  century,  and  died  in  1858  at  the  age  of 
ninety-three.  Her  memories  of  the  Revolution  were  vivid, 
for  her  father  was  the  patriot  preacher  Elihu  Spencer,  who 
had  been  a  chaplain  in  the  French  and  Indian  Wars,  and  was 
despatched  by  Congress  to  North  Carolina  to  aid  in  winning 


The  Three  Secretaries  i6i 

over  the  Scotch  colonists,  who  were  slow  to  abandon  their 
allegiance  to  the  British  Crown  —  a  man  whose  eloquence 
rendered  him  so  conspicuous  that  a  reward  was  offered  for 
his  head.  Her  sister's  husband,  Jonathan  Dickinson  Ser- 
geant, was  a  member  of  the  Continental  Congress.  As  a 
young  lady  at  Trenton  she  talked  with  General  Mercer  just 
before  he  marched  to  his  death  at  Princeton,  and  on  Christ- 
mas night  in  1776  saw  Washington  depart  for  the  crossing 
of  the  Delaware.  Her  father  was  the  brother  of  General 
Joseph  Spencer  of  the  Revolution,  second  cousin  to  Timothy 
Edwards,  the  great  New  England  theologian,  and  own  cousin 
to  John  and  Edward  Brainerd,  missionaries  to  the  Indians; 
she  was  aunt  to  John  and  Thomas  Sergeant,  of  Philadelphia, 
eminent  lawyers,  the  former  a  candidate  for  Vice-President 
with  Clay  in  1832,  the  latter  judge  of  the  Supreme  Court  of 
Pennsylvania.  Through  her  mother,  Joanna  Eaton,  she  was 
descended  from  Thomas  Eaton,  one  of  the  earliest  American 
Quakers,  who  came  to  Rhode  Island  in  1761,  and  also  from 
Thomas  Wardell  and  Isaac  Perkins,  first-comers  to  Massa- 
chusetts Bay  (1630-35),  who,  as  disciples  of  Anne  Hutchin- 
son in  the  Antinomian  controversy,  were  banished  from  the 
colony  as  heretics,  and  went  with  the  Reverend  John  Wheel- 
wright beyond  the  limits  of  the  colony  into  the  forests  of 
New  Hampshire.  Among  her  nearest  of  kin,  the  children 
and  grandchildren  of  her  aunts,  were  all  the  LeContes,  emi- 
nent in  science  as  zoologists,  geologists,  and  chemists  ;  John 
McPherson  Berrien,  of  Georgia,  the  "American  Cicero," 
early  Attorney-General  of  the  United  States  and  Regent  of 
the  Smithsonian  Institution;  as  well  as  Admiral  Montgomery 
and  Commodore  Berrien,  of  the  United  States  Navy. 

These  were  all  representative  men  and  women,  leaders  in 
the  communities  in  which  they  lived,  a  group  even  more  re- 
markable for  their  abilities  than  for  their  diversity  in  origin 


1 62  The  Sniithsoniaji  Institution 

and  character.  Many  of  them  were  Quakers,  but  there  were 
also  Churchmen,  Lutherans,  and  Presbyterians.  Among  them 
were  soldiers,  sailors,  clergymen,  lawyers,  financiers,  survey- 
ors, miners,  farmers,  mechanics,  military  officers,  British  and 
American ;  patriots  and  loyalists,  Whigs  and  Tories,  Feder- 
alists and  Republicans.  With  such  ancestral  resources  to 
draw  upon,  it  is  not  strange  that  Professor  Baird  should  have 
been  a  man  of  varied  and  commanding  abilities.  His  admin- 
istrative capacity,  his  power  of  directing  and  controlling  men, 
and  his  personal  charm  of  manner,  came  to  him  perhaps 
chiefly  from  his  mother;  while  to  his  father's  family  he  owed 
his  love  of  outdoor  life,  his  taste  for  the  study  of  nature,  and 
his  magnificent  physique,  a  heritage  from  generations  of  pio- 
neers and  frontiersmen.  Those  who  knew  him  best  may  be 
disposed  to  attribute  to  his  Quaker  ancestry  his  quiet  and 
unassuming  manner,  his  dislike  for  publicity,  and  his  prefer- 
ence for  a  simple  garb  of  gray. 


III. 

Spencer  Fullerton  Baird  was  born  February  23,  1823,  in 
Reading,  Pennsylvania.  His  father  died  when  he  was  ten 
years  old,  and  his  mother  soon  removed  with  her  family  to 
Carlisle,  a  village  in  the  beautiful  Cumberland  Valley,  which 
was  the  seat  of  Dickinson  College  and  of  a  government 
military  post,  and  the  home  of  many  people  of  culture  and 
refinement. 

When  he  was  eleven  he  was  sent  to  a  Friends'  boarding- 
school,  kept  by  Doctor  McGravv,  in  Port  Deposit,  Maryland ; 
a  year  later  entered  the  grammar  school  in  Carlisle,  and  in 
1836  Dickinson  College,  from  vvliich  he  was  graduated  in 
1840,  at  the  age  of  seventeen. 

His  interest  in  collecting  and  classifying  facts  and  in  ob- 


The   Three  Secretaries  163 

serving  nature  began  when  he  was  still  a  boy.  His  early 
note-books  contain  systematic  lists  of  various  kinds.  He 
gathered  specimens  of  the  wood  and  leaves  of  plants,  and  at 
the  age  of  fourteen  joined  his  elder  brother  William,  who  had 
similar  tastes,  in  making  a  collection  of  the  game-birds  of 
Cumberland  County.  Specimens  prepared  by  these  boys 
sixty  years  ago  are  still  preserved  in  the  National  Museum. 

After  leaving  college,  since  he  was  too  young  to  enter  any 
profession,  he  was  allowed  to  follow  his  own  tastes  for  a  time, 
and  his  inclination  for  science  developed  in  such  a  remarkable 
manner  that  his  mother  felt  that  she  was  justified  in  allowing 
him  to  devote  himself  for  several  years  to  his  favorite  pur- 
suits. There  were  at  that  time  no  schools  for  young  natural- 
ists, and  his  education  was  in  a  large  degree  self-directed. 
He  began  to  read  medicine,  attended  a  course  of  lectures  at 
the  College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons  in  New  York  in  the 
winter  of  1841-42,  and  made  excursions,  often  on  foot,  in 
search  of  specimens  and  to  visit  collections.  He  made  long 
visits  to  friends  in  New  York,  Philadelphia,  and  Washington, 
and  thus  saw  the  museums  and  important  private  collections 
and  became  familiar  with  what  were  at  that  time  the  principal 
centers  of  learning.  In  those  days  were  formed  many  of  the 
friendships  and  scientific  partnerships  which  influenced  his 
after  life. 

Among  his  early  companions  and  correspondents  were 
George  N.  Lawrence  (1841),  Charles  Pickering  and  John 
Torrey  (1842),  John  Cassin  and  James  D.  Dana  (1843), 
Thomas  M.  Brewer,  Stephen  S.  Haldeman,  Joseph  Leidy,  and 
Frederick  E.  Melsheimer  (1844),  John  G.  Morris  (1845), 
Jared  P.  Kirtland  (1847),  and  Philo  R.  Hoy  and  John  S. 
Newberry  (1850). 

Still  earlier  was  his  friendship  with  Audubon,  with  whom 
he  began  a  correspondence  in  1838,  and  from  whom  he  re- 


164  The  Smifhso7uan  Institution 

ceived  instruction  in  making  drawings  of  birds ;  and  it  was 
to  him,  and  perhaps  still  more  to  his  own  kinsman,  Major 
John  LeConte,  one  of  the  early  Southern  naturalists,  that  was 
due  his  determination  to  devote  his  life  to  natural  history. 

In  1843  he  translated  Ehrenberg's  work  on  the  corals  of 
the  Red  Sea  for  Dana,  who  was  then  engaged  upon  his  re- 
port for  the  Wilkes  exploring  expedition.  In  1846  he  ap- 
pears to  have  been  occupied  in  the  preparation  of  a  synonymy 
of  North  American  birds,  and  to  have  visited  Boston  to  con- 
sult in  the  libraries  of  Amos  Binney  and  the  Boston  Society 
of  Natural  History  certain  books  not  to  be  found  in  Phila- 
delphia. That  he  was  already  at  that  time  a  trained  student 
is  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  material  then  gathered  was 
utilized  by  him  twelve  years  later  in  his  "  Birds  of  North 
America." 

During  all  this  time  he  was  engaged  in  organizing  a 
private  cabinet  of  natural  history,  taking  long  excursions 
through  the  mountains  of  Pennsylvania;  in  making  dissec- 
tions and  preparing  slides  for  the  microscope ;  and  in  pre- 
serving specimens,  most  of  which  are  still  in  existence  and 
available  for  scientific  study  in  the  National  Museum. 

In  1841  he  walked  420  miles  in  twenty-one  days;  on  the 
last  day  60  miles  between  daylight  and  rest.  In  1842  he 
walked  more  than  2100  miles.  In  the  course  of  these  excur- 
sions he  visited  Audubon,  Haldeman,  Melsheimer,  and  Morris, 
in  order  to  examine  their  collections.  His  fine  physique  and 
capacity  for  work  in  after  days  were  perhaps  due  in  part  to 
these  years  of  outdoor  life. 

I  find  in  his  note-book  a  memorandum  that  on  his  birthday 
in  1840,  at  the  age  of  seventeen,  his  height  was  five  feet  ten 
and  a  quarter  inches;  a  year  later  he  measured  five  feet 
eleven  and  three  quarters  inches,  and  weighed  one  hundred 
and  fifty  pounds.      During  his  long  walk  in  the  following  fall 


The  Three  Secretaries  165 

he  made  some  curious  experiments  upon  himself.  At  night, 
after  carrying  a  load  of  forty  pounds  for  ten  miles,  he  mea- 
sured five  feet  eleven  and  a  quarter  inches,  and  the  next 
morning  six  feet,  showing  that  his  height  had  been  com- 
pressed by  weight  three  quarters  of  an  inch. 

His  home  studies  were  carried  on  for  a  number  of  years, 
and  were  scarcely  interrupted  by  his  election  in  1846  to  the 
chair  of  natural  history  and  chemistry  in  Dickinson  College. 
In  this  capacity  he  taught  the  seniors  physiology  ;  the  sopho- 
mores, geometry ;  freshmen,  zoology ;  and  the  preparatory 
students,  something  else.  He  found  time,  however,  to  carry 
on  the  work  begun  in  previous  years  and  to  make  each  sum- 
mer an  extended  collecting  expedition:  in  1847,  ^^  ^^^  Adi- 
rondacks;  in  1848,  to  Ohio,  to  collect,  in  company  with  Doctor 
Kirtland,  from  the  original  localities  of  the  types,  the  species 
described  by  him  in  his  work  on  the  fishes  of  Ohio;  in  1849, 
to  the  mountains  of  Virginia,  with  C.  B.  R.  Kennedy;  and  in 
1850,  to  Lake  Champlain  and  Lake  Ontario. 

He  remained  in  Carlisle  until  1850,  and  there  he  married, 
in  1846,  Mary  Helen  Churchill,  the  daughter  of  General  Syl- 
vester Churchill,  Inspector-General  United  States  Army.  He 
used  to  say  that  his  wife  won  his  heart  as  a  girl  by  the  beau- 
tiful labels  she  wrote  for  his  collections,  and  she  was  always 
afterward  his  companion  and  assistant  in  his  work. 

The  coming  of  Agassiz  to  America  in  1846  was  an  inspira- 
tion to  the  young  naturalist.  One  of  the  first  great  works 
projected  by  the  Swiss  savant  was  a  memoir  upon  the  fresh- 
water fishes  of  North  America,  in  the  authorship  of  which 
Professor  Baird  was  to  be  his  associate  —  a  work  which  was 
never  completed. 

Agassiz  did  not  establish  himself  in  Cambridge  until  1848, 
and  to  Baird  should  belong  the  credit  of  having  introduced 
into  American  schools  the  system  of  laboratory  practice  and 


1 66  The  Smithsoniaji  htstitiition 

field  exploration  as  an  essential  part  of  instruction  in  natural 
history.  Doctor  Moncure  D.  Conway,  one  of  his  pupils,  has 
often  spoken  to  me  of  his  fascinating  explanations  of  natural 
phenomena,  and  how  the  contagion  of  his  enthusiasm  spread 
among  his  pupils,  who  frequently  followed  him  over  the  hills 
twenty  or  thirty  miles  a  day.  Once,  while  collecting  insects  In 
the  field,  they  were  surrounded  and  captured  by  a  party  of 
German  farmers,  who  thought  they  were  escaped  lunatics 
and  proposed  to  take  them  to  an  asylum. 


IV. 

His  mentor  at  this  time  was  the  Honorable  George  P.  Marsh, 
of  Vermont,  who  was  always  his  friend  and  admirer,  and  to 
him  Professor  Baird  always  felt  that  he  owed  his  real  start  in 
life.  Mr.  Marsh,  feeling  that  his  protege  was  disposed  to 
bury  himself  in  the  technicalities  of  a  specialty,  insisted  that 
he  should  undertake  to  translate  and  edit  an  edition  of  the 
**  Iconographic  Cyclopaedia,"  a  version  of  Heck's  "  Bilder- 
Atlas,"  published  in  connection  with  the  famous  "  Konversa- 
tions-Lexikon  "  of  Brockhaus.  This,  his  first  extensive  liter- 
ary task,  though  exceedingly  laborious  and  confining  to  a 
man  so  young  and  entirely  untrained  in  literary  methods, 
was  efficiently  and  rapidly  performed.  The  result  was  a 
great  expansion  in  his  tastes  and  sympathies,  while  the  train- 
ing and  confidence  which  he  acquired  served  as  an  excellent 
preparation  for  the  tremendous  literary  tasks  which  he  un- 
dertook without  hesitation  in  later  years. 

It  was  also  to  Mr.  Marsh,  who  was  one  of  the  earliest 
Smithsonian  Regents,  that  he  owed  his  election  as  Assistant 
Secretary  of  the  Institution,  then  recently  organized.  His 
selection,  as  is  indicated  by  a  statement  in  Professor  Henry's 
fifth  report,  was  due  quite  as  much  to  his  training  in  editorial 


The  Three  Secretaries  167 

methods  as  to  his  professional  acquirements.  His  appoint- 
ment, as  is  there  stated,  was  made  at  that  time  more  particu- 
larly that  he  might  have  charge  of  the  publications,  and  that 
the  Institution  might  take  advantage  of  the  ample  experience 
which  he  had  gained  in  editorial  work. 

He  first  met  Henry,  as  his  diary  shows,  on  July  17,  1848, 
visited  with  him  the  building  then  being  constructed,  and 
undertook  to  collect  natural  history  objects  for  the  Smith- 
sonian. 

The  Regents  of  the  Institution  did  not,  of  course,  appre- 
ciate the  fact  that  he  had  originated,  in  connection  with  his 
work  upon  his  own  private  collections,  a  system  of  museum 
administration  which  was  to  be  of  the  utmost  value  in  the 
management  of  the  great  National  Museum,  which  developed 
so  rapidly  under  his  charge. 

All  the  efficient  methods  which  are  now  in  use  in  the  Na- 
tional Museum  were  practised  in  the  little  museum  which  he 
had  organized  at  home,  and  which  he  brought  with  him  to 
form  the  nucleus  of  the  Smithsonian  collection.  Among  the 
treasures  of  his  cabinet,  which  filled  two  large  freight-cars, 
and  which  are  still  cherished  by  the  Institution,  were  a  num- 
ber of  the  choicest  bird  skins  collected  by  Audubon,  who  en- 
tertained for  him  a  sincere  friendship  from  the  time  when  he 
proposed  to  him,  a  boy  of  nineteen,  that  he  accompany  him 
on  a  voyage  to  the  headwaters  of  the  Missouri,  and  who 
sought  him  as  partner  in  the  preparation  of  the  great  work 
"  Quadrupeds  of  North  America." 

The  position  of  Assistant  Secretary  was  accepted  Jul)-  5, 
1850,  and  on  the  third  of  October,  at  the  age  of  twenty- 
seven  years,  he  entered  upon  his  life-work  in  connection  with 
the  Smithsonian  Institution. 


1 68  The  Smithsonian  Institution 


V. 


It  would  be  interesting  to  dwell  upon  the  details  of  his 
work,  but  his  life  was  so  full  of  interests  that  it  is  only  by- 
careful  condensation  that  even  an  adequate  outline  of  its 
eventful  features  can  be  presented  in  this  volume. 

There  were  several  distinct  activities  in  his  career,  dis- 
tributed somewhat  as  follows:  (i)  a  period  of  twenty-six 
years  (1843-69)  devoted  to  laborious  investigation  of  the 
vertebrate  fauna  of  North  America;  (2)  forty  years  (1840-80) 
of  continuous  contribution  to  scientific  literature,  of  which  at 
least  ten  were  devoted  to  scientific  editorship ;  (3)  four  years 
(1846-50)  devoted  to  educational  work;  (4)  forty-one  years 
(1846-87)  devoted  to  the  encouragement  and  promotion  of 
scientific  enterprises,  and  the  development  of  new  workers 
among  the  young  men  with  whom  he  was  brought  into  con- 
tact;  (5)  thirty-seven  years  (1850-87)  devoted  to  adminis- 
trative work  as  an  officer  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  and 
in  charge  of  the  scientific  collections  of  the  government  — 
twenty-eight  years  (1850-78)  its  principal  executive  officer 
and  nine  years  (1878-87)  the  Secretary  and  responsible 
head  of  the  Institution;  (6)  sixteen  years  (i87i-'87)  as  head 
of  the  United  States  Fish  Commission,  a  philanthropic  labor 
for  the  increase  of  the  food  supply  of  the  world,  and  inciden- 
tally for  the  promotion  of  the  interests  of  biological  and  phys- 
ical investigation. 


VI. 


The  published  list  of  his  writings  contains  over  one  thousand 
titles.  Although  very  many  of  these  are  brief  notices  and 
critical  reviews,  and  a  considerable  number  are  reports  and 
other  official  publications,  there  still  remain  two  hundred 
which  are  formal  contributions  to  scientific  literature. 


The  Three  Secretaries  169 

His  work  in  ornithology  was,  perhaps,  the  most  extensive 
and  that  which  contributed  more  than  any  other  to  his  repu- 
tation ;  for  although  he  published  only  eighty  papers,  several 
of  them  were  monographic,  and  so  exhaustive  and  critical  in 
their  character  that  their  publication  was  epoch-making. 

The  first  of  his  large  works,  the  "  Birds  of  North  America," 
which  constituted  the  ninth  volume  of  the  reports  of  the  Pa- 
cific Railroad  Survey,  was  published  in  1858,  a  quarto  work 
of  more  than  one  thousand  pages,  which  for  twenty  years  re- 
mained the  principal  authority.  Indeed,  this  and  his  "  Re- 
view "  are  still  regarded  by  every  American  ornithologist  as 
absolutely  indispensable  for  constant  reference.  Coues  has 
declared  that  with  its  publication  began  the  "Bairdian  Period  " 
in  American  ornithology,  a  period  covering  almost  thirty 
years  and  characterized  by  an  activity  without  a  parallel  in 
the  history  of  the  science.  "  It  represents  the  most  impor- 
tant single  step  ever  taken  in  the  progress  of  American  or- 
nithology in  all  that  relates  to  the  technicalities.  The  no- 
menclature is  entirely  remodeled  from  that  of  the  immediately 
preceding  Audubonian  period,  and  for  the  first  time  brought 
abreast  of  the  then  existing  aspect  of  the  case.  It  was 
adopted  by  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  and  thousands  of 
separately  printed  copies  of  the  *  List  of  Species '  were  dis- 
tributed during  succeeding  years  to  institutions  and  individu- 
als ;  the  names  came  at  once  into  almost  universal  employ, 
and  so  continued,  with  scarcely  appreciably  diminished  force, 
until  about  1872." 

**  The  appearance  of  so  great  a  work,  from  the  hands  of  a 
most  methodical,  learned,  and  sagacious  naturalist,  aided  by 
two  of  the  leading  ornithologists  of  America  [John  Cassin 
and  George  N.  Lawrence],  exerted  an  influence  perhaps 
stronger  and  more  widely  felt  than  that  of  any  of  its  prede- 
cessors, Audubon's  and  Wilson's  not  excepted,  and  marked 

12 


170  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

an  epoch  in  the  history  of  American  ornithology.  The  syn- 
onymy and  specific  characters,  original  in  this  work,  have 
been  used  again  and  again  by  subsequent  writers,  with  vari- 
ous modification  and  abridgment,  and  are  in  fact  a  large  basis 
of  the  technical  portion  of  the  subsequent  '  History  of  North 
American  Birds '  by  Baird,  Brewer,  and  Ridgway.  Such  a 
monument  of  original  research  is  likely  to  remain  for  an  in- 
definite period  a  source  of  inspiration  to  lesser  writers,  while 
its  authority  as  a  work  of  reference  will  always  endure." 

In  pursuance  of  the  same  thought,  Coues,  Stejneger,  Dall, 
and  Ridgway  have  united  in  the  characterization  of  what  they 
call  the  "  Bairdian  School  of  Ornithologists";  a  school  char- 
acterized by  exactitude  in  matters  of  fact,  conciseness  in  de- 
ductive statement,  and  careful  analysis  of  the  subject  in  all  its 
various  bearings ;  a  school  whose  work  is  marked  by  a  care- 
ful separation  of  the  data  from  the  conclusions  derived  from 
them,  so  that  the  conclusions  or  arguments  can  be  traced 
back  to  their  sources  and  duly  weighed. 

As  Doctor  Stejneger  has  shown,  the  writings  of  the  older 
European  naturalists  afford  little  basis  for  analysis,  and  the 
investigator  has  no  recourse  but  to  accept  an  author's  state- 
ments and  conclusions  on  his  own  responsibility. 

It  is  scarcely  probable  that  any  American  naturalist  would 
have  ventured  to  claim  for  a  fellow-countryman  so  radical  an 
advance  in  scientific  method,  but  I  am  not  aware  that  the 
generalization  of  Stejneger  has  met  with  any  opposition 
abroad.  Indeed,  during  the  twelve  years  which  have  passed 
since  Stejneger's  characterization  of  the  Bairdian  School,  its 
methods  have  been  generally  adopted  among  advanced  work- 
ers on  the  other  side  of  the  Atlantic. 

The  development  of  this  school  was  due  not  alone  to  the 
publication  of  the  "  Birds  of  North  America,"  but  still  more  to 
the  direct  influence  of  its  author,  exerted  by  personal  inter- 


The  Three  Secretaries  171 

course  and  by  correspondence  upon  a  large  number  of  Amer- 
ican naturalists  and  collectors,  and  it  is  due  in  part  to  his 
influence  that  ornithology  is  to-day  being  pursued  in  this 
country  by  a  larger  number  of  competent  and  well-equipped 
naturalists  than  any  other  branch  of  natural  history. 

The  publication  of  the  "Review  of  American  Birds"  was 
begun  in  1864,  but  ne«ver  completed,  having  ceased  with  the 
issue  of  the  first  volume.  This  has  been  described  by  com- 
petent authorities  as  a  work  of  unequaled  merit,  displaying 
in  their  perfection  the  author's  wonderful  powers  of  analysis 
and  synthesis  —  a  work  which  has  received  unstinted  praise 
from  all  competent  to  estimate  it,  and  one  which  has  made  a 
more  profound  impression  on  foreign  ornithologists  than  any 
other  single  work  on  American  birds. 

There  were  numerous  minor  contributions  to  ornithology, 
but  no  other  great  one  from  his  unaided  pen.  The  monu- 
mental "  History  of  North  American  Birds,"  in  five  volumes, 
by  Baird,  Brewer,  and  Ridgway,  presented  fully  the  results 
of  the  labors  of  the  Bairdian  School  up  to  1874;  and  his 
favorite  pupil  and  assistant,  Mr.  Ridgway,  is  now  engaged 
upon  a  most  important  systematic  treatise,  which,  as  a  sum- 
mary of  all  that  is  known  of  the  morphology  and  classifica- 
tion of  the  birds  of  north  and  middle  America,  will,  when  it 
is  published,  repeat  in  its  effect  the  volume  of  1858. 

In  his  early  years  he  published  many  minor  papers  upon 
the  mammals  of  the  West,  and  in  1857  appeared  the  eighth 
volume  of  the  Pacific  Railroad  Survey  Reports,  which  was 
devoted  almost  entirely  to  the  mammals  of  North  America. 
Nearly  forty  years  have  elapsed,  and  still  no  general  work 
has  been  published  to  take  its  place.  Everything  which  has 
been  said  in  previous  pages  about  his  "  Birds  of  North  Amer- 
ica," published  in  the  same  series  in  the  following  year, 
applies   with   equal   or   greater   force   to  his  work  upon   the 


172  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

mammals.  The  greatest  of  living  American  mammalogists 
said  to  the  writer  not  long  ago,  that  in  his  work  to-day,  when 
he  had  a  description  by  Baird  before  him,  he  did  not  deem 
it  essential  to  examine  the  specimen  to  which  it  related ; 
something,  he  added,  which  he  could  not  say  about  any  other 
writer.^ 

In  the  field  of  herpetology  Professor  Baird  was  still  more 
of  a  pioneer,  and,  with  the  exception  of  Cope,  to  whom  he 
resigned  the  field  in  1859,  as  his  chosen  successor,  his  formal 
memoirs  in  this  department  were  more  extensive  than  those 
of  any  other.  In  his  day  material  did  not  exist  for  a  compre- 
hensive work  covering  the  entire  continent,  but  in  his  elab- 
orate reports  upon  the  collections  of  the  transcontinental  sur- 
veys, and  in  his  catalogue  of  North  American  Serpents  in 
the  collection  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  as  well  as  in 
his  scattered  papers,  he  very  nearly  covered  the  same  field 
which  was  occupied  by  his  two  great  volumes  on  birds  and 
mammals. 

Nearly  two  hundred  new  species  and  numerous  new  genera 
of  reptiles  were  discovered  and  named  by  him,  either  under 
his  own  name  or  in  association  with  his  assistant,  Charles 
Girard.  To  illustrate  the  fundamental  character  of  this  work, 
it  may  be  said  that  when  the  great  collection  of  snakes,  con- 
taining several  thousand  specimens,  was  taken  up  for  study, 
each  specimen  was  individualized  by  attaching  a  number  tag, 
which  served  as  a  key  to  its  locality.  They  were  all  then 
thrown  into  one  great  pile,  and  by  a  process  of  compari- 
son with  absolute  disregard  for  what  had  previously  been 
written,  assorted,  first  into  families,  then  into  genera,  and  then 

1  To  illustrate  his  methods  of  work  and  writing  July,    1858,   and    printing   October, 

the  facility  which  he  acquired  with  practice,  1858;    having  in    the   last   instance  written 

it  may  be  stated  that  he  began  the  mammal  about  two  thousand  quarto  pages  of  original 

volume  in  Elizabethtown,  New  York,  August,  matter  of  the  most  technical  character  within 

1853,  and  finished  printing  July,  1857;  he  a  period  of  eleven  months,  and  put  it  through 

began  the  bird  book  in  August,  1857,  finished  the  press  in  the  three  which  followed. 


The  Three  Secretaries  173 

into  species  and  varieties.  After  this  had  been  done,  de- 
scriptions and  analytical  keys  were  prepared  and  provisional 
names  were  given  to  each.  Last  of  all,  the  books  were  con- 
sulted in  order  to  determine  which  of  them  had  already  been 
described  and  provided  with  names.  Never  in  the  history  of 
zoology  has  a  continent  been  classified  in  a  manner  so  free 
from  complications  of  previous  discussion. 

He  published  little  on  the  morphology  and  classification  of 
fishes.  A  few  papers,  in  association  with  Girard,  upon  new 
forms  found  in  the  fresh-waters  of  the  Southwest,  and  a 
report  upon  the  fishes  observed  upon  the  coast  of  New  Jersey 
and  Long  Island  during  the  summer  of  1854,  were  early  and 
useful  pieces  of  work,  though  not  especially  significant. 

After  he  became  Commissioner  of  Fisheries  his  time  was 
so  occupied  that  he  was  obliged  to  carry  on  his  studies 
through  the  agency  of  others.  In  his  first  annual  report, 
however, —  that  for  1871, —  he  discussed  the  life-histories  of 
two  important  economic  species,  the  bluefish  and  the  scup- 
paug.  These  were  the  beginning  of  a  new  method  in  ich- 
thyological  work,  and  served  as  a  model  and  guide  for  all  the 
more  recent  American  students.  These  essays  were  life-his- 
tories of  the  most  comprehensive  type.  In  them  he  discussed 
geographical  range,  migrations,  movements,  habits  of  life, 
phenomena  of  reproduction  and  growth,  questions  of  food, 
enemies,  temperature,  and  all  the  manifold  relationships  of 
each  form  to  its  environment.  Then  followed  a  discussion  of 
the  relation  of  these  fishes  to  man,  the  relative  destructive- 
ness  of  different  methods  of  capture,  and  the  effects  of  these 
methods  in  the  past.  The  evidence  in  regard  to  the  diminu- 
tion of  numbers  was  critically  examined,  and  the  statistics  for 
the  region,  with  which  he  was  familiar,  were  treated  in  an  ex- 
haustive manner.  A  life-history  equal  to  that  of  the  bluefish. 
then  printed,  has  never  been  \vritten  by  any  other  naturalist. 
12* 


174  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

It  was  his  intention  to  have  continued  this  series  of  papers, 
and  had  the  scope  of  the  Fish  Commission  not  been  subse- 
quently expanded  so  as  to  include  artificial  culture,  he  would 
probably  have  been  able  to  do  this  for  all  the  fishes  of  the 
Atlantic  coast.  His  material  in  resfard  to  the  herrino-  and 
menhaden  was  particularly  abundant  and  important. 

After  six  years  of  waiting,  however,  he  decided  that  it  was 
impossible  for  him  to  give  his  personal  attention  to  work  of 
this  kind,  and  in  1877  he  proposed  to  me  to  take  up  the 
work,  at  the  same  time  handing  over  a  great  mass  of  classi- 
fied material  —  his  own  observations  supplemented  by  letters 
and  extracts  relating  to  all  the  economic  fishes  of  the  United 
States.  This  was  the  foundation  of  the  somewhat  voluminous 
publication  entitled  "The  Fishery  Industries  of  the  United 
States,"  which  was  published  under  his  direction  by  the  writer 
and  a  staff  of  associates. 

Although  he  had  abandoned  this  portion  of  the  work,  he 
by  no  means  lost  interest  in  it,  but  had  in  preparation  at  the 
time  of  his  death  a  paper  which,  had  he  completed  it,  would 
have  been  one  of  the  most  important  contributions  to  the  lit- 
erature of  the  fishes  ever  issued,  dealing  as  it  did  in  the 
broadest  and  most  philosophical  manner  with  the  principles 
underlying  the  whole  subject  of  fishery  economy. 

He  attempted  in  later  years  no  personal  work  upon  the 
fishes,  but  he  saw  every  specimen  obtained  by  the  Commis- 
sion and  inspected  every  collection,  as  soon  as  it  was  re- 
ceived, with  eager  enthusiasm.  He  was  often  the  first  to 
detect  undescribed  or  novel  forms,  and  knew  more  about 
them  all  than  the  men  whom  he  designated  to  write  accounts 
of  them. 

It  was  so  also  with  the  invertebrates,  especially  in  the  early 
years,  before  the  extension  of  the  investigation  into  the  deep 
sea  brought  in  such  an  overwhelming  wealth  of  new  material. 


The  Three  Secretaries  175 

It  was  so  in  the  Museum  in  every  department,  and  each  of 
his  associates  knew  that  he  was  many  times  competent  to  do 
the  work  which  he  had  made  over  to  others. 

Particularly  keen  was  his  insight  into  North  American 
archaeology.  The  great  collection  of  the  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tution grew  up  under  his  hands,  and  up  to  the  time  of  his 
death  every  single  object  was  handled  by  him  as  soon  as  it 
was  received.  No  one  was  so  quick  to  perceive  a  new  fact 
or  so  keen  in  the  detection  of  a  fraud,  and  although  he  never 
published  a  formal  contribution  to  archaeology,  there  was  in 
his  day  no  archaeologist  in  America  who  was  so  learned. 
He  was,  indeed,  an  "all  round  "  naturalist — one  of  the  last  of 
a  school  which  has  now  almost  ceased  to  exist. 

But  that  he,  like  Professor  Henry,  was  willing  to  give  up 
the  pleasure  of  doing  things  himself,  in  order  that  he  might 
provide  the  means  by  which  hundreds  of  others  might  be 
enabled  to  work,  the  sum  total  of  his  contributions  to  science 
would  have  been  much  greater. 

It  was  his  self-chosen  task  to  amass  material  for  research, 
to  secure  the  money  for  the  prosecution  of  studies  upon  it,  to 
select  the  men,  to  train  them  and  point  out  to  them  the 
results  to  be  accomplished,  to  watch  their  progress,  and,  when 
satisfied  that  an  adequate  result  had  been  reached,  to  secure 
its  publication.  Like  most  men  of  active  mind,  he  delighted 
to  enter  unfamiliar  regions,  to  become  thoroughly  familiar 
with  all  that  was  known,  and  to  begin  some  research  in  each 
field  in  order  to  satisfy  himself  of  his  competency  to  enter  it 
if  he  chose.  This  having  been  done,  he  was  quite  willing  to 
hand  over  his  accumulations  of  notes  and  material  to  some 
one  else,  and  to  this  trait  of  his  character  many  naturalists 
since  prominent  have  owed  their  first  establishment  in  the 
fields  of  research  which  they  have  since  occupied. 

Reference   has   been   made    to    the    characteristics   of  the 


176  The  Smithsonian  Instihttion 

Bairdian  Period  and  School  of  Ornithology,  which  have  been 
recognized.  No  one  has  proposed  similar  periods  and  schools 
in  other  departments  of  zoology,  but  in  mammals  particularly 
there  is  even  more  justification  for  the  use  of  these  terms,  for 
his  influence  is  here  even  more  dominant  to  the  present  day. 
Indeed,  these  terms  might  well  be  extended  to  cover  the  en- 
tire field  of  systematic  zoology  in  North  America,  in  which  he 
has  been  even  more  prominent  than  was  his  contemporary 
Agassiz  in  the  related  field  of  animal  morphology. 


VII. 

The  most  judicious  estimate  of  the  biological  work  of  Baird 
is,  perhaps,  that  presented  by  Doctor  Billings  in  his  memoir 
read  before  the  National  Academy  in  1889. 

Doctor  Billings  points  out  that  his  writings  contain  not 
merely  descriptions  of  a  large  number  of  new  species,  but  a 
general  revision  of  the  classification  and  nomenclature,  and 
that  the  principles  upon  which  these  were  founded  have  for 
the  most  part  stood  the  test  of  time,  showing  the  keenness  of 
his  insight  into  what  may  be  called  "fundamental  morphol- 
ogy." His  larger  works  are  still  standards  of  reference,  and 
the  additions  which  have  been  made  to  them  are  mainly  the 
work  of  his  own  pupils  or  of  those  who  have  been  trained  in 
his  methods.  His  work  was  necessarily  confined  to  descrip- 
tive morphology,  systemizatlon,  and  nomenclature,  but  his 
early  training  as  a  field  naturalist  entirely  removed  him  from 
the  category  of  mere  species  describers.  His  determinations 
were  founded  mainly  on  bones  and  skins,  which  formed  the 
bulk  of  the  material  available  at  the  time. 

"It  is  not,"  continues  Doctor  Billings,  "an  easy  matter  to 
estimate  fairly  the  importance  of  this  kind  of  work  and  the 
influence  which  it  has  on  scientific  progress  and  general  cul- 


The  Three  Secretaries  177 

ture,  and  it  is  very  likely  to  be  either  under-  or  over-valued  by 
those  who  are  not  familiar  with  the  study  of  living  organisms. 
Classification,  description,  and  naming  of  the  different  forms 
are  the  essential  foundations  of  scientific  biology,  for  until  this 
has  been  done  identification  of  particular  forms  is  either  diffi- 
cult or  impossible,  cooperative  work  on  the  part  of  scattered 
students  is  greatly  restricted,  and  broad  generalizations  can 
only  be  put  in  the  form  of  theories  and  conjectures.  Such 
work  as  was  done  by  Professor  Baird  in  this  direction  gives  a 
starting  point  to  many  observers  and  investigators  in  different 
localities,  stimulates  farther  inquiry,  and,  when  done  on  the 
extensive  scale  on  which  he  did  it,  based  on  the  examination 
and  comparison  of  a  large  number  of  specimens  from  widely 
different  localities,  exercises  a  powerful  influence  for  years  to 
come  on  lines  of  exploration,  collection,  and  critical  research. 
To  those  who  have  never  tried  it,  it  may  seem  an  easy  matter 
to  sort  out  specimens  of  different  kinds  when  a  large  number 
are  brought  together,  or  to  prepare  descriptions  sufficient  to 
enable  another  man  to  identify  his  specimen  ;  but  in  reality 
it  requires  not  only  much  experience  and  careful  study,  but  a 
certain  aptitude,  power  of  grasping  salient  points,  and  of  put- 
ting aside  unessentials  such  as  are  rarely  possessed  by  any 
man." 

As  an  example  of  Professor  Baird's  ability  in  generaliza- 
tion, Doctor  Billings  cites  his  paper  on  the  distribution  and 
migrations  of  North  American  birds.  In  this  he  maps  out 
the  country  into  regions  corresponding  to  the  distribution  of 
different  kinds  of  birds ;  discusses  the  relations  of  these  re- 
gions to  surface  topography,  altitude,  temperature,  mountain 
chains,  etc.  ;  points  out  that  there  are  certain  correspondences 
in  the  distribution  of  reptiles  and  fishes,  and  draws  the  con- 
clusion that  North  American  birds  of  wide  distribution  in  lati- 
tude, whether  migrants  or  residents,  will  be  found  to  be  larger 


178  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

the  higher  the  latitude  of  their  place  of  birth  ;  that  specimens 
from  the  Pacific  coast  are  apt  to  be  darker  than  those  from 
the  interior,  and  that  specimens  from  near  the  line  of  junction 
of  two  well-marked  provinces  or  regions  often  show  the  influ- 
ence of  hybridization.  When  he  comes  to  discuss  migrations, 
it  is  in  their  relations  to  the  laws  of  the  winds  of  the  Northern 
Hemisphere  that  he  studies  them,  and  concludes  that  the  trans- 
fer of  American  birds  to  Europe  is  mainly  due  to  air  currents. 

He  did  not  himself  produce  much  of  this  sort  of  scientific 
literature,  for  he  had  not  the  opportunity,  since  at  the  very 
period  of  his  career  when  he  was  best  fitted  to  make  such 
studies,  he  had  to  give  almost  his  whole  time  and  energy 
to  routine  administrative  duties.  "This  paper  alone,"  says 
Billings,  "  is  sufficient  evidence  of  his  capacity  for  general- 
izing from  a  series  of  isolated  facts." 

"The  two  men,"  continues  Billings,  "who  have  exerted  the 
strongest  influence  upon  natural  history  studies  in  this  country 
are  Louis  Agassiz  and  Professor  Baird.  In  many  respects 
they  were  very  unlike ;  circumstances  gave  them  widely 
different  fields,  and  they  worked  on  different  plans  and  by 
different  methods.  They  began  their  public  career  in  this 
country  almost  together ;  but  Agassiz  was  already  famous  as 
the  result  of  seventeen  years'  incessant  work,  while  Baird 
was  an  almost  unknown  youth.  Agassiz  was  a  born  teacher, 
a  fascinating  lecturer,  gifted  with  eloquence  which  won  its 
way  everywhere ;  Baird  could  only  speak  freely  in  the  pres- 
ence of  a  few,  and  for  the  most  part  taught  only  by  the  pen 
and  by  example.  Each  of  them  created  a  great  museum  in 
spite  of  many  obstacles,  the  first  winning  the  means  largely 
from  private  contributions,  which  were  a  tribute  to  his  elo- 
quence ;  the  second  gaining  his  end  more  indirectly,  through 
his  connection  with  the  Smithsonian  Institution  and  gov- 
ernment.     Each  of  them  gathered  around  him  young  men 


The  Three  Secretaries  179 

who  were  stimulated  and  encouraged  by  his  example,  who 
followed  his  methods,  have  continued  his  work,  and  have 
tauorht  others,  so  that  there  are  now  observers  and  workers 
almost  everywhere.  The  first  made  great  use  of  the  micro- 
scope and  of  embryology ;  the  second  very  little,  for  he  had 
to  use  the  material  available.  The  first  had  a  vivid  imagina- 
tion which  led  him  to  frame  many  theories  and  hypotheses  to 
be  verified  or  disproved  by  future  investigation  and  research  ; 
the  second  classified  the  facts  before  him,  but  theorized  very 
little.  Professor  Baird's  career  as  an  original  investigator 
was  hampered  and  finally  stopped  by  his  administrative  work, 
but  in  proportion  as  this  latter  increased  he  was  able  to  fur- 
nish materials  and  opportunities  for  others.  The  pupils  of 
Agassiz  and  Baird  are  the  working  naturalists  of  to-day  and 
the  teachers  of  those  who  are  to  come,  and  the  two  methods 
of  study  are  being  combined  and  developed  to  produce  re- 
sults of  which  we  already  have  good  reason  to  be  proud,  and 
the  end  of  which  no  man  can  foresee." 


VIII. 

The  influence  of  Professor  Baird  in  the  encouragement  of 
scientific  enterprise  was  exceedingly  great.  The  relation  of 
the  Smithsonian  Institution  to  scientific  exploration,  espe- 
cially in  natural  history  and  ethnology,  is  for  all  time  in- 
separably connected  with  the  history  of  the  country.  This 
department  of  its  work  was  from  its  inception  under  the  di- 
rection of  the  Assistant  Secretary,  and  so  intimately  through 
him  was  the  Institution  connected  with  the  scientific  work  of 
the  exploring  expeditions  that  the  annual  reports  from  1851 
to  1871  contain  what  is  practically  a  complete  history  of  the 
work  of  the  government  in  the  exploration  of  the  great  un- 
known reoions  of  the  West.     This  constitutes,  in  fact,  the 


i8o  The  Smithsonian  Instihttion 

only  systematic  record  of  government  explorations  for  this 
period  which  has  ever  been  prepared. 

The  decade  beginning  with  1850  was  one  of  great  activity 
in  exploration.  Our  frontier  was  being  rapidly  extended 
toward  the  West,  but  in  the  territory  between  the  Mississippi 
were  immense  regions  which  were  entirely  unknown.  Nu- 
merous government  expeditions  were  sent  forth  and  enor- 
mous collections  were  gathered  and  sent  to  Washington  to 
be  reported  upon.  The  Institution  had  been  designated  by 
law  custodian  of  these  collections,  and  within  its  walls  as- 
sembled the  naturalists  by  whose  exertions  they  had  been 
brought  together.  Professor  Baird  was  surrounded  by  con- 
ditions most  congenial  and  stimulating,  for  he  found  full  scope 
for  his  energy  in  arranging  scientific  outfits  for  these  expedi- 
tions, preparing  instructions  for  explorers,  and,  above  all,  in 
inspiring  them  with  enthusiasm  for  the  work. 

To  him  also  fell  in  large  part  the  task  of  receiving  the  col- 
lections, arranging  for  the  necessary  investigations,  and  the 
accumulation  and  publication  of  the  results. 

The  natural  history  portion  of  the  reports  of  the  Mexican 
Boundary  Surveys,  the  Pacific  Railroad  Surveys,  and  the 
expeditions  of  Ives,  Marsh,  Stansbury,  McClellan,  and 
others,  as  well  as  those  of  the  Wilkes  exploring  expe- 
dition, which  remained  still  under  investigation,  were  all 
prepared  with  his  cooperation,  and  in  large  degree  under 
his   supervision. 

This,  however,  was  only  a  small  part  of  his  work,  for  he 
maintained  relationships  with  numerous  private  collectors, 
who  derived  their  materials,  their  books,  and,  to  a  consider- 
able extent,  their  enthusiasm  from  him.  The  various  "In- 
structions to  Collectors,"  which  have  passed  through  several 
editions,  as  well  as  numerous  circulars  written  with  a  similar 
purpose,  originated  with  him. 


The   Three  Secretaries  i8i 

As  a  result  of  this  work,  a  large  number  of  men  were 
trained  as  collectors  and  observers ;  among  them  not  a  few 
who  have  since  become  eminent  in  various  departments  of 
science:  Gill,  Hayden,  Girard,  Kennicott,  Dall,  Bannister, 
Culbertson,  Stimpson,  Ridgway,  Rathbun,  Bean,  Ryder, 
True,  and  Gushing.  The  list  might  be  extended  for  many 
lines.  Amone  the  older  men  who  were  thus  associated  with 
him  were  Meek,  Cooper,  Kennerly,  Suckley,  Gibbs,  New- 
berry, Parry,  Powell  —  all  names  familiar  in  the  history  of 
American  exploration. 

Many  army  officers  detailed  for  this  same  work  became 
enthusiastic  naturalists,  and  sent  in  important  collections  and 
notes.  Some  of  these  men  subsequently  became  famous  as 
military  leaders.  I  have  seen  a  manuscript  on  the  "Moun- 
tain Sheep,"  written  by  General  George  H.  Thomas  and  pre- 
pared for  the  press  by  Professor  Baird.  General  Winfield 
Scott  and  General  George  B.  McClellan  both  made  collec- 
tions of  reptiles  in  the  West,  the  genus  Scotophis  and  the 
species  PituopJiis  McClellanii  commemorating  their  names  ; 
and  among  other  monuments  to  men  also  known  as  military 
heroes  are  the  species  named  for  McCall,  Van  Vliet,  Graham, 
Couch,  Fremont,  and  Emory. 

Even  more  striking  was  the  enthusiasm  of  the  officers  of 
the  Hudson  Bay  Company  in  the  far  North,  and  with  all 
these  men  an  active  personal  relationship  was  m.aintained. 

"  Collections  and  correspondence,"  writes  Dall,  "  poured  in 
upon  Professor  Baird  in  extraordinary  quantity.  Not  alone 
was  the  shedding  of  its  horn  by  the  antelope  on  the  Western 
plains,  or  the  nesting  of  the  canvasback  among  Alaskan 
marshes,  the  theme  of  eager  letter  writing.  The  ladies  of 
his  household  might  often  have  been  seen  among  the  shops, 
seeking  novels  for  the  army  officer  at  some  isolated  post,  a 
necktie  for  a  Northern  voyager,   or   the  dress  goods   for   a 


1 82  The  Smithsonian  Instihition 

wedding  to  come  off  on  the  banks  of  the  Mackenzie  during 
the  crisp  Arctic  September." 

The  war  of  1861-65  broke  rudely  into  these  happy  days, 
and  after  it  closed  the  old  relationships  were  never  entirely 
resumed,  although  the  Institution  was  closely  related  to  the 
natural  history  work  of  the  early  surveys  of  Hayden,  Wheel- 
er, King,  and  Powell.  Many  of  the  Polar  expeditions,  and 
still  earlier,  the  natural  history  survey  of  Alaska  under  the 
direction  of  Kennicott  and  Dall,  were  largely  under  the  influ- 
ence of  Professor  Baird ;  while  later  his  interest  in  Arctic  zo- 
ology manifested  itself  in  the  pains  which  he  took  to  secure 
the  appointment  of  naturalists  as  observers  at  the  various 
stations  of  the  International  Meteorological  Service.  The 
important  explorations  of  Nelson,  Turner,  and  Murdoch  in 
the  far  Northwest,  and  of  Kumlien  and  Turner  in  Labrador, 
were  thus  provided  for. 


IX. 

Natural  history  and  the  directing  of  explorations  were  only  a 
portion  of  that  for  which  he  was  held  officially  responsible, 
for  his  first  duty  was  from  the  start  in  connection  with  cer- 
tain departments  of  routine.  The  system  of  international 
exchanges,  for  instance,  was  organized  by  him  in  all  its  de- 
tails. His  first  task  after  entering  upon  his  duties  on  Octo- 
ber II,  1850,  was  to  distribute  the  second  volume  of  the 
"  Contributions  to  Knowledge."  In  connection  with  his  pri- 
vate enterprises  he  had  already  developed  a  somewhat 
extensive  system  of  exchanges  with  European  and  Amer- 
ican correspondents,  and  the  methods  thus  established  were 
expanded  to  meet  the  wider  needs  of  the  Institution. 

He  had  in  charge  also  the  details  of  organizing  the  corps 
of  meteorological  observers,  and  for  twenty  years  wrote  out 


The   Three  Secretaries  183 

with  his  own  hand  daily  a  large  number  of  briefs  of  letters 
for  the  signature  of  the  Secretary. 

The  development  of  the  natural  history  collections  was  the 
work  for  which  he  cared  the  most.  As  has  already  been  in- 
dicated, the  private  collection  which  he  brought  with  him  to 
Washington  formed  the  nucleus  of  the  Smithsonian  Museum. 
The  only  specimens  in  the  possession  of  the  Institution  at  the 
time  of  his  arrival  were  a  few  boxes  of  minerals  and  plants. 
The  gatherings  of  the  Wilkes  expedition  —  the  legal  nucleus 
of  the  Museum  —  were  at  that  time  under  the  charge  of  the 
National  Institute  and  arranged  in  the  Patent  Office  building; 
but  it  was  not  until  1857  that  the  Regents  finally  consented 
that  this  material  should  be  transferred  to  its  building.  Be- 
fore this  time  Congress  had  granted  no  funds  for  the  support 
of  the  Smithsonian  cabinets,  and  its  collections  had  been  ac- 
quired and  cared  for  at  the  expense  of  its  own  endowment. 
They  had,  however,  become  so  large  and  important  before 
1857  that  the  so-called  "National  Collection"  at  that  time 
acquired  was  but  small  in  comparison. 

The  National  Museum  had  thus  a  double  origin,  its  actual, 
though  not  its  legal,  nucleus  having  been  the  collection  as- 
sembled at  the  Smithsonian  prior  to  1857.  Its  methods 
of  administration  were  the  very  same  which  had  been  de- 
veloped by  Professor  Baird  in  Carlisle  as  early  as  1845, 
and  are  still  in  use,  having  stood  the  test  of  nearly  fifty 
years  without  any  necessity  for  their  modification  having 
become   apparent. 

In  the  fifth  annual  report  of  the  Institution,  now  exceed- 
ingly rare,  is  a  communication  by  the  Assistant  Secretary  in 
charge  of  the  Natural  History  Department,  which  after  enu- 
merating the  specimens  belonging  to  the  Museum  January  i, 
1 85 1,  discussed  fully  the  possibilities  for  the  development  of 
natural    history    collections    in    W^ashington  —  a    remarkable 


184  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

paper  in  which  the  germs  of  all  future  development  were 
embodied. 

The  period  of  the  Civil  War  was  one  of  comparative  quiet, 
though  much  was  accomplished  by  Baird  and  his  pupils  ;  and 
his  two  most  scholarly  memoirs  —  the  "  Review  of  Amer- 
ican Birds  "  and  the  "  Distribution  and  Migrations  of  North 
American  Birds" — were  then  written. 

During  this  decade  were  continued  the  summer  expedi- 
tions, usually  extending  through  a  period  of  two  or  three 
months,  which  were  yearly  more  and  more  exclusively  de- 
voted to  the  investigation  of  aquatic  life,  and  ultimately  led 
to  the  organization  of  the  Fish  Commission  in  1871. 

During  this  period,  too,  the  tendencies  toward  interest  in 
the  problems  of  general  science  growing  out  of  his  early 
connection  with  the  "  Iconographic  Cyclopaedia"  began  to 
revive,  and  he  felt  a  new  interest  in  the  popularization  of 
scientific  subjects. 

At  the  solicitation  of  Mr.  George  W.  Childs,  he  took  charge 
in  1867  of  the  column  of  scientific  intelligence  in  the  Phila- 
delphia Public  Ledger,  and  about  1870  became  the  scientific 
editor  of  the  periodicals  published  by  Harper  &  Brothers, 
of  New  York.  His  connection  with  this  firm  continued  until 
1878,  and  in  addition  to  his  contributions  to  other  periodicals, 
there  resulted  eight  volumes  of  the  "Annual  Record  of  Sci- 
ence and  Industry."  About  the  time  he  became  Secretary 
of  the  Institution  these  editorial  labors  were  abandoned,  but 
the  idea  of  the  annual  record  was  continued  in  the  appendices 
to  the  Smithsonian  Report  until  1888  under  the  title  of 
"  Record  of  Progress." 

X. 

In  1 87 1  an  entirely  new  interest  was  intrusted  to  his  care, 
when  he  was  appointed  by   President  Grant  United  States 


The  Three  Secretaries  185 

Commissioner  of  Fish  and  Fisheries.  The  duties  of  this 
office,  although  not  permitted  to  interfere  with  his  other  offi- 
cial work,  occupied  nevertheless  a  large  portion  of  his  time 
and  much  of  his  best  thought  for  the  remaining  years  of  his 
life. 

The  interests  of  the  Fish  Commission,  so  limited  at  first 
that  they  were  performed  largely  by  himself  and  a  few  volun- 
teer associates,  soon  became  so  extensive  that  he  was  obliged 
to  give  up  personal  studies  and  to  work  entirely  through  the 
agency  of  others.  So  rapidly  did  the  work  extend  in  later 
years  that  notwithstanding  the  large  and  competent  staff 
which  the  increased  appropriations  enabled  him  to  employ, 
the  burden  of  routine  grew  greater  than  he  was  able,  with  his 
other  responsibilities,  to  endure,  and  led  to  his  untimely 
death. 

The  work  of  the  Fish  Commission  while  under  his  charge 
was  the  most  prominent  of  all  the  efforts  of  the  government 
in  the  way  of  aggressive  scientific  research. 

The  law  which  authorized  the  appointment  of  a  Commis- 
sioner of  Fish  and  Fisheries  defined  his  duties  as  follows : 

"To  prosecute  investigations  and  inquiries  on  the  subject 
[of  the  diminution  of  valuable  fishes],  with  the  view  of  ascer- 
taining whether  any  and  what  diminution  in  the  number  of 
the  food-fishes  of  the  coast  and  the  lakes  of  the  United  States 
has  taken  place ;  and,  if  so,  to  what  causes  the  same  is  due ; 
and  also  whether  any  and  what  protective,  prohibitory,  or 
precautionary  measures  should  be  adopted  in  the  premises ; 
and  to  report  upon  the  same  to  Congress." 

The  same  resolution  required  that  the  Commissioner  should 
be  a  civil  officer  of  the  government,  of  proved  scientific  a?id 
practical  acquaintance  with  tJie  fishes  of  the  coast.  Only  one 
man  was  eligible  under  these  conditions.  Indeed,  the  office 
had  been  made  for  Professor  Baird. 

13 


1 86  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

The  work  of  the  Commission  was  at  first  limited  to  the  in- 
vestigation of  the  causes  of  the  decrease  in  the  food-fishes  of 
the  Atlantic  coast,  and  it  was  in  this  connection  that  the  sum- 
mer stations  were  established  in  successive  years  at  Eastport, 
Noank,  Portland,  Newport,  Gloucester,  Providence,  and  finally 
at  Woods  Hole,  where  a  permanent  station  and  biological 
laboratory  were  erected.  It  soon  came  to  pass  that  the  Great 
Lakes  and  also  the  rivers  were  included  in  the  province  of 
the  Commission,  and  that  the  Commissioner  was  required  to 
undertake  extensive  operations  in  practical  fish-culture.  This 
last  has  now  become  the  most  prominent  part  of  the  work  of 
the  Commission,  but  was  in  early  years  regarded  by  Profes- 
sor Baird  as  incidental  to  his  own  interest,  which  was  to  dis- 
cover the  facts  upon  which  fish-culture,  fishery  legislation,  and 
fishery  economy  in  general,  must  of  necessity  forever  rest. 

In  making  his  original  plans,  he  had  insisted  that  to  study 
only  the  food-fishes  would  be  of  little  importance,  and  that 
useful  conclusions  must  need  rest  upon  the  broad  foundation 
of  purely  scientific  investigation.  The  life-histories  of  econo- 
mic species  were  to  be  understood  from  beginning  to  end,  but 
no  less  requisite  was  it  to  know  all  about  the  animals  and 
plants  upon  which  they  feed  or  upon  which  their  food  is  nour- 
ished ;  the  habits  of  their  enemies  and  friends,  and  the  foes 
and  friends  of  their  friends  and  enemies ;  as  well  as  the  cur- 
rents, temperatures,  and  other  physical  phenomena  of  the 
waters  which  are  so  intimately  related  to  migration,  repro- 
duction, and  growth. 

In  furtherance  of  these  views,  he  carried  on  an  exhaustive 
biological  survey  of  the  waters  of  the  United  States  and  of 
the  adjoining  regions  of  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific.  What  was 
done  by  the  Fisk  Hawk  and  the  Albatross,  vessels  designed 
by  him  and  constructed  under  his  personal  supervision,  has 
given  to  our  nation  a  most  honorable  place  among  the  Gov- 


The  Three  Secretaries  187 

ernments  of  the  world  in  the  field  of  deep-sea  research. 
The  achievements  of  the  British  ship  Challenger  are  famous 
throughout  the  world  on  account  of  the  magnificent  series  of 
reports,  published  by  the  Government,  based  upon  its  collec- 
tions. The  material  accumulated  by  Professor  Baird's  ves- 
sels was  quite  as  extensive,  and  had  he  lived  the  reports 
would  have  been  equally  famous. 

The  marine  biological  laboratory  at  Woods  Hole  is  the 
most  extensive,  and  at  the  time  of  its  completion  was  one  of 
the  best  equipped,  in  the  world.  Had  his  plans  for  it  come  to 
fruition,  it  would  have  been  without  a  rival  among  such  es- 
tablishments. 

Notwithstanding  his  own  taste  and  inclinations,  all  per- 
sonal work  in  natural  history  was  soon  abandoned  to  others, 
and  his  own  great  powers  of  administration  applied  to  the 
practical  side  of  the  work — a  task  for  which  he  had  little  per- 
sonal liking.  He  nevertheless  did  it  with  enthusiasm,  since 
he  was  convinced  that  the  increase  in  the  food  supply  which 
he  was  thus  rendering  practicable  was  of  the  greatest  impor- 
tance to  millions  of  his  fellow-citizens.  To  him  was  due  the 
inception  of  what  I  have  termed  "public  fish-culture,"  to  dis- 
tinguish it  from  all  previous  work  of  this  kind,  performed,  as 
it  always  had  been,  upon  a  limited  scale,  and  for  the  benefit 
of  a  few  individuals. 

"Public  fish-culture"  is  fish-culture  for  the  benefit  of  the 
masses.  It  does  not  depend  for  its  effectiveness  upon  the  as- 
sistance of  protective  legislation.  It  is  based  upon  the  idea 
that  it  is  better  so  to  increase  the  supply  of  fishes  by  artificial 
propagation  that  protective  laws  are  not  necessary ;  that  it  is 
cheaper  to  make  fish  so  abundant  that  the  fisheries  need  not 
be  restricted,  than  to  spend  large  sums  of  money  in  prevent- 
ing people  from  fishing.  "  Public  fish-culture  "  is  essentially 
democratic  and  American.      In  1S83  I  wrote:    "'Public  fish- 


1 88  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

culture '  scarcely  exists  except  in  America,  though  in  Europe 
many  eminent  men  of  science  appreciate  its  importance  and 
are  striving  to  educate  the  people  up  to  the  point  of  support- 
ing it."  These  words,  after  the  lapse  of  thirteen  years,  are 
still  true. 

In  1883  Professor  Huxley  remarked:  "  If  the  people  of 
Great  Britain  are  going  to  deal  seriously  with  the  sea  fisher- 
ies, and  not  let  them  take  care  of  themselves,  as  they  have 
done  for  the  last  thousand  years  or  so,  they  have  a  very 
considerable  job  before  them,  and  unless  they  put  into  the 
organization  of  the  fisheries  the  energy,  the  ingenuity,  the 
scientific  knowledge,  and  the  professional  skill  which  char- 
acterize my  friend  Professor  Baird  and  his  assistants,  their 
efforts  are  not  likely  to  come  to  very  much  good."  "  I  do 
not  think,"  he  added,  "  that  any  nation  at  the  present  time 
has  comprehended  the  question  of  dealing  with  fish  in  so 
thorough,  excellent,  and  scientific  a  spirit  as  the  United 
States." 

The  juries  of  the  Fishery  Exhibition  in  Berlin  in  1880  said 
in  their  official  report :  "  We  must  thank  America  for  the  prog- 
ress which  fish-culture  has  made  during  the  past  decade." 

The  principal  French  authority,  M.  Raveret-Wattel,  wrote: 
"  Nowhere  has  a  Government  given  so  much  enlightened  care 
to  the  rational  cultivation  of  the  waters,  and  afforded  such 
efficient  protection  and  generous  encouragement." 

The  importance  of  his  services  to  fishery  economy  were 
perhaps  more  fully  recognized  in  Germany  than  elsewhere.  At 
the  first  great  International  Fishery  Exhibition, — that  held  in 
Berlin  in  1880, —  the  magnificent  silver  trophy,  the  first  prize 
of  honor,  was  awarded  to  him  by  the  Emperor.  His  portrait 
was  placed  over  the  entrance  to  the  American  court,  and 
Herr  von  Behr,  president  of  the  German  Fishery  Union, 
never  passed  beneath  it  without  taking  off  his  hat  in  honor  of 


The  Three  Secretaries  189 

the  man  whom  he  deHghted  to  call  the  "  first  fish  culturist  of 
the  world  " :  he  insisted  that  whoever  might  be  in  his  com- 
pany should  follow  his  example,  and  the  late  Emperor  Fred- 
erick, at  that  time  Crown  Prince  and  "  Protector  of  Fisher- 
ies," did  homage  in  the  same  manner  to  the  American  phil- 
anthropist. 

The  German  Fishery  Union  issued  a  circular  immediately 
after  his  death,  which  contained  the  following  appreciative 
eulogy : 

"  Ein  edler  Freund  in  weiter  Feme, —  ein  Wohlthater  des 
Deutschen  Fischerei-Vereins,  ist  dahin  geschieden.  Wir 
trauern  am  Grabe  des  uneigenniitzigen,  schlichten  Gelehrten, 
der  ein  langes  Leben  lang  den  Austausch  geistiger  Arbeit 
zwischen  Europa  und  Amerika  auf  vielen  Gebieten  der  Na- 
turkunde  gepflegt  hat,  der  seit  Jahren  auch  unermiidlich  be- 
strebt  war,  von  dem  Reichthume  amerikanischer  Gewasser  an 
Deutschland  abzugeben.  Keines  Lobes  oder  auch  nur  Dan- 
kes  gewartig,  hielt  sich  Professor  Baird  taglich  und  stiindlich 
bereit,  Fragen  zu  beantworten  und  Aufschliisse  zu  ertheilen. 
Noch  mehr ;  aus  eigenem  Antriebe  bot  er  dem  befreundeten 
deutschen  Fischerei-Verein  das  beste  an,  was  nach  seinem 
gewiegten  Urtheile  sich  fiir  uns  eignen  konnte.  Ihm  ver- 
dankt  die  Fauna  unserer  vaterlandischen  Strome  seit  1878  die 
Zufiihrunsf  von  nicht  weniger  als  vier  der  edelsten  Fische  aus 
dem  Salmonidengeschlechte,  die  sammtlich  bereits  durch 
Nachzucht  unser  bleibendes,  gesichertes  Eigenthum  geworden 
sind,  namlich :  des  Binnensee-Lachses  (landlocked  salmon), 
der  Regenbogenforelle  (rainbow  trout),  des  Bachsaiblings 
(brook  trout),  und  der  amerikanischen  Marane  (white  fish). 
Auch  den  in  Amerika  sobeliebten  Black  Bass  und  den  Catfish 
(Zwerwels),  von  dem  wir  uns  Nutzen  fiir  die  heimischen 
Strome  versprechen,  danken  wir  ihm.  Nicht  weniger  als  zehn 
Millionen  befruchteter  Eier  mogen  in  seinem  Auftrage  aus 
den  unermesslichen  Schatzen,  iiber  welche  die  '  United  States 
Commission  of  Fish  and  Fisheries '  zu  verfiigen  hat,  iiber  den 
Ocean  uns  zuorecrancren  sein. 

13* 


iQo  The  Smithsonian  Instihition 

"  Herr  Spencer  F.  Baird  war  es  auch,  dessen  kraftiger  For- 
derung  wir  i.  J.  1880  den  Entschluss  der  Bundesregierung, 
die  berliner  Internationale  Ausstellung  zu  beschicken,  we- 
sentlich  verdanken.  Mit  solcher  Umsicht  und  mit  so  s^ross- 
artiger  Vollstandigkeit  wurde  die  amerikanische  Abtheilung 
derselben  ausgeriistet,  dass  man  sie  ohne  Weiteres  als  die 
lehrreichste  und  wichtigste  aller  Ausstellungen  der  Fremde 
bezeichnen  konnte,  so  dass  der  grosse  Ehrenpreis  Sr.  Maje- 
stat  des  Kaisers  dem  Professor  Baird  zugesprochen  wurde. 

*'  Moge  Amerika  die  Verdienste  des  edlen  Mannes  einge- 
hend  darstellen  und  dauernd  ehren,  der  das  Ehrenamt  als 
Vorsitzender  der  ofenannten  Kommission,  durch  iiberreiche 
Zuwendung  der  Bundeskasse  und  die  Freigebigkeit  der  Ei- 
senbahngesellschaften  unterstlitzt,  mit  so  kraftiger  Initiative 
zur  Erneuerung  des  bereits  dezimirten  Fischbestandes  aus- 
nutzte, —  der  die  nur  in  einzelen  Stromgebieten  heimschen 
Fische  alien  andern  im  Osten  und  Westen  des  gewaltigen 
Landes  zuganglich  machte, —  der  sogar  Dampfschiffe  bauen 
liess,  um  sie  als  bewegliche  Bruthauser  zu  benutzen, —  dem 
auch  jeder  Versuch  willkommen  war,  europaische  Fische 
driiben  zu  akklimatisiren.  Dass  wir  in  letzterer  Hinsicht 
dem  unvergesslichen  Freunde  auch  unserseits  haben  dienst- 
bar  sein  konnen,  gereicht  uns  zur  lebhaften  Genugthuung. 
Zwei  dem  amerikanischen  Festlande  frliher  unbekannte  Ar- 
ten,  der  Karpfe  und  die  Forelle,  sind  von  Deutschland  aus 
dort  eingefUhrt  worden.  Beide  mit  staunenswerthem  Erfolge. 
Der  Karpfe,  namentlich,  hat  driiben  (wenn  der  Ausdruck  ge- 
stattet  wird)  ein  neues  Leben  begonnen.  Wie  er  in  kijrze- 
ster  Frist  zu  kaum  gekannten  Massen  heranwachst,  so  bemii- 
hen  sich  die  Amerikaner  ihrerseits  mit  wahrhafter  Vorliebe 
um  den  Ankommling;  eine  eigene  Zeitschrift  beschaftigt  sich 
seit  Kurzem  mit  den  Schicksalen  des  Karpfen  in  jedem  Theile 
der  Union.  Wir  vernehmen  mit  Befriedigung,  dass  sein  mehr 
jahriger  Mitarbeiter,  Herr  Professor  Brown  Goode,  nunmehr 
seine  Stelle  iibernehmen  soil.  Moo^e  der  liebenswUrdio-e  Ge- 
lehrte,  dessen  sich  viele  von  unserer  Fischereiausstellung  her 
erinnern  werden,  in  die  Fusstapfen  seines  Vorgangers  voll 
und  wiirdiglich  eintreten.     Uns  wird  er  allezeit  bereit  finden, 


The  Three  Secretaries  191 

mit  ihm  in  demselben  Geiste  der  Briiderlichkeit,  der  uns  niit 
dem  Verewigten  verband,  waiter  zu  arbeiten. 

"Spencer  F.  Baird  war  am  8  Februar  1823  zu  Reading  in 
Pennsylvanien  geboren.  Er  war  Vorsteher  des  Smithsonian 
Institute  zu  Washington.  Am  18  August  d.  J.  verschied  er 
zu  Wood's  Holl.  Im  Herzen  seiner  deutschen  wie  seiner 
amerikanischen  Freunde  wird  er  lange,  lange  fortleben.  Ave, 
cara  anima  /  "  ^ 

XI. 

In  May,  1878,  he  was  unanimously  elected  to  succeed  Pro- 
fessor Henry  as  the  Secretary  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution. 
In  this  position  he  continued  the  policy  of  his  predecessor, 
though  with  more  attention  to  exploration.  The  number  of 
publications  was  increased  and  more  attention  paid  to  the 
development  of  the  library.  He  secured  legislation  authoriz- 
ing the  expansion  of  the  endowment  fund  invested  in  the 
Treasury  to  one  million  dollars,  and  began  to  agitate  the 
question  of  scholarships  in  connection  with  the  Institution. 
During  his  administration,  too,  was  erected  the  annex  build- 
ing to  contain  the  overflow  of  the  collections  of  the  National 
Museum,  which  had  been  so  suddenly  expanded  through  his 
influence  at  the  Philadelphia  Exposition.  To  the  construc- 
tion of  this  building,  which  covers  an  area  of  nearly  two  and 
a  half  acres,  he  gave  his  personal  attention,  and  completed  it 
for  less  than  the  amount  of  the  appropriation,  turning  a  small 
balance  into  the  Treasury,  something  which  has  rarely  hap- 
pened in  the  erection  of  government  buildings,  and  which  is 
still  remembered  in  Congress  as  remarkable. 

The  building  has  been  severely  criticized  because  of  its 
lack  of  architectural  dignity,  but  it  is  by  far  the  cheapest 
structure  of  the  kind  ever  built,  the  cost  for  each  square  foot 
of  floor  space  available  for  exhibition  having  been  only  two 

1  Circular  No.  4  (pages  59,  60),  Berlin,  October  13,  1887. 


192  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

dollars  and  a  half,  while  no  other  museum  building  has  cost 
less  than  eleven  dollars  for  the  same  unit.  It  was  regarded 
by  Professor  Baird  as  a  temporary  structure,  and  he  acted 
upon  the  theory,  which  experience  has  shown  to  be  a  wise 
one,  that  in  order  to  secure  for  the  future  a  museum  worthy 
of  the  nation,  the  first  necessity  was  a  building  of  great  ca- 
pacity, in  which  the  extraordinary  opportunities  at  that  time 
presented  for  accumulating  and  organizing  great  collections 
could  be  utilized. 

The  larger  portion  of  his  time  was  still  occupied  by  his 
duties  as  Commissioner  of  Fisheries,  yet  the  Institution  and 
its  dependencies  were  constantly  in  his  mind,  and  the  ten 
years  of  his  incumbency  were  marked  by  an  extraordinary 
expansion  in  every  direction  of  the  Institution's  potentiality 
for  the  future. 

Honors  were  showered  upon  him  from  every  quarter  of 
the  world.  The  King  of  Norway  and  Sweden,  in  1875,  made 
him  a  Knight  of  the  Order  of  St.  Olaf;  in  1878  he  received 
the  medal  of  the  Acclimatization  Society  of  Melbourne ;  in 
1879  the  gold  medal  of  the  Societe  d'Acclimatation  de  France. 

He  was  an  honorary  member  of  many  scientific  societies  in 
England,  Germany,  Austria,  Spain,  the  Netherlands,  Austra- 
lia, New  Zealand,  Holland,  Switzerland,  Canada,  and  the 
United  States.  Even  Japan  was  not  unmindful  of  his  services 
to  science,  and  from  distant  Yezo  came  soon  after  his  death 
a  little  volume  printed  on  silk  containing  his  portrait  and  an 
appreciation  in  Japanese. 

A  few  months  before  his  death,  at  the  250th  anniversary 
of  Harvard  University,  he  received  the  degree  of  LL.  D. 
This  was  one  of  the  few  occasions  upon  which  he  was  ever 
induced  to  ascend  the  platform  in  a  public  place. 

The  village  of  Baird,  in  Shasta  County,  California,  was 
named  for  him  in  1877. 


The  Three  Secretaries  193 

His  most  lasting  memorials,  however,  are  those  living- 
monuments  which  commemorate  the  activity  of  naturalists  — 
the  animals  which  are  named  for  them  by  their  disciples.  Of 
these  there  are  more  than  forty,  conspicuous  among  which 
are  Baird's  Tapir  {E lasmogiiatJius  Bairdii),  a  large  mammal 
of  Central  America ;  Baird's  Dolphin  {Delphinus  Bairdii), 
a  species  found  in  the  Pacific  waters  of  the  United  States ; 
and  Baird's  Octopus,  the  first  conspicuous  new  form  of  inver- 
tebrate discovered  in  the  early  explorations  of  the  Fish  Com- 
mission on  the  New  England  coast. 

The  most  modest  of  men.  Professor  Baird  cared  not  for 
public  recognition.  Mis  indifference  to  self  was  his  most 
conspicuous  characteristic.  He  could  never  be  induced  to 
address  an  audience,  something  which  seems  all  the  more 
remarkable  to  his  friends,  who  remember  how  winning  was 
his  eloquence  when  he  talked  in  the  presence  of  a  few. 

The  power  of  his  persuasive  suavity  was  never  better  seen 
than  when  in  the  presence  of  the  committees  of  Congress  be- 
fore whom  he  was  summoned  from  year  to  year  to  justify  his 
requests  for  money  to  be  used  in  the  extension  of  his  work. 
He  was  always  received  with  the  heartiest  welcome,  and  these 
keen,  bustling,  practical  men  of  business,  who  ordinarily 
rushed  with  the  greatest  of  expedition  through  the  routine  of 
the  day,  forgot  their  usual  hurry  when  Professor  Baird  was 
before  them,  and  listened  so  long  as  he  could  be  induced  to 
talk,  and  not  infrequently  would  wander  from  the  business 
before  them  to  ask  him  questions  upon  subjects  which  his  re- 
marks suggested.  A  very  practical  evidence  of  their  appre- 
ciation was  the  prompt  action  upon  the  bill,  passed  soon  after 
his  death,  giving  twenty-five  thousand  dollars  to  his  widow  in 
recognition  of  the  uncompensated  services  which  he  had  ren- 
dered as  Commissioner  of  Fisheries. 


194  The  Smithsonian  Institution 


XII. 


His  personal  traits  have  been  sympathetically  described  by 
intimate  friends  in  the  many  eulogies  which  were  published 
soon  after  his  death,  and  the  appreciations  of  his  character 
presented  by  Billings,  Dall,  Ridgway,  Sharpe,  and  Powell 
have  a  peculiar  interest,  since  each  writer  has  depicted  a 
phase  of  his  character  especially  familiar  to  himself  To 
these  are  now  added  two  others,  the  first  written  by  Pro- 
fessor John  S.  Newberry,  who  had  known  him  as  early  as 
1850,  and  the  other  by  Professor  Harrison  Allen  of  Phila- 
delphia, whose  acquaintance  was  of  somewhat  later  date. 
Professor  Newberry  writes : 

"  His  most  marked  characteristics,  and  those  which  gained 
the  affection  and  admiration  of  all  who  were  brought  into 
contact  with  him,  were  his  great  knowledge,  his  geniality, 
and  his  phenomenal  industry.  His  courtesy  was  proverbial, 
and  his  remarkable  success  in  dealing  with  jealous  and  often 
antagonistic  government  departments  was  largely  due  to  his 
tact  and  sagacity.  He  seemed  always  to  get  what  he  wanted, 
but  it  was  by  a  geniality  which  melted  down  all  opposition, 
and  never  by  the  tricks  and  subterfuges  so  common  among 
politicians.  His  suavity  was  irresistible,  making  allies  and 
helpers  of  friends,  and  disarming  all  antagonists. 

"  As  a  consequence  of  the  possession  of  all  these  charming 
qualities,  and  as  a  reward  for  the  kindness  he  was  sooner  or 
later  doing  to  every  one  about  him,  he  was  without  an  enemy, 
and  more  popular  and  beloved  than  any  other  man  I  have 
known. 

"  I  have  said  that  his  industry  was  phenomenal :  he  really 
seemed  never  to  waste  a  moment ;  he  had  a  wonderful  head 
for  details  and  was  an  ideal  business  man.  All  the  innumer- 
able ramifications  of  the  practical  work  of  the  Smithsonian 
were  not  only  known  to,  but  were  really  controlled  by  him  ; 


The  Three  Secretaries  195 

every  moment  of  his  time  was  occupied,  and  he  worked  with 
singular  speed  and  efficiency  ;  yet  he  was  never  hurried  or 
flustered  and  never  so  much  engrossed  in  his  work  but  that 
he  had  a  pleasant  word  for  strangers,  and  an  open  ear  to  all 
the  wishes  or  complaints  of  his  numerous  assistants  and  em- 
ployees. When  busiest  in  tabulating  the  results  of  the  enor- 
mous collections  which  were  accumulated  at  the  Smithsonian 
by  his  means,  if  his  daughter,  then  a  child,  came  with  any 
request,  he  turned  from  his  work  to  listen  to  her  prattle, 
and  lent  himself  to  her  wants  and  wishes  as  though  he  had 
nothing  else  in  the  world  to  attend  to.  His  wife  was  a  great 
invalid,  and  there  were  days  when,  very  nervous,  she  could 
scarcely  spare  him  from  her  sight.  I  have  known  him  to  sit 
for  many  hours  at  her  bedside,  holding  her  hand  in  one  of 
his  while  with  the  other  he  went  on  with  his  writing,  ready 
at  any  instant  to  administer  to  her  wants  and  wishes,  and  yet 
utilizing  every  free  moment. 

"  His  administrative  abilities  were  of  the  very  highest 
order.  As  has  been  said,  he  not  only  managed  the  business 
of  the  Institution  in  all  its  arrangements  with  remarkable 
success,  but  he  instituted  and  carried  out  a  system  of  observa- 
tions and  collections  in  natural  history  that  covered  the  entire 
North  American  continent.  All  the  departments  of  govern- 
ment were  ready  to  make  their  machinery  tributary  to  his 
wants ;  the  express  companies  and  other  lines  of  transporta- 
tion carried  all  his  articles  free,  the  agents  of  the  Hudson 
Bay  Company  even  to  the  Arctic  Circle ;  and  both  officials 
and  private  persons  in  Mexico  and  the  West  Indies  constituted 
themselves  representatives  of  the  Smithsonian,  and  were  con- 
stantly sending  in  gratuitously  collections  which  would  have 
cost,  if  paid  for,  thousands  of  dollars.  Within  the  United 
States  Professor  Baird  had  friends  and  correspondents  every- 
where, who  were  working  along  his  lines  in  the  interest  of 
science.  In  all  this  he  really  was  Napoleonic,  and  the  result 
was  that  the  old  Smithsonian  building  was  crowded  with 
priceless  treasures  in  every  department  of  natural  science, 
and  the  National  Museum,  his  creation,  was  erected  and 
filled ;    and   now   the    channels  he  opened   are    bringing    to 


196  The  Smithsonian  Insfitufion 

Washingfton  such  a  flood  of  material  that  a  new  museum  is 
absolutely  indispensable  for  its  reception.^ 

"The  Fish  Commission,  with  all  its  grand  results,  is  the 
product  of  his  enterprise  and  good  management.  This  in  it- 
self would  constitute  a  monument  that  should  satisfy  the  am- 
bition of  any  man,  but  it  is  only  one  of  the  good  works  of  the 
purest,  best,  kindliest,  and  most  useful  man  of  science  America 
has  yet  produced. 

"  He  was  constantly  doing  good  to  others,  and  was  the 
most  unselfish  of  men.  Nothing  gave  him  greater  pleasure 
than  to  encourage  and  push  forward  the  young  men  about 
him. 

"Among  the  collections  which  I  brought  from  Oregon  was 
a  woodpecker,  supposed  to  be  new.  Of  this  he  wrote  and 
published  a  description,  crediting  the  species  to  me  without 
my  knowledge  or  consent,  for  the  credit  of  the  discovery  all 
belonged  to  him.  He  was  just  as  generous  in  his  dealings 
with  all  others,  and  he  seemed  to  be  entirely  free  from  the 
desire  for  notoriety  which  is  so  common  among  scientific  men. 
He  had  his  ambition,  of  course,  but  it  was  of  a  lofty  and  un- 
selfish kind,  for  the  advancement  of  science ;  and  for  the  ac- 
complishment of  this  he  preferred  to  encourage  and  help  all 
true  workers  rather  than  to  monopolize  material  and  gain 
honor  and  fame  for  himself. 

"  Only  once  did  I  have  any  difference  with  Professor  Baird. 
I  questioned  the  policy  of  Professor  Henry,  who  desired  to 
make  the  Smithsonian  a  mere  bureau  of  information  and  an 

1  Doctor  Billings  writes  :  "  It  was  the  pos-  friend,  Mr.  Marsh,  about  a  scheme  for  a  na- 
sibility  of  creating  a  great  museum  of  natural  tional  museum,  and  a  year  later  he  got  so  far 
history  that  inducedhim  to  come  to  the  Smith-  as  to  consider  plans  and  size  of  buildings, 
sonian,  and  he  never  lost  sight  of  this  object ;  having  in  view  apparently  something  like  the 
but  for  a  long  time  he  had  to  work  largely  by  Crystal  Palace.  He  was  not  working  aim- 
indirect  methods.  He  did  not  directly  op-  lessly  all  those  years.  He  could  not  have 
pose  the  policy  of  Professor  Henry,  and  al-  what  he  wanted  just  then,  but  he  had  faith 
ways  worked  harmoniously  with  him,  but  he  in  the  future,  and  meantime  went  on  with  his 
lost  no  opportunity  of  increasing  the  collcc-  duties,  which  Mr.  Marsh  [Life  and  Letters 
tions,  and  constantly  urged  that  the  best  way  of  George  P.  Marsh.  Volume  i,  page  262]. 
to  induce  Congress  to  grant  the  means  of  characterized  as 'answering  of  foolish  letters, 
caring  for  such  things  was  to  accumulate  ma-  directing  of  packages  to  literary  societies, 
terial  worth  caring  for  until  its  amount  and  reading  of  proof-sheets,  and  other  mechanical 
value  should  be  such  that  pulilic  opinion  ojierations  pertaining  unto  tlie  diffusion  of 
would  demand  ample  accommodation  for  it.  knowledge.'"  ("Biographical  Memoirs  of  the 
So  early  as  1853  we  find  him  writing  to  his  National  Academy."    Volume  III, page  I45.) 


The  Three  Secretaries  197 

office  for  the  publication  of  such  scientific  papers  as  were  too 
voluminous    or  abstract  to  be   given   to  the  public   through 
other  channels.     The   library  and  museum  were,  therefore, 
looked  upon  by  him  with  little  favor.     On  the  contrary,   I 
thought  the  Smithsonian  should  be  a  bureau  of  investigation, 
where  scientific  material  should  be  accumulated  and  studied 
by  the  help  of  a  fine  scientific  library.      So  I  opposed  the 
transfer  of  the  library  to  the  Capitol  as  the  giving  up  of  an 
important  part  of  the  machinery  of  the  Smithsonian.     What- 
ever Professor  Baird's  private  views  on  this  subject  may  have 
been  he  was  so  loyal  to  his  chief  as  never  to  encourage  or 
countenance  any  opposition  to  his  wishes.      I  felt,  as   I   feel 
now,  that  the  influence  exerted  by  the  Smithsonian  on  the 
government  and  the  people  of  Washington  will  be  measured 
by  the  space  it  occupies  and  the  tangible  evidence  it  furnishes 
to  the  public  of  the  work  it  is  doing.     So  I  rejoice  that  the 
Smithsonian  has  preserved  and  greatly  increased  its  collec- 
tions, until  its  museum  is  now  the  finest  in  the  country,  and  a 
source  of  instruction  and  delight  to  the  thousands  on  thou- 
sands who  visit  the  capital.      Time  has,  I   think,  vindicated 
my  views  with  reference  to  the  library,  and  it  is  recognized 
that,  as  one  of  several  collections  of  books,  a  scientific  library 
is  an  indispensable  part  of  its  machinery. 

"  An  effort  was  made  by  those  who  were  envious  of  the 
great  success  of  Professor  Baird  in  accumulating  scientific 
material  to  have  the  abundant  collections  brought  to  the 
Smithsonian  by  governmental  expeditions  distributed  to 
other  museums.  Fortunately,  Professor  Baird's  opposition  to 
this  scheme  prevented  its  success ;  yet  no  one,  except  those 
who  were  about  him  at  the  time,  knows  how  much  labor  and 
anxiety  the  retention  of  the  museum  cost  him.  But  for  him, 
the  splendid  array  of  scientific  material  which  is  now  the 
glory  of  the  Smithsonian  would  never  have  been  gathered  or 
retained." 

Professor  Allen  writes : 

"My  acquaintance  with  Professor  Baird  began  in  1861. 
At  that  time  I  was  studying  medicine  in  Philadelphia,  and. 


198  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

since  the  study  of  the  natural  sciences  was  recommended,  I 
was  in  the  habit  of  frequenting  the  library  of  the  Academy  of 
Natural  Sciences.  One  day,  while  reading  Griffith's  transla- 
tion of  Cuvier's  "  Regne  Animal,"  I  was  approached  by  a  gen- 
tleman who  asked  me  what  I  was  reading.  I  chanced  to  be 
looking  over  the  chapter  which  treated  of  the  bats.  In  the 
course  of  the  conversation  that  ensued  he  advised  me  to  go 
to  the  specimens  rather  than  to  content  myself  with  reading 
about  them.  This  was  the  first  notice  I  had  ever  received 
from  any  one,  and  the  advice  made  a  deep  impression  upon 
my  mind.  I  afterward  ascertained  that  the  strange  gentle- 
man was  Professor  Baird.  He  was  often  in  Philadelphia, 
being  in  constant  communication  with  Mr.  John  Cassin,  the 
ornithologist,  and  I  had  many  opportunities  of  meeting  him. 
The  training  in  habits  of  exact  observation  gained  by  study- 
ing zoology  has  been  of  great  advantage  to  me  in  my  profes- 
sion, and  I  have  always  felt  an  indebtedness  to  Professor 
Baird  for  his  advice  and  encouragement. 

"  During  the  period  that  I  remained  in  the  army  as  assis- 
tant surgeon,  Professor  Baird  exerted  his  influence  to  obtain 
for  me  posts  of  duty  which  permitted  me  to  pursue  my  stud- 
ies in  natural  history.  I  remained  for  the  most  part  from 
1862  to  1865  in  close  association  with  him  at  the  Smithsonian 
Institution. 

"  Professor  Baird  impressed  me  as  a  great  organizer.  His 
interest  in  men  was  much  the  same  as  that  taken  by  a  gen- 
eral in  the  officers  under  his  command.  It  appeared  to  be 
created  by  a  desire  to  get  certain  work  done  by  his  lieuten- 
ants, but  ended  in  awakening  in  his  mind  an  affectionate  con- 
cern for  their  happiness.  The  field  before  him  was  so  vast 
that  he  had  need  of  all  collaborators.  Nothing  appeared  to 
give  him  more  satisfaction  than  to  hear  of  new  students  com- 
ing forward. 

"  It  is  too  soon  to  estimate  the  value  of  his  achievements  in 
perfecting  a  scheme  of  a  national  collection.  But  this  much 
can  be  temperately  said  —  namely,  that  the  plan  of  the  magnifi- 
cent museum  at  Washington  is  entirely  of  his  own  creation. 
The   difficulties   which   attended   the   formation   of  this   plan 


The  Three  Secretaries  199 

were  greater  than  is  generally  known.  On  one  occasion,  at 
least,  these  would  have  led  in  any  other  man  less  sagacious 
than  himself  to  failure  of  the  entire  conception.  He  came  to 
the  Smithsonian  Institution  at  a  time  when  its  policy  was  not 
defined.  No  one  can  now  estimate  as  he  did  the  obstacles 
to  be  overcome  in  giving  shape  to  the  materials  about  him  ; 
for  not  only  the  apathy  of  the  public,  but  the  opposition  of 
men  of  influence,  both  in  and  out  of  Washington,  had  to  be 
overcome  and  changed  to  sympathy  at  every  step. 

"  Professor  Baird  was  optimistic  in  his  views  of  life,  judi- 
cial in  temperament,  liberal  in  religion,  catholic  in  his  opin- 
ions, wise  and  shrewd  in  his  conduct  of  affairs.  He  had  a 
genial  vein  of  humor.  In  his  literary  tastes  he  was  singularly 
free  from  pedantry,  and  entertained  a  sympathy  so  wide  that 
he  was  the  most  approachable  of  men.  I  have  often  won- 
dered at  his  patience.  Nothing  appeared  to  excite  him.  I 
never  saw  him  in  ill-temper.  To  an  extent  probably  without 
parallel  in  the  history  of  science,  he  combined  the  functions 
of  administrator  and  investigator.  This  combination  did  not 
interfere  apparently  with  the  kind  of  work  he  selected.  This 
was  purely  descriptive  and  was  pursued  in  a  fragmentary 
way, — subject  to  innumerable  interruptions  and  revisions  with- 
out impairment.  He  once  told  me  that  he  wrote  his  book  on 
North  American  birds  in  sittings  which  could  not  have  aver- 
aged over  fifteen  minutes.  His  industry  was  enormous.  He 
lost  no  time  either  by  impaired  health  or  by  misdirected  ef- 
forts ;  indeed,  he  was  a  personification  of  systematic  energy. 
Thus  doubtless  it  came  to  pass  that  the  ends  for  which  he  so 
persistently  fought  were  achieved,  and  his  name  will  be  asso- 
ciated for  all  time  with  the  first  comprehensive  plan  for  the 
organization  of  science  in  America." 


XIII. 

About  sixteen  years  before  his  death,  his  elder  brother,  to 
whom  he  was  devotedly  attached,  and  who  had  been  his  as- 
sociate in  his  earliest  natural-history  work,  died  of  heart  dis- 


200  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

ease.  As  early  as  1855  Professor  Baird  had  been  conscious 
of  weakness  in  the  same  organ,  probably  the  result  of  the 
sudden  change  from  athletic  outdoor  pursuits  to  desk-work 
which  accompanied  his  coming  to  the  Smithsonian.  In  1873, 
when  he  proposed  to  me  to  become  his  confidential  assistant, 
he  told  me  that  his  condition  was  such  that  all  exertion,  and 
even  mental  anxiety,  was  to  be  avoided  at  any  cost.  I  do  not 
doubt  that  this  knowledge  of  physical  weakness  and  the  re- 
sultant discipline  contributed  to  strengthen  the  calmness  and 
self-control  to  which  so  much  of  his  success  in  later  years 
was  due. 

This  habit  had  been  formed  in  very  early  life.  Only  twice 
was  he  ever  known  to  show  anger :  when,  at  the  age  of 
twenty,  some  one  abused  his  favorite  Newfoundland  dog ; 
and  once  in  the  first  years  of  his  connection  with  the  Institu- 
tion, when  a  confidential  letter  from  his  aged  mother  was 
opened  and  read  by  a  clerk  in  the  course  of  official  routine. 

From  early  youth  until  failing  strength  forbade  he  kept  a 
journal  of  his  daily  pursuits,  and  this,  together  with  immense 
piles  of  copy-books  and  letter-files,  will  afford  a  treasure  to 
his  biographer.  When  the  history  of  his  life  and  times  shall 
be  written,  it  will  be  a  history  of  the  natural  sciences  in 
America  in  the  last  two-thirds  of  the  nineteenth  century. 

He  once  remarked  to  me  that  he  was  satisfied  that  no 
man's  life  was  of  such  importance  to  the  people  among  whom 
he  lived  that  he  might  not  easily  be  replaced  by  another  who 
would  fully  fill  his  place.  As  I  looked  at  the  man  before  me, 
a  giant  in  body  and  in  mind,  a  treasury  of  untransferable  ex- 
perience and  wisdom,  it  seemed  to  me  that  if  his  judgment 
was  in  general  a  true  one,  in  him  at  least  there  was  an  ex- 
ception. And  so  it  has  proved.  Ten  years  have  passed  by 
since  he  died,  and  his  like  has  not  been  found. 


The  T J  tree  Secretaries  201 


SAMUEL   PIERPONT    LANGLEY 

I. 

SAMUEL  PIERPONT  LANGLEY  was  born  in  Rox- 
bury,  Massachusetts,  August  22,  1834.  At  the  age  of 
eleven  he  entered  the  Boston  Latin  School,  and  afterward 
the  Boston  High  School,  from  which  he  was  graduated  in 
1 85 1.  He  was  not  sent  to  college,  since  his  tastes  tended 
at  that  time  entirely  toward  mathematical  and  mechanical 
pursuits.  Astronomy,  the  study  which  attracted  him  most, 
could  scarcely  in  those  days  be  expected  to  offer  a  career. 
He  decided  to  become  a  civil  engineer,  since  in  that  profes- 
sion he  would  find  employment  for  his  mathematical  taste, 
for  his  natural  manual  dexterity,  and  his  aptness  in  the  use 
of  mechanical  methods. 

From  engineering  to  architecture  is  not  a  distant  remove, 
and  he  presently  entered  the  office  of  a  Boston  architect,  as 
student.  In  1857  he  began  the  practice  of  his  profession  in 
the  West,  but  the  panic  of  that  year  interfered  seriously  with 
his  prospects.  The  next  few  years  were  passed  in  Chicago 
and  St.  Louis,  leading  to  little  profit  at  the  time,  though  the 
business  discipline  and  the  skill  as  a  draughtsman  which  he 
then  acquired  were  to  be  fruitful  of  results  in  later  years. 

In  1864  he  returned  to  Boston,  having  decided  to  abandon 
architecture,  but  with  no  other  plans  for  the  future.  His 
brother,  John  Williams  Langley,  also  at  this  time  returned  to 
his  old  home  in  Roxbury,  having  just  finished  three  years  of 
active  service  as  surgeon  in  the  navy.  The  two  brothers 
devoted  some  months  to  the  building  of  a  telescope,  and  then 

14 


202  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

went  together  to  Europe,  where  they  remained  for  nearly  a 
year.  Here  they  studied  the  Continental  languages  and 
made  leisurely  visits  to  the  principal  art  collections  and  to 
places  of  historic  interest.  In  the  fall  of  1865  they  returned 
to  New  England. 

Still  uncertain  as  to  the  future,  but  not  yet  supposing  that 
its  promise  could  possibly  be  in  the  direction  of  astronomy, 
he  learned  that  the  observatory  in  Cambridge  was  to  be 
reorganized,  and  that  new  assistants  were  being  selected. 
Presenting  himself  to  the  Director,  Professor  Joseph  Win- 
lock,  he  was  cordially  received,  and  the  dream  of  his  life  was 
realized.     He  was  at  last  to  become  an  astronomer. 

Thus  at  the  age  of  thirty  he  began  the  serious  work  of  his 
life.  He  was  by  no  means  a  novice,  for  he  had  been  an  eager 
student  of  astronomical  works,  and  had  made  with  his  own 
hands  telescopes  of  successively  larger  size,  one  of  which, 
with  a  seven-inch  aperture,  was  mounted  so  effectively  that  it 
could  be  used  in  serious  work  of  observation.  Strange  to 
say,  however,  he  had  never  formed  the  acquaintance  of  any 
astronomer,  and  had  scarcely,  except  as  a  tourist  in  Europe, 
visited  an  astronomical  observatory. 

From  this  time  on  progress  was  sufficiently  rapid  to  make 
amends  for  his  diversion  to  other  interests  in  earlier  years, 
and  before  he  had  reached  the  age  of  forty  he  was  recognized 
as  one  of  the  most  brilliant  observers  and  one  of  the  most 
original  philosophic  reasoners  and  astronomers  of  the  century. 

In  1866  he  went  from  Cambridge  to  Annapolis,  having 
been  offered  the  place  of  Assistant  Professor  of  Mathematics 
in  the  United  States  Naval  Academy.  Here,  in  connection 
with  his  other  duties,  he  reorganized  the  small  observatory 
which  had  been  projected  by  Professor  Chauvenet  about  i860 
but  abandoned  upon  the  removal  of  the  Academy  to  Newport 
during  the  Civil  War.      He  remounted  and  put  into  service 


The  Three  Secretaries  203 

the  equatorial  and  the  meridian  circles,  and  prepared  the 
observatory  for  practical  work,  an  experience  which  was  to 
be  of  much  service  to  him  in  the  greater  responsibilities  of 
his  next  field  of  duty. 

In  the  following  year  he  was  invited  to  become  Director  of 
the  Allegheny  Observatory,  and  Professor  of  Astronomy  and 
Physics  in  the  Western  University  of  Pennsylvania,  with 
which  this  observatory  was  connected.  The  university  was 
in  Pittsburg,  but  the  observatory  was  seated  on  the  crest 
of  a  lofty  hill  in  the  adjacent  city  of  Allegheny.  This  posi- 
tion he  accepted  with  the  expectation  of  occupying  it  for  a 
short  time  only ;  but  in  Pittsburg  and  Allegheny  he  was 
to  remain  and  labor  for  twenty  years  to  come. 

In  1887  he  was  appointed  by  Professor  Baird  First  Assis- 
tant Secretary  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  in  charge  of 
Library  and  Exchanges.  He  still  retained  his  place  in  Pitts- 
burg, where  he  passed  part  of  the  year,  but  owing  to  the 
failing  health  of  Professor  Baird  it  soon  became  necessary 
for  him  to  assume  the  duties  of  Acting  Secretary.  After  the 
death  of  Professor  Baird  in  1887,  he  was  elected  to  the  Sec- 
retaryship. 

II. 

From  early  boyhood  he  was  interested  in  the  very  questions 
to  which  the  studies  of  his  later  years  have  been  devoted.  In 
regard  to  this  he  has  recently  related  some  very  suggestive 
reminiscences  : 

"  I  cannot  remember  when  I  was  not  interested  in  astron- 
omy. I  remember  reading  books  upon  the  subject  as  early 
as  at  nine,  and  when  I  was  quite  a  boy  I  learned  how  to  make 
little  telescopes,  and  studied  the  stars  through  them.  Later 
I  made  some  larger  ones,  and  though  they  were,  of  course, 
nothing  like  those  we  use  here,  I  think  myself  they  were  very 


204  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

good  for  a  boy.  One  of  the  most  wonderful  things  to  me 
was  the  sun,  and  as  to  how  it  heated  the  earth.  I  used  to 
hold  my  hands  up  to  it  and  wonder  how  the  rays  made  them 
warm,  and  where  the  heat  came  from  and  how.  I  asked 
many  questions,  but  I  could  get  no  satisfactory  replies,  and 
some  of  these  childish  questions  have  occupied  many  years 
of  my  later  life  in  answering.  I  remember,  for  instance,  one 
of  the  wonders  to  me  was  a  common  hotbed.  I  could  not 
see  how  the  glass  kept  it  warm  while  all  around  was  cold, 
and  when  I  asked,  I  was  told  that  '  of  course '  the  glass  kept 
in  the  heat ;  but  though  my  elders  saw  no  difficulty  about  it, 
I  could  not  see  why,  if  the  heat  went  in  through  the  glass,  it 
could  not  come  out  again.  Since  then  I  have  spent  many 
years  in  studying  the  way  that  that  great  hotbed,  the  earth 
itself  on  which  we  live,  is,  by  a  like  principle,  made  warmer 
by  the  atmosphere  that  covers  it." 

Professor  John  W.  Langley,  of  the  Case  School  of  Applied 
Sciences  in  Cleveland,  writes  in  response  to  a  recent  letter 
of  inquiry : 

"  My  brother  quite  early  in  life  showed  a  marked  fondness 
for  astronomy.  I  remember  that  when  he  was  about  twenty 
years  old  he  used  to  make  small  telescopes.  In  this  work  I 
used  to  help  him,  and  being  his  junior  in  years,  my  position 
was  that  of  first  assistant. 

'*  With  these  early  telescopes  it  was  possible  to  see  Jupi- 
ter's moons,  and  the  phases  of  Venus ;  Saturn  appeared  as 
an  elliptical  object  with  a  faint  indication  of  a  separation 
between  the  planet  and  its  ring. 

"Somewhat  later,  in  the  autumn  of  1864,  we  had  about 
three  months  in  which  both  of  us  were  free  from  fixed  duties, 
and  we  decided  to  build  a  reflecting  telescope.  My  brother 
and  I  had  made  the  acquaintance  of  Alvan  Clark,  Sr.,  who 
at  that  time  was  a  portrait  painter.  He  had  a  studio  in 
Tremont  Street,  Boston,  but  he  was  just  abandoning  art  for 
optics,  and  his  studio  contained  about  as  many  lenses  in  an 
unfinished  state  as  it  did  portraits,  also  incomplete.     At  this 


SAMUEL   PIERPOI^T   LANGLEY. 

THIRD  SIOCRKTAIiY  OF  THE  SMITHSOXIAX   INSTITrTrOX. 

ELECTED   IN    1887. 


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The  Three  Secretaries  205 

time  the  Smithsonian  Institution  had  recently  published  a 
monograph  by  the  younger  Draper,  of  New  York,  on  the 
making  of  a  reflecting  telescope.  This,  and  the  advice  of  Mr. 
Clark,  were  all  we  had  to  go  upon.  We  had  a  small  foot- 
lathe  and  a  few  tools  in  the  barn  belonging  to  the  house 
where  we  were  living,  and  with  this  outfit  we  undertook  to 
make  a  reflecting  telescope  seven  inches  in  diameter  by  five 
feet  in  focal  length,  all  the  work  on  which,  both  optical  and  me- 
chanical, was  to  be  by  our  own  hands,  and  nothing  but  crude 
material  and  a  few  necessary  tools  were  to  be  purchased. 
Above  all  things,  no  lenses  or  other  completed  optical  appara- 
tus were  on  any  account  to  be  bought;  we  were  to  make  it  all. 
**  Under  these  conditions  of  limited  outfit  and  no  experi- 
ence, progress  was  slow,  but  we  persevered.  After  weeks  of 
labor,  a  speculum  would  be  assumed  to  have  the  right  shape, 
and  ready  for  an  optical  test.  This  generally  showed  all 
stars  with  wings,  like  small  comets,  and  single  objects  like  a 
distant  flag-staff,  as  a  double  stick  with  an  attendant  company 
of  ghosts.  Then  the  speculum  went  back  into  the  grinding 
bed  and  was  wholly  reshaped.  Eventually  all  the  spare  time 
of  nearly  three  years  was  spent  on  this  telescope,  but  suc- 
cess was  finally  reached,  the  instrument  showing  practically 
perfect  definition  for  one  of  its  type  and  size ;  but  probably 
the  finished  reflector  represented  at  least  twenty  others 
abandoned  or  reground  before  this  result  was  reached.  My 
brother's  interest  in  astronomy  and  his  perseverance  would 
not  allow  us  to  be  satisfied  with  anything  short  of  a  practical 
degree  of  perfection." 

In  those  days  of  boyhood,  as  the  writer  has  often  heard 
Mr.  Langley  relate,  he  was  deeply  interested  in  the  question 
of  flight,  and  spent  many  an  afternoon  watching  the  motions 
of  hawks  and  other  birds. 

His  taste  for  mechanical  pursuits  was  early  developed. 
He  made  all  kinds  of  tools  and  instruments  which  were  re- 
quired in  his  boyish  experiments,  and  the  degree  of  his  skill 
may  be  judged  from  the  fact  that  he  was  able  to  grind  mir- 

14* 


2o6  The  Suiithsonian  Institution 

rors,   sufficiently  accurate  for  good  astronomical  work,  with 
apparatus  entirely  of  his  own  making. 


III. 

The  career  of  which  an  outline  has  now  been  presented  is 
full  of  susfo-estions  for  those  who  have  under  consideration 
the  theory  of  educational  methods.  Still  more  instructive  is 
it  to  the  student  of  heredity ;  all  the  more  so  because  there 
exists  in  this  case  a  somewhat  unusual  opportunity  for  the 
examination  of  the  sources  whence  has  doubtless  been  de- 
rived the  power  of  this  sturdy  and  potent  intellect. 

It  often  happens  in  America,  that  "smelting-pot  of  the 
nations,"  as  Froude  has  called  it,  that  among  the  ancestors 
of  any  individual  are  included  not  only  several  European 
races,  but  the  residents  of  a  number  of  different  colonies, 
almost  as  distinct  in  mental  characteristics  and  tendencies,  in 
early  days,  as  the  several  European  nations.  In  this  case  it 
is  not  so.  Mr.  Langley's  forefathers  all  came,  in  the  first 
instance,  to  Massachusetts,  mostly  in  the  early  part  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  and  in  Massachusetts  their  descendants, 
with  few  exceptions,  remained  until  the  end  of  Colonial  days. 
The  names  of  nearly  one  hundred  and  fifty  of  them  are 
known,  and  they  bear  for  the  most  part  old  English  sur- 
names with  a  slight  intermingling  of  Welsh,  and  one  which 
has  a  French  sound.  All  are  characteristic  of  Boston,  and 
of  the  neighboring  towns  which  are  now  actually  or  practi- 
cally absorbed  in  it.^     The  mingling,  in  this  case  so  potent 


1  The  names,  for  which,  for  tlie  most  part,  Hayward,  Hills,  Howell,  Kettell,  Langley, 
I  am  indebted  to  the  antiquarian  knowledge  Ludkin,  Lynde,  Mather,  Mayo,  Phillips, 
of  Mr.  A.  Howard  Clark,  are  the  following :  Pierce,  Pierpont,  Pratt,  Reynn,  Shapleigh, 
Allen,  Anderson,  Bachelder,  Baker,  Boyls-  Sheperdson,  Smith,  Sprague,  Stalham,  Sum- 
ton,  Bradish,  Branson,  Call,  Clap,  Clark,  ner,  Sweetser,  Thompson,  Tufts,  Upham, 
Corbin,  Cotton,  Crosswell,  Davis,  Deming,  \Vaite,Ward,  West,  Wetherell,WharfT, White, 
Dowse,    Fosdick,    Foster,    Franklin,    Goffe,  Wigglesworth,  Williams,  \\'ise,  Wood. 


The  Three  Secretaries  207 

in  result,  has  been  that  of  famiUes  of  diverse  origin  and 
occupation,  such  as  would  scarcely  have  been  likely  to  come 
together  in  an  old  and  established  community. 

If  one  were  asked  to  say  what  elements  it  would  be  best 
to  mingle  to  produce  Mr.  Langley's  peculiar  type  of  mind, 
the  theoretical  response  would  probably  be  very  close  to  that 
which  is  found  to  exist  in  fact.  Of  the  eighty  male  ancestors 
who  have  been  identified,  the  occupations  of  only  about  thirty- 
five  are  certainly  known  ;  most  of  the  others  were  probably 
farmers  or  others  of  quiet,  retired  pursuits,  who  lived  to  ripe 
old  age,  handing  down  to  their  descendants  great  vitality  and 
powers  of  long-living.  An  unusual  number,  at  least  eighteen 
or  twenty,  were  skilful  mechanics  and  artisans  ;  six  at  least 
were  mariners,  and  most  of  these  were  sea  captains.  On  the 
other  hand  is  found  a  group  of  the  most  intellectual  men  of 
early  New  England  ;  four  of  them  clergymen,  three  school- 
masters, one  a  physician,  five  at  least  graduates  of  Harvard, 
one  of  Oxford,  and  one  of  Cambridge.  Besides  these,  there 
were  a  number  who  were  leaders  in  public  affairs,  and  who 
aided  in  extending  the  frontier  of  the  infant  nation,  and  in 
protecting  it  against  invaders,  Indian  and  European.  Six 
were  members  of  Colonial  legislative  bodies,  three  were 
lawyers  and  judges,  eight  held  military  commissions  in  the 
Colonial  wars,  or  in  the  Revolution,  while  among  the  col- 
laterals closely  related  to  these  same  ancestors  were  many 
who  held  representative  places  in  the  intellectual  life  of  the 
young  colony. 

Among  the  ancestors  were  the  Reverend  Richard  Mather, 
who  came  from  Lancaster,  in  England ;  his  son,  the  Reverend 
Doctor  Increase  Mather,  President  of  Harvard  College,  and 
author  of  the  first  American  work  upon  astronomy;  ^  and  his 

1  Kometographia,  or  a  Discourse  Concern-       Stars  is  Enquired  into:  With  an  Historical  Ac- 
ing  Comets ;  wherein  the  Nature  of  Blazing       count  of  all  the  Comets  which  have  appeared 


2o8  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

grandson,  the  Reverend  Cotton  Mather,  the  last  two  both 
early  members  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London ;  also,  the 
Reverend  John  Cotton,  D.D.,  author  of  nearly  fifty  books, 
all  published  in  London, —  he  who  introduced  into  New  Eng- 
land the  custom  of  keeping  the  Sabbath  from  evening  to 
evening.  Others  were  Colonel  John  Phillips,  of  Charleston, 
treasurer  of  the  Province  of  Massachusetts  ;  Lieutenant  Ralph 
Sprague,  lieutenant  of  the  Provincial  forces  in  the  Pequot 
War,  and  Captain  John  Sprague,  his  son,  both  members  of 
the  Massachusetts  General  Court ;  William  Sumner  and  his 
son.  Lieutenant  George  Sumner,  of  Dorchester  and  Milton, 
both  deputies  to  the  General  Court ;  Edward  Howell,  Esquire, 
one  of  the  founders  of  Southampton  (in  1642,  the  first  Eng- 
lish settlement  within  the  present  limits  of  New  York),  and 
his  son.  Major  John  Howell,  both  members  of  the  Provincial 
Legislature  of  Connecticut;  Captain  Stephen  Williams,  of 
Roxbury,  who  commanded  a  troop  of  horse  on  the  frontier 
from  1707  to  1 71 2,  and  Colonel  Joseph  Williams,  his  grand- 
son, who  served  in  the  Mohawk  War,  the  Canadian  campaign 
of  1758,  and  in  the  Revolution,  Captain  Samuel  Langley, 
Mr.  Langley's  great-grandfather,  was  also  a  Revolutionary 
soldier  and  commanded  a  company  of  veterans  engaged  in 
the  suppression  of  Shay's  Rebellion.  And  then  there  was 
another  military  ancestor,  remembered  in  family  tradition, 
who  always  wore  a  red  coat,  and  who  "  when  he  saw  a  man 
whose  face  he  did  not  like,  knocked  him  down."  This  may 
have  been  Joseph  Pierpont,  of  Roxbury,  who,  local  history 
tells,  fought  with  the  Honorable  Captain  William  Montagu, 
brother  of  the  Earl  of  Sandwich,  commonly  called  "  Mad 
Montagu,"  and  drubbed  him  within  an  inch  of  his  life  ;   so 

from  the  beginning  of  the  World  into  this  pre-  Boston,  in   New   England.  .   .  .   Boston   in 

sent  year  MDCLXXXIII.  .  .  .  As  also  two  New  England.     Printed  by  S.  G.  for  S.  S. 

Sermons  Occasioned  by  the  late  Blazing  Stars.  and  sold  by  F.  Browning.   .  .  .   1683.  octo- 

By  Increase  Mather,  Teacher  of  a  Church  at  decimo,  pages  (12)  I-143+I. 


■  The  Three  Secretaries  209 

thoroughly,  Indeed,  that  Montagu  held  him  in  high  regard 
ever  after.  ^ 

Among  those  who  were  close  of  kin  to  Mr.  Langley's 
forefathers  were  Michael  Wigglesworth,  author  of  that  stern 
Calvinistic  poem,  "The  Day  of  Doom,"  and  the  Reverend 
Nathaniel  Ward,  the  earliest  of  political  satirists  in  America, 
whose  pamphlet,  "The  Simple  Cobler  of  Aggawam,"  is  one 
of  the  classics  of  our  literature.  There  were  also  Doctor 
Zabdiel  Boylston,  of  Boston,  the  successful  pioneer  of  small- 
pox inoculation  in  America,  elected  to  the  Royal  Society  in 
1785,  in  recognition  of  his  achievements  as  a  naturalist,  and 
his  son  John  Boylston,  founder  of  the  Boylston  Fund ;  the 
Reverend  John  Cotton,  who  revised  and  edited  Eliot's  Indian 
Bible,  and  his  brother  Josiah,  missionary,  and  author  of  the 
first  vocabulary  of  the  language  of  the  Indians  of  Massa- 
chusetts ;  and  all  the  Mathers, —  a  wonderful  group  of  men. 
A  little  further  removed  were  John  Adams  and  John  Quincy 
Adams,  Presidents  of  the  United  States,  and  John  Cotton 
Smith,  Governor  of  Connecticut. 

These  facts,  however  interesting  in  themselves,  are  men- 
tioned here  solely  because  of  their  bearing  upon  the 
question  of  heredity.  Traits  and  tendencies  transmitted 
from  parent  to  child  cannot  be  measured  and  summed  up 
in  a  statistical  manner.  The  character  of  these  can  only 
be  suggested  by  an  enumeration  like  the  one  which  has 
just  been  attempted,  following  in  some  degree  the  method 
of  Galton. 

It  is  interesting  to  note,  in  passing,  that  Mr.  Langley, 
though  a  Yankee  of  the  Yankees,  descended  on  all  sides  from 
families  resident  in  New  England  from  two  hundred  to  two 
hundred  and  sixty  years,  has  none  of  the  traits,  physical  or 
mental,  which  are  popularly,  though  erroneously,  supposed  to 

1  Drake,  Francis  Samuel,  "  The  Town  of  Roxbury,"  Boston,  1878,  page  326. 


2IO  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

be  characteristic  of  New  England,  but  would  in  Great  Britain 
pass  anywhere  as  an  excellent  example  of  the  very  best  Eng- 
lish type. 

He  was,  a-s  a  boy,  a  most  diligent  and  omnivorous  reader, 
interested  alike  in  literature,  art,  and  science,  and  utilized  the 
excellent  public  libraries  of  Boston,  especially  that  of  the 
Athenaeum,  and  was  often  in  attendance  at  the  lectures  of 
the  Lowell  Institute. 

At  the  beginning  of  his  scientific  career  his  intellectual 
capital  appears  to  have  been  quite  remarkable  in  extent  and 
character.  His  mind  was  well  stocked  with  the  best  thoughts 
of  the  great  minds  of  the  past.  He  possessed  a  cultivated 
literary  taste,  ripened  by  an  acquaintance  with  the  art  of  the 
Old  World,  the  effect  of  which  was  at  once  evident  when  he 
began  to  write  for  publication.  He  had  skill  in  the  manipu- 
lation of  tools,  machinery,  and  instruments  of  precision,  and 
was  able  to  direct  others  in  their  use.  He  was  a  practical  en- 
gineer, familiar  with  the  computations  and  the  applications  of 
mechanics  and  physics ;  so  familiar,  indeed,  that  they  were 
mere  pastime  to  him  in  their  ordinary  forms,  and  that  his 
mind  was  free  to  rove,  like  that  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  in 
search  of  abstruse  and  curious  variants.  He  was  a  skilful 
mechanical  draughtsman.  He  was  a  trained  man  of  business, 
thrifty,  alert,  and  progressive.  Beyond  all  this  his  unjaded 
mind,  while  mindful  of  the  most  minute  details,  was  quick  to 
grasp  the  essence  of  the  problems  which  he  was  studying. 
His  thoughts  were  almost  prophetic  in  regard  to  the  probable 
result  of  experiments  which  he  was  about  to  begin,  yet  he  was 
ready  to  seize  upon  new  developments  as  they  occurred,  no 
matter  how  unexpected.  His  inquiries  were  forced  to  their 
results  with  vigorous  insistence.  His  conclusions  were  de- 
veloped so  clearly,  definitely,  and  positively  that  it  was  im- 
possible  to   misunderstand   his   meaning.       So   clearly   were 


The   lliree  Secretaries  211 

these  fixed  in  his  thought  that  he  was  able  to  explain  them 
even  to  those  entirely  unfamiliar  with  the  subject.  Notwith- 
standing this  freedom  from  ambiguity  so  characteristic  of  all 
his  statements,  scarcely  any  of  the  conclusions  of  the  past 
twenty-five  years  have  been  called  in  question,  or  given  occa- 
sion for  general  criticism  or  debate.  These  characteristics,  it 
may  safely  be  said,  he  brought  with  him  to  his  work,  as  a 
part  of  his  equipment.  His  publications  of  1874  exhibited 
these  as  fully  as  do  those  of  1896;  yet  at  the  age  of  sixty- 
two  he  retains  them  all.  "  His  eye  is  not  dim  nor  his  natural 
force  abated." 


IV. 

When  Mr.  Langley  went  to  Pittsburg  in  1867,  he  found 
there  an  observatory  only  in  name.  It  consisted  of  a  build- 
ing in  which  was  mounted  an  equatorial  telescope  of  thirteen 
inches  aperture,  bought  by  the  university  from  a  local  club  of 
amateur  astronomers.  Besides  this,  there  was  no  apparatus 
whatever,  not  even  a  clock,  and  the  equatorial  itself  was  with- 
out the  necessary  accessories.  There  was  neither  library  nor 
endowment,  and  the  director  of  the  observatory  was  at  liberty 
to  carry  on  original  investigations  only  when  this  could  be 
done  without  neglecting  his  duties  as  instructor  in  the 
college. 

Before  beginning  his  work  as  an  astronomer,  it  was 
imperatively  necessari^  that  he  should  find  some  means 
by  which  this  work  could  be  carried  on,  and  to  secure  an 
income  to  provide  for  the  instrumental  expenses  of  the 
establishment,  his  object  in  going  to  Pittsburg  having  been, 
not  primarily  to  teach,  but  to  secure  opportunity  for  original 
investigation. 

From   the   poverty   of  the   Allegheny    Observatory    came 


212  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

forth  a  result  which  was  of  great  importance  to  the  entire 
country;  this  was  the  inauguration  of  "time  service"  sys- 
tems. 

Although  the  transmission  of  time  signals  from  the 
Greenwich  Observatory  to  the  city  of  London  was  suc- 
cessfully accomplished  a  few  years  after  the  introduction 
of  the  electro-magnetic  telegraph  in  1844,  the  service  in 
Great  Britain  was  confined  to  a  limited  area  during  the 
next  twenty-five  years. 

The  British  Astronomer  Royal  in  1869  stated:  "The  time 
signals  pass,  amongst  other  places,  to  the  chief  London  of- 
fices of  the  Electric  and  International  Telegraph  Company, 
and  thence  this  company  sends  signals  automatically  to  about 
twenty  of  the  chief  towns  of  England,  Ireland,  and  Scotland. 
The  signals  are  also  thus  sent  to  the  principal  London  rail- 
way stations."^ 

In  America  the  Naval  Observatory  in  Washington,  the 
observatory  of  Harvard  College,  and  Doctor  Benjamin  A. 
Gould,  of  Albany,  had  prior  to  1869  sent  out  time  signals  for 
short  distances,  "but  only  in  a  tentative  and  discontinuous 
fashion." 

Late  in  that  year  Mr.  Langley,  as  Director  of  the  Allegheny 
Observatory,  submitted  a  proposal  "  for  regulating  from  this 
observatory  the  clocks  of  the  Pennsylvania  Central  and  other 
railroads  associated  with  it."  Upon  the  Pennsylvania  Sys- 
tem, then  comprising  over  2500  miles  of  railroad  east  and 
west  of  Pittsburg,  over  300  telegraph  offices  were  located. 
In  the  year  1870  Mr.  Langley  inaugurated  the  system  by 
which  accurate  time  signals  were  communicated  automatically 
twice  daily  to  each  of  these  offices,  and  "  eventually  some 
8000   miles  of  railway   were   run   by   this   single   Allegheny 

1  See  letter  to  Mr.  S.  P.  Langley,  quoted  in  circular  of  December  i,  1S69,  issued  by 

Allegheny  Observatory. 


The  Three  Secretaries  213 

Observatory  clock " ;  and  to  this  was  added  the  supply  of 
the  time  to  the  adjacent  cities  by  a  system  which  made  it 
accessible  to  every  inhabitant. 

The  Pennsylvania  was  the  first  great  railway  to  establish 
and  put  into  effect  a  systematic  and  permanent  plan  for  the 
simultaneous  transmission  of  time  signals  throughout  its 
entire  line,  and  to  Mr.  Langley  is  due  the  credit  of  first 
successfully  solving  the  problem  of  transmitting  time 
signals  over  this  American  line,  many  times  greater  in 
extent  and  much  more  complex  in  character  than  the  com- 
paratively short  English  railways,  where  by  the  method 
then  in  vogue  the  accuracy  of  the  clocks  in  the  inter- 
mediate stations  depended  entirely  upon  a  comparison 
with  watches,  which,  after  being  set  by  the  standard  clocks 
in  the  terminal  stations,  were  sent  out  along  the  line  by 
trainmen  charged  with  the  duty  of  regulating  the  time- 
pieces and  reporting   inaccuracies. 

The  present  system  by  which  the  railroad  service  of  the 
whole  continent  is  regulated  may  be  said  to  be  an  out- 
growth of  that  developed  nearly  thirty  years  ago  at  Alle- 
gheny by  Mr.  Langley.  In  a  letter  to  Mr.  Langley  dated 
May  27,  1872,  William  Thaw,  Vice-President  and  execu- 
tive officer  of  the  Pennsylvania  Company,  and  Chairman 
of  the  Board  of  Trustees  of  the  Allegheny  Observatory, 
wrote :  "I  regard  the  time  service  as  peculiarly  your  crea- 
tion and  dependent  solely  on  you."  Mr.  Thaw  also  stated 
that  he  had  communicated  the  fact  officially  in  writing  in 
a  report  to  the  Board. 

The  income  thus  derived  from  the  regulation  of  the  time 
service  was  applied  exclusively  to  the  uses  of  the  Allegheny 
Observatory,  which  obtained  from  this  source  almost  all  its 
regular  means  for  original  research,  amounting  during  the 
administration  of  Mr.  Langley  to  more  than  sixty  thousand 


2  14  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

dollars.  The  utility  of  such  service  having  been  demon- 
strated at  the  Allegheny  Observatory,  the  example  was 
followed  a  year  later  at  Harvard  College  Observatory,  and 
afterward  "time  services  "  were  for  some  years  an  important 
source  of  income  for  quite  a  number  of  the  observatories  of 
the  United  States. 

In  the  course  of  two  or  three  years  the  affairs  of  the  obser- 
vatory became  somewhat  stable,  and  there  was  time  for  orig- 
inal work  in  astronomy.  Mr.  Langley  now  began  a  period 
of  laborious  and  minute  study  of  the  features  of  the  disk  of 
the  sun.  Indeed  this  was  the  one  of  the  heavenly  bodies 
which  could  be  most  advantageously  studied  in  Pittsburg, 
where  the  heavens  are  usually  obscured  by  clouds  of  smoke 
and  dust.  In  1869  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  party 
sent  out  by  the  United  States  Coast  Survey  to  observe  the 
total  eclipse  of  August  7,  and  was  stationed  at  Oakland,  Ken- 
tucky. His  report,  at  this  time  submitted  to  Professor  Joseph 
Winlock,  was  his  first  published  contribution  to  science.  In 
the  winter  of  1870  he  accompanied  another  eclipse  expedi- 
tion to  Jerez  de  la  Frontera,  in  Spain,  where  he  made  impor- 
tant observations  upon  the  coronal  rays,  and  found  that  the 
polarization  of  the  corona  is  radial. 

From  this  period  dates  the  beginning  of  that  brilliant  series 
of  researches  upon  the  solar  atmosphere  to  which  he  has 
since  devoted  so  much  of  his  time,  and  which  soon  gave  him 
high  reputation  at  home  and  abroad. 

His  telescope  study  of  the  sun's  face,  completed  in  1873,  re- 
vealed the  true  character  of  the  "granules  "  upon  its  disk,  from 
which,  according  to  his  estimate,  much  over  three-quarters 
of  its  light  are  derived.  It  also  resulted  in  a  better  under- 
standing of  the  structure  and  appearance  of  the  sun-spots. 
His  picture  of  "A  Typical  Sun-spot,"  first  exhibited  in  1873 
at  the  Portland  meeting  of  the  American  Association  for  the 


The  Three  Secretaries  215 

Advancement  of  Science,  was  the  result  of  three  years'  study. 
This  was  based  directly  upon  micrometrical  measurements, 
pictorial  effect  having  been  considered  only  so  far  as  it  was 
incidental  to  minute  fidelity.  Even  now,  twenty-three  years 
after  it  was  made,  it  is  conceded  that  this  drawing  gives  a 
better  idea  of  the  minute  structure  of  the  surface  of  the  sun 
than  is  afforded  by  the  best  photographs. 

His  paper  on  "The  Minute  Structure  of  the  Solar  Photo- 
sphere," published  in  February,  1874,  may  be  taken  as  a  type 
of  his  best  work. 

"  It  possesses,"  writes  Holden,  "  that  hardly-definable  qual- 
ity by  which  we  become  aware  that  it  was  written  from  a  full 
mind.  It  is  only  fifteen  pages  long,  yet  we  are  not  conscious 
of  undue  brevity.  One  has  a  sense  in  reading  that  every 
statement  of  fact,  or  every  expression  of  opinion,  is  based 
upon  a  hundred  single  instances  like  the  one  which  is  chosen, 
or  upon  a  hundred  concurring  judgments.  It  is  not  that  you 
are  overborne  by  weight,  but  convinced  by  character.  This 
most  important  paper  came  at  exactly  the  right  time.  It  first 
summarizes  the  works  of  other  recent  observers  which,  though 
important,  had  left  the  subject  in  an  entirely  unsatisfying  con- 
dition, and  then  proceeds  straight  to  the  subject  in  hand. 

"  The  minute  details,  both  of  the  general  solar  surface  and 
of  the  extraordinarily  complex  spots,  are  one  by  one  satisfac- 
torily and  lucidly  described,  with  indications  of  the  physical 
conditions  to  which  they  are  due ;  and,  finally,  the  general 
bearings  of  all  this  on  the  received  solar  theories  are  briefly 
set  forth.  We  may  fairly  say  that  this  paper  is  fundamental. 
It  treated  of  a  subject  of  which  little  had  been  actually 
known,  and  it  leaves  this  subject  in  a  satisfactory  and  settled 
condition." 

His  detailed  study  of  the  distribution  of  the  heat  of  the 
solar  surface  was  begun  in  1870,  with  the  thermopile.  It  re- 
sulted in  the  discovery  of  the  previously  unknown  thermo- 


2i6  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

chroic  action  in  the  solar  atmosphere,  by  reason  of  which, 
owing  to  the  difference  in  wave  length,  it  transmits  heat 
more  readily  than  light.  Two  years  later,  in  1876,  another 
discovery  was  announced  as  a  result  of  his  measures  of  the 
heat  from  various  parts  of  the  sun's  disk;  this  was  in  regard 
to  the  direct  effect  of  sun-spots  on  terrestrial  climates.  Fol- 
lowing up  the  observations  made  by  Joseph  Henry  in  1845, 
Mr.  Langley  found  that  sun-spots  exercise  a  direct  influence 
on  terrestrial  climates  by  decreasing  the  mean  temperature 
of  the  earth  at  their  maximum.  This  decrease,  however,  he 
found  to  be  so  minute  that  it  is  doubtful  whether  it  is  directly 
observed  or  discriminated  from  other  changes.  Its  whole 
effect  is  represented  by  the  change  in  the  mean  temperature 
of  our  globe  in  eleven  years,  not  exceeding  three-tenths  and 
not  less  than  one-twentieth  of  one  degree  of  the  centigrade 
thermometer;  but  this  refers  merely  to  the  direct  action  by 
the  observation  of  the  surface,  and  is  not  to  be  considered  as 
the  only  one. 

His  early  work  upon  solar  heat  was  done  with  the  aid  of  the 
thermopile,  an  instrument  which,  though  it  had  been  effec- 
tively used  for  nearly  fifty  years  in  the  study  of  radiant 
energy,  was  found  by  him  not  sufficiently  sensitive  and  trust- 
worthy to  be  used  for  the  more  minute  work  which  he  found 
it  desirable  to  undertake.  It  was  equal  to  the  task  of  meas- 
uring the  radiation  from  different  parts  of  the  sun's  disk. 
When,  however,  the  heat  from  a  given  part  had  been  spread 
out  into  a  heat-spectrum,  some  new  means  of  measuring  the 
minute  difference  between  the  various  parts  was  indispensa- 
ble ;  and  this  was  specially  the  case  with  the  spectra  formed 
by  "gratings,"  now  coming  into  general  use,  which,  with  the 
great  advantage  of  distributing  the  energy  in  a  "  normal  " 
spectrum,  had  the  defect  of  giving  extremely  little  heat  for 
examination. 


The  Three  Secretaries  217 

He,  therefore,  invented  a  new  instrument,  which  he  called 
the  bolometer, —  a  thermometer  of  almost  infinite  tenuity  and 
delicacy,  which  measured  minute  degrees  of  radiant  heat  with 
an  accuracy  unknown  to  the  thermopile  and  greater  than  that 
of  any  photometric  process,  and  which  at  the  same  time  pos- 
sesses a  sensitiveness  to  radiant  energy  only  less  than  that  of 
the  eye,  being  able  in  its  recent  constructions  to  recognize 
variations  of  this  energy  corresponding  to  not  over  one- 
millionth  part  of  a  degree  on  an  ordinary  thermometer. 

This  instrument  was  made  in  part  at  the  cost  of  the  Ameri- 
can Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  as  administrators  of  the 
bequest  of  Count  Rumford,  and  its  completion  was  announced 
in  the  paper  sent  to  the  Society  December  8,  1880,  and  read 
at  its  meeting  of  January  12,  1881.  The  years  1879  and 
1880  were  devoted  to  elaborating  and  perfecting  it.^ 

The  action  of  the  bolometer  is  based  upon  variation  of 
electrical  resistance  produced  by  changes  of  temperature  in  a 
metallic  conductor,  such  as  a  minute  strip  of  platinum.  This 
strip  forms  one  arm  of  an  electric  balance,  and  the  change  in 
the  strength  of  the  electric  current  passing  through  it,  be- 
cause of  this  change  of  resistance,  is  registered  by  a  delicate 
galvanometer.  Its  sensitiveness  is  greater  than  that  of  the 
most  delicate  thermopile  possible,  and  its  accuracy  of  meas- 
urement has  a  corresponding  advantage.  One  of  the  earliest 
results  of  the  bolometer  work  was  the  demonstration  experi- 
mentally that  the  maximum  of  heat  in  the  normal  spec- 
trum is  in  the  orange,  and  not,  as  was  formerly  supposed, 
in  the  infra-red  portion  ;  but  a  larger  field  opened  for  it  in 
the  exploration  of  the  infra-red  portion,  whose  existence 
was  first  suspected  by  the  elder  Herschel.  The  bolometer 
showed  that  this  region  contained  three-quarters  of  the  solar 
energy.      Before  the  invention  of  the  bolometer  the  distribu- 

1  "The  Bolometer  and  Radiant  Kncrgy."    Proceedings  of  the  American  Academy  of 
arts  and  sciences,  1880-81 ;  Volume  xvi,  pages  342  to  358. 

15 


2i8  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

tion  of  heat  in  the  spectrum  was  so  almost  utterly  unknown 
that  the  remark  by  Sir  John  Herschel  that  its  heat  was  dis- 
continuous contained  almost  all  our  knowledge  of  the  subject 
up  to  that  time. 

At  the  time  of  which  we  speak,  comparatively  recent  as  it 
is,  only  a  few  advanced  thinkers  held  the  now  universal  view 
that  heat  and  light  were  not  two  different  things,  but  differ- 
ent effects  of  the  same  thing,  and  the  investigations  now 
commenced  with  the  bolometer  did  much  to  prove  the  cor- 
rectness of  the  latter  opinion.  By  continuous  studies  involv- 
ing great  labor,  and  the  record  of  extremely  numerous 
experiments  (over  one  thousand  galvanometer  readings  being 
taken  on  the  average  to  a  single  line),  there  was  in  the  course 
of  three  years'  patient  work  established  the  material  for  a  map 
of  the  principal  lines  in  this  hitherto  unknown  region,  and 
the  material  for  a  new  method  of  study  of  the  inter-action  of 
the  solar  heat  and  our  atmosphere,  which  latter  was  shown  to 
be  a  principal  agent  in  causing  them. 

The  bolometer  has  been  made  much  more  effective  and 
has  been  still  more  recently  reinforced  by  the  holograph,  in- 
troduced in  1 89 1  and  lately  perfected  —  a  device  for  register- 
ing by  photography  the  fluctuations  of  the  needle,  which  thus 
permanently  records  the  bolometer's  indications,  while  by  a 
further  step  these  tracings  are  automatically  converted  into  a 
linear  spectrum  by  the  use  of  a  cylindrical  mirror,  a  method 
of  translation  by  which  the  fluctuations  caused  by  the  infra- 
red tract  are  reduced  to  a  form  comparable  to  that  of  the 
upper  portion  of  the  spectrum,  as  ordinarily  visible.  In  the 
infra-red  spectrum  many  hundred  lines  have  since  been  lo- 
cated in  this  manner. 

With  these  instruments  Mr.  Langley  has  opened  up  a  new 
department  of  physics.  He  has  not  only  shown  the  existence 
of,  but  has  measured  the  energy  in,  rays  having  a  wave- 
length nearly  twenty  times  that  of  extreme  luminous  ones. 


The  Three  Secretaries  219 

While  the  visible  or  photographic  spectrum  includes  rays  of 
only  about  an  octave  of  vibration  between  the  waves  of 
violet  and  red,  the  full  spectrum,  from  the  ultra-violet  rays 
to  the  longest  of  those  measured  by  the  bolometer,  embraces 
between  five  and  six  octaves,  and  still  more  are  indicated. 
In  one  sense  these  investigations  have  partly  bridged  over 
the  gulf  between  the  longest  wave-length  of  heat  and  the 
shortest  waves  due  to  other  causes.  "This  work,"  says 
Lockyer,  "  has  done  for  the  lower  spectrum  what  that  of 
Kirchhoff  did  for  the  upper  rays." 

Father  J.  Van  Geersdale,  of  Louvain,  in  an  article  on  "The 
Infra-red  Spectrum  and  the  Bolometer,"  written  in  1896, 
remarks : 

"  Newton  would  be  very  greatly  surprised  if,  coming  back 
for  a  moment  to  this  world,  he  should  have  placed  before 
him  a  map  of  the  spectrum  as  it  is  known  to-day.  Not  only 
would  he  be  astonished  at  the  numberless  rays  which  were 
unknown  to  him,  but  he  would  be  still  more  taken  aback  if 
he  saw  the  spectral  image  lengthened  until  it  had  assumed 
dimensions  fifteen  and  twenty  times  as  great  as  those  which 
he  gave  to  it.  In  his  day,  below  the  violet  (X=  0,42),  and 
above  the  red  (X  =  0,67),  there  was  absolutely  nothing.  To- 
day the  researches  of  Cornu,  Mascart,  Schumann,  and  others 
have  expanded  the  limits  of  the  ultra-violet  to  the  neighbor- 
hood of  A  =0,1.  In  the  other  direction,  the  investigations 
undertaken  by  Mr.  Langley  in  the  infra-red  region  have 
resulted  in  an  acquaintance  with  bands  and  rays  the  wave- 
length of  which  reaches  to  six  microns  and  beyond. 

"  Without  depreciating  the  value  of  the  researches  which 
were  made  in  the  less  refrangible  portions  of  the  spectrum 
previous  to  the  discovery  of  the  bolometer,  it  must  be  ad- 
mitted that  they  were  of  very  slight  moment  if  we  now  com- 
pare them  with  those  which  Mr.  Langley  has  obtained  by  the 
aid  of  his  marvelous  little  instrument."  ^ 

l"Le  Spectre  Infra- Rouge  et  le  Bolometre,"  Revue  des  Questions  Scientifiques, 
Volume  X,  page  26,  July,  1896,  Louvain. 


2  20  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

Another  result  of  these  experiments  was  the  establishment 
of  the  fact  of  selective  absorption  of  the  solar  rays  by  the 
earth's  atmosphere.  In  regard  to  this  Mr.  Langley  wrote  at 
the  time : 

"  Our  observations  at  Allegheny  had  appeared  to  show 
that  the  atmosphere  had  acted  with  selective  absorption  to  an 
unanticipated  degree,  keeping  back  an  immense  proportion 
of  the  blue  and  green,  so  that  what  was  originally  the  strong- 
est had,  when  it  got  down  to  us,  become  the  weakest  of  all, 
and  what  was  originally  weak  had  become  relatively  strong, 
the  action  of  the  atmosphere  having  been  just  the  converse 
of  that  of  an  ordinary  sieve,  or  like  that  of  a  sieve  which 
should  keep  back  small  particles  analogous  to  the  short  wave- 
lengths (the  blue  and  green),  and  allow  freely  to  pass  the 
large  ones  (the  dark-heat  rays).  It  seemed  from  the  obser- 
vations that  the  atmosphere  had  not  merely  kept  back  a  part 
of  the  solar  radiation,  but  had  totally  changed  its  composition 
in  doing  so  —  not  by  anything  it  had  put  in,  but  by  the  selec- 
tive way  in  which  it  had  taken  out,  as  if  by  a  capricious  in- 
telligence. The  residue  that  had  actually  come  down  to  us 
thus  changed  in  proportion  was  what  we  know  familiarly  as 
'white'  light,  so  that  white  is  not  'the  sum  of  all  radiations,' 
as  used  to  be  taught,  but  resembles  the  pure  original  sun- 
light less  than  the  electric  beam  which  has  come  to  us  through 
reddish-colored  glasses  resembles  the  original  brightness. 
With  this  visible  heat  was  included  the  large  amount  of  in- 
visible heat,  and,  if  there  was  any  law  observable  in  this 
'  capricious '  action  of  the  atmosphere,  it  was  found  to  be  this, 
that  throughout  the  whole  range  of  the  then  known  heat- 
spectrum  the  large  wave-lengths  passed  with  greater  facility 
than  the  shorter  ones." 


Most  of  these  observations  were  carried  on  in  Allegheny. 
In  1878,  however,  he  made  observations  of  the  solar  eclipse 
from  the  summit  of  Pike's  Peak,  at  an  elevation  of  fourteen 


The  Three  Secretaries  221 

thousand  feet,  and  observed  the  extension  of  the  corona  to 
the  hitherto  unsuspected  extent  of  nearly  ten  million  miles. 

During  the  winter  of  1878,  in  the  course  of  a  visit  to  Eu- 
rope, he  spent  some  time  upon  Mount  Etna,  making  obser- 
vations upon  the  character  of  astronomical  vision,  in  order  to 
enable  comparisons  to  be  made  with  observations  taken  under 
similar  conditions  in  the  territories  of  the  United  States.  The 
station  here  was  at  Casa  del  Bosco,  situated  at  the  height  of 
about  4,200  feet  on  the  southeastern  slope  of  the  mountain. 
There  he  remained  from  Christmas  until  January  14.  The 
conclusion  reached  was  that  though  the  ideal  station  where 
atmospheric  tremor  does  not  exist,  and  the  observer  pursues 
his  studies  in  an  ever  transparent  sky,  is  not  to  be  found 
on  any  part  of  the  earth's  surface  yet  examined,  there  is  in 
such  stations  as  this  and  in  the  upper  and  elevated  tablelands 
of  Colorado  and  New  Mexico  every  condition  which  experi- 
ence has  shown  to  be  favorable. 

In  1 88 1  Mr.  Langley  organized  an  expedition  to  the  top  of 
Mount  Whitney,  in  California,  for  the  purpose  of  applying 
his  new  methods  and  instruments  under  the  most  favorable 
conditions.  Here  he  remained  with  his  party  from  July  25 
until  September  10,  making  observations  at  stations  nearly 
fourteen  thousand  feet  above  the  sea.  The  expenses  of  this 
expedition  were  borne  in  part  by  the  United  States  Signal 
Service  and  in  part  by  William  Thaw,  of  Pittsburg,  who  had 
for  some  years  taken  great  interest  in  the  work  of  the  Alle- 
gheny Observatory  and  to  whose  liberality  and  appreciation 
of  scientific  work  many  of  Mr.  Langley's  greatest  opportuni- 
ties for  investigation  were  due.  A  report  on  the  results  of 
this  expedition  was  published  in  1884,  as  one  of  the  profes- 
sional papers  of  the  United  States  Signal  Service. 

The  Mount  Whitney  observations  resulted,  first,  in  the 
discovery  of  an  entirely  unsuspected  extension  of  the  solar 

15* 


222 


The  Smithsonian  histittttion 


spectrum  ;  second,  in  a  calculation  of  the  relative  intensity 
of  the  different  rays  of  the  sun  before  they  have  entered  the 
earth's  atmosphere,  which  was  illustrated  by  an  extra  atmo- 
spheric curve  in  the  spectrum  ;  third,  in  the  indication  that 
scarcely  sixty  per  cent,  of  the  solar  rays  penetrate  to  the 
earth's  surface,  the  atmosphere  as  a  whole  exerting  a  power- 
ful selective  absorption  ;  and  finally,  in  a  new  and  important 
estimate  of  the  "solar  constant."  The  effect  of  such  absorp- 
tion on  the  visible  rays  is  to  throw  out  the  shorter  wave- 
lengths much  more  effectively  than  the  longer  ones,  so  that 
to  an  eye  outside  the  earth's  atmosphere  the  sun  would  ap- 
pear far  bluer  than  to  one  within,  and  the  estimated  amount 
of  heat  before  absorption  is  correspondingly  measured. 

The  total  absorption  of  the  heat  rays  was  found  to  be  sur- 
prisingly great.  These  experiments  then  demonstrate  that  a 
much  greater  amount  of  solar  heat  reaches  the  earth  than 
had  previously  been  supposed,  sufficient,  in  fact,  to  melt  each 
year  an  ice  shell  encrusting  the  earth  to  the  thickness  of  1 79 
feet,  instead  of  1 10  feet,  as  had  before  been  believed.  It  was 
also  found  that  the  law  of  selective  absorption  modifies  pro- 
foundly the  terrestrial  manifestations  of  the  heat  supplied  by 
the  sun,  and  that  were  there  no  such  selective  absorption,  the 
temperature  of  the  soil  in  the  tropics  under  a  vertical  sun 
would  probably  not  rise  above  freezing  point. 

"The  temperature  of  the  earth's  surface,"  he  wrote,  .... 
"and  with  it  the  existence  not  only  of  the  human  race,  but  of 
all  organized  life  on  the  globe,  appears  in  the  light  of  the  con- 
clusions reached  by  the  Mount  Whitney  expedition  to  depend 
far  less  on  the  direct  solar  heat  than  on  the  hitherto  little 
regarded  quality  of  selective  absorption  in  our  atmosphere." 

The  bearing  of  these  observations  on  such  questions  as  the 
temperature  of  the  sun   and   the   radiation   from   the  sky  is 


The  Three  Secretaries  223 

manifestly  very  important.  The  extent  of  the  solar  spectrum 
previously  known  was  but  a  fraction  of  that  discovered  by 
this  expedition.^ 

Mr.  Langley's  determination  of  the  power  of  the  sun's  light 
and  heat,  as  made  at  Pittsburg  in  1878,  is  one  based  upon 
definite  standards  of  comparison.  He  then  demonstrated  that 
the  sun's  disk  radiates  fifty-three  hundred  times  as  much 
light,  and  eighty-seven  times  as  much  heat,  as  would  an  equal 
area  of  metal  in  the  converter  of  a  Bessemer  furnace  in  full 
blast. 

Of  Mr.  Langley's  numerous  subsequent  investigations  with 
the  bolometer,  there  can  only  be  mentioned  his  researches  on 
the  temperature  of  the  moon,  which  entirely  changed  the 
conclusions  previously  held  from  the  statements  of  Sir  John 
Herschel  and  the  experiments  of  Lord  Rosse,  and  his  meas- 
ures of  the  amount  of  energy  realized  in  the  form  of  light  by 
different  natural  and  artificial  methods  of  producing  it. 

Extremely  significant  in  this  latter  respect  were  his  ob- 
servations made  in  Washington  upon  the  spectrum  of  the 
firefly,  PyropJiorus  noctiluciis.  He  showed  that  its  radiation 
consists  wholly  of  visible  radiations,  or,  in  other  words,  that 
there  exists  in  use  a  natural  process  by  which  all  the  heat 
generated  is  converted  into  light,  a  process  probably  imitable, 
and  which  if  successfully  imitated  would  be  of  immense  indus- 
trial importance.  In  the  gas  flame  only  two  per  cent,  of  the 
heat  is  utilized  in  visible  radiation  and  ninety-eight  per  cent, 
is  wasted. 

Within  comparatively  few  years  Mr.  Langley  has  taken  up 
the  study  of  the  physics  of  the  atmosphere  and  the  conditions 
of  artificial  flight.  This  is  a  subject  in  which  he  has  been  in- 
terested from  boyhood,  though  it  was  not  until  1889  that  he 

1  In  this  connection  reference  should  be  Allegheny  Observatory,  upon  the  influence  of 
made  to  the  work  of  J.  E.  Keeler,  one  of  his  absorption  of  certain  rays  in  the  visible  spec- 
students,  and  his  successor  as  director  of  the       trum  by  the  carbon  dioxide  of  the  atmosphere. 


2  24  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

began  serious  work.  Many  of  these  investigations  have  been 
carried  on  at  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  although  some  of 
the  earHer  elaborate  experiments  with  the  whirling  table  were 
carried  on  at  the  Allegheny  Observatory. 

V. 

In  1 89 1  he  published  his  now  famous  paper  entitled  "Experi- 
ments in  Aerodynamics,"  in  which  he  first  made  public  the 
results  of  his  studies  upon  this  subject.  This  paper  threw 
new  light  on  the  motion  of  certain  forms  of  bodies  through 
the  atmosphere,  and  resulted  in  a  practical  revolution  in  the 
conclusions  drawn  from  the  study  of  aerodynamics.  His 
paper  on  "The  Internal  Work  of  the  Wind,"  presented  to  the 
International  Conference  on  Aerial  Navigation,  held  in  Chi- 
cago, in  1893,  made  even  a  greater  impression,  especially 
upon  the  minds  of  those  engaged  practically  upon  the  prob- 
lem of  artificial  flight.  The  importance  of  the  views  then 
for  the  first  time  advanced  was  universally  admitted,  as  is 
evident  from  two  recent  authoritative  general  works  on  the 
subject  of  aerial  navigation,  those  of  Mr.  Octave  Chanute,  of 
Chicago,  and  Doctor  von  Salverda,  of  Holland.  In  March, 
1894,  Lieutenant- Colonel  Elsdale,  of  the  Royal  Engineers, 
in  an  article  in  the  Cotitempora^y  Revieiv,  wrote : 

"  Professor  Langley  may  fairly  be  said  to  have  laid  down, 
for  the  first  time,  a  really  sound  and  reliable  scientific  basis 
for  the  study  of  aerial  locomotion,  by  a  series  of  careful  ex- 
periments and  well-reasoned  deductions  from  them.  What- 
ever its  ultimate  measure  of  success  is,  new  experiments  with 
it  cannot  fail  to  advance  the  cause  of  aerial  navigation  another 
stage." 

To  a  letter  of  inquiry  in  regard  to  the  significance  of  these 
contributions    to   the   science   of  aerodynamics,   Mr.    Octave 


The  Three  Secretaries  225 

Chanute,  of  Chicago,  responded  to  the  writer,  April  10,  1896, 
as  follows : 

"  In  my  judgment  the  principal  contributions  thus  far  made 
by  Doctor  Langley  to  the  science  of  Aerodynamics  consist  in 
his  having  given  to  physicists  and  searchers  firm  ground  to 
stand  upon  concerning  the  fundamental  and  much-disputed 
question  of  air  resistances  and  reaction. 

"When  I  was  in  Europe  in  1889,  I  inquired  into  the  state 
of  knowledge  on  this  important  question,  and  found  utter  dis- 
agreement and  confusion.  There  were  numerous  formulae, 
promoted  by  various  physicists,  but  these  gave  such  discor- 
dant results  that  arrangements  were  being  proposed  in  France 
to  try  an  entire  set  of  new  experiments,  with  air  currents  to 
be  procured  by  an  enormous  fan -blower.  A  fair  idea  of  the 
state  of  knowledge  can  be  had  from  Professor  Marey's  careful 
work  on  "  Le  vol  des  oiseaux,"  published  in  1890.  Oblique 
pressures  were  then  still  generally  held  to  vary  according  to 
the  Newtonian  law,  or  as  the  square  of  the  sine  of  incidence, 
although  this  gives  but  five  to  ten  per  cent,  of  the  true  reac- 
tions at  acute  angles  of  incidence. 

"  Doctor  Langley  has  shown  us,  by  experiment,  the  general 
accuracy  of  which  cannot  be  questioned,  that  the  empirical 
(based  on  experiments)  formula  of  Duchemin  is  sufficiently 
correct  to  calculate  the  radiations  upon  planes;  so  that  the 
French,  who  had  ignored  this  formula  since  1836,  now  claim 
its  inception  and  accept  it  (as  they  do  some  wines)  retour 
(T Amerique.  Doctor  Langley  has  also  shown  us  that  the  va- 
riation of  the  center  of  pressure  on  an  inclined  plane,  observed 
by  Sir  George  Cayley  and  by  Avanzani  as  well  as  by  Kummer, 
follows  approximately  the  law  formulated  by  Jossel,  so  that 
now,  for  the  first  time,  searchers  are  enabled  to  calculate  the 
sustaining  power,  the  resistance,  and  the  center  of  pressure 
of  a  plane,  with  confidence  that  they  are  not  far  wrong;  and 
this,  together  with  the  further  law,  formulated  first  by  Doctor 
Langley,  that  within  certain  limits  '  the  higher  speeds  are 
more  economical  of  power  than  the  lower  ones,'  has  made  it 
possible  to  assert  that  the  problem  of  artificial  flight  is  not  in- 


2  26  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

soluble  as  theretofore  affirmed  by  many  of  the  most  eminent 
scientific  men. 

"Whether  Doctor  Langley's  scientific  labors  in  this  depart- 
ment of  physics  will  soon  result,  like  those  of  the  preceding 
Secretaries,  in  the  practical  application  of  his  discoveries  to 
the  use  of  mankind,  it  is  perhaps  too  early  to  assert  positively, 
I  think,  myself,  that  they  will  so  result  before  many  years,  but 
there  are  so  many  intricate  questions  to  be  solved  before  com- 
mercial success  can  be  achieved  that  another  generation  may 
pass  before  the  problem  of  flight  is  fully  solved. 

"  Moreover,  Doctor  Langley's  labors  and  discoveries  are 
by  no  means  over.  He  has  thus  far  published  only  the 
result  of  his  investigations  on  planes,  while  saying  in 
the  penultimate  paragraph  of  his  summary  that  it  is  not 
asserted  that  planes  are  the  best  forms  to  use.  Lilienthal 
and  Phillips  have  since  shown  that  concave-convex  surfaces 
are  more  efficient  forms,  and  it  is  very  much  to  be  desired 
that  Doctor  Langley  shall  next  publish  some  data  concerning 
such  forms. 

"The  practical  development  of  a  scientific  truth  is  some- 
what like  the  growth  from  a  new  seed.  We  recognize  the 
existence  of  the  plant,  we  ascertain  some  of  its  virtues,  but 
we  cannot  tell  its  full  uses,  how  soon  it  will  mature,  nor  how 
large  the  tree  will  be. 

"  It  is  significant,  however,  that,  prior  to  the  publication  of 
Doctor  Langley's  work,  it  was  the  rare  exception  to  find 
engineers  and  scientists  of  recognized  ability  who  would  fully 
admit  the  possibility  of  man  being  able  to  solve  the  twenty- 
century  old  problem  of  aviation.  Professor  Joseph  Le  Conte, 
in  the  Popular  Science  Monthly  of  November,  1888,  has 
very  recently  taken  the  ground,  flatly,  '  that  a  pure  flying 
machine  is  impossible.'  This  was  probably  based  on  the  fact 
that  the  then  accepted  formula  of  Newton,  and  the  calculation 
of  Napier  and  other  scientists,  if  correct,  rendered  the  solution 
practically  impossible.  Since  the  publication  of  'Experiments 
in  Aerodynamics,'  however,  it  is  the  exception  to  find  an  in- 
telligent engineer  who  disputes  the  probability  of  the  eventual 
solution  of  the  problem  of  man-flight.      Such   has  been  the 


The  Three  Secretaries  227 

change  in  five  years.  Incredulity  has  given  way,  interest 
has  been  aroused  in  the  scientific  question,  a  sound  basis  has 
been  furnished  for  experiment,  and  practical  results  are  being 
evolved  by  many  workers.  Much  remains  to  be  discovered 
concerning  curved  surfaces,  with  which  alone  practical  flight 
is  likely  to  be  achieved,  but  when  this  is  accomplished  it  is 
probable,  in  my  judgment,  that  the  beginning  of  the  solution 
will  be  acknowledged  to  date  back  to  the  publication  of  Doctor 
Langley's  book,  and  that  he  will  be  distinguished  as  Secretary 
Henry  is  now  with  regard  to  the  development  of  electrical 
appliances." 

In  the  brief  interval  between  the  date  of  the  letter  just 
quoted  and  the  sending  of  this  sketch  to  the  printer,  an  aero- 
drome, constructed  by  Mr.  Langley,  has  made  two  successful 
flights,  each  to  a  distance  of  rather  more  than  half  a  mile, 
practically  demonstrating  the  correctness  of  the  principles 
which  it  has  been  seen  were  generally  accepted,  on  theoretical 
grounds,  as  soon  as  they  were  made  public.^ 

1 A  description  of  these  flights,  which  took  wheels  ceased  turning,  and  the  machine,  de- 
place  on  May  6, 1896,  was  communicated  to  prived  of  the  aid  of  its  propellers,  to  my  sur- 
the  Coviptes  Rendus  of  the  French  Academy  prise,  did  not  fall,  but  settled  down  gently, 
of  Sciences,  by  Professor  Alexander  Graham  and  without  the  least  shock,  and  was  imme- 
Bell,  who  was  an  eye  witness,  and  an  Eng-  diately  ready  for  another  trial, 
lish  translation  of  the  same  is  contained  in  "In  the  second  trial,  which  followed  di- 
Natiire,  Volume  Liv,  page  80.  rectly,  it  repeated  in  nearly  every  respect  the 

Professor  Bell  states  that  two  ascensions  actions  of  the  first,  except  that  the  direction 

were  made  by  the  aerodrome  which  was  built  of  its   course   was   different.      It   ascended 

almostentirely  of  metal,  and  driven  by  a  steam  again  in  the  face  of  the  wind.     I  estimated 

engineofextraordinary  lightness,  the  absolute  that  the  actual  length  of  flight  on  each  occa- 

weight  of  the  aerodrome,  including  the  engine  sion  was  slightly  over  three  thousand  feet, 

and  all  its  appurtenances,  being  about  twenty-  It  is  at  least  safe  to  say  that  each  exceeded 

five  pounds,  and  the  method  of  propulsion  by  half  an  English  mile." 

aerial  propellers,  without  any  gas  or  other  aid  He  continues  :    "  I  cannot  but  add  that  it 

for  lifting  it  in  the  air,  except  its  own  internal  seems  to  me  that  no  one  who  was  present  on 

energy.  this  interesting  occasion  could  have  failed  to 

"On  the  occasion  referred  to,"  says  Pro-  recognize  that  the  practicability  of  mechanical 

fessor  Bell,  "the  aerodrome,  at  a  given  sig-  flight  had  been  demonstrated." 

nal,  started  from  a  platform  about   twenty  A  third  and  still  longer  flight  was  made  on 

feet  above  the  water,  and  rose  at  first  directly  November  28,  1896,  with   another  machine 

in  the  face  of  the  wind,  moving  at  all  times  built  of  steel  like  the  first,  and  driven  like 

with  remarkable  steadiness,  and  continually  that  by  propellers  actuated  by  a  steam  engine 

ascending   until    its    steam   was   exhausted,  of  between  one  and  two  horse  power,  making 

when,  at  a  height   I  judged  to  be  between  a  horizontal  flight  of  over  three-quarters  of  a 

eighty  and  one  hundred  feet  in  the  air,  the  mile,  and  descending  in  safety. 


2  28  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

The  significance  of  these  experiments  is  summed  up  by  a 
recent  writer  as  follows  : 

"  In  both  its  matter  and  manner,  Professor  Langley's  in- 
vention, or  discovery,  is  of  unique  interest.  His  machine  is 
built  upon  exactly  the  opposite  principle  from  that  upon 
which  other  flying  machines  have  been  built,  and  his  inven- 
tion represents  a  clear  triumph  for  pure  inductive  science. 

"When  Stephenson  built  his  locomotive  he  proceeded  in 
his  work  upon  certain  definitely  known  facts ;  that  is,  he  was 
perfectly  sure  that  if  he  could  find  a  way  to  push  his  wheels 
around  by  steam,  his  engine  could  run  over  the  ground  just 
as  an  ordinary  wagon  would.  He  was  venturing  into  no  un- 
known field  of  physics.  With  Professor  Langley  it  was  just 
the  opposite.  Although  men  of  science  for  two  centuries  or 
more  have  been  studying  the  dynamics  of  the  air,  have 
weighed  it  and  determined  its  compressibility,  its  action  un- 
der heat,  etc.,  yet  up  to  the  time  Professor  Langley  took  hold 
of  the  matter  there  existed  no  definite  data  as  to  the  plan  or 
principle  upon  which  a  flying  machine,  if  it  is  to  successfully 
navigate  the  air,  must  be  built.  To  find  out  these  new  data 
was  his  first  work. 

"  Put  in  a  less  technical  way,  Professor  Langley's  problem 
was  this :  He  says,  '  Did  you  ever  think  what  a  physical  mir- 
acle it  is  for  such  a  bird  as  one  of  our  common  turkey  buz- 
zards to  fly  in  the  way  it  does  ?  You  may  see  them  any  day 
along  the  Potomac,  floating  in  the  air,  with  hardly  a  move- 
ment of  their  feathers.  These  birds  weigh  from  five  to  ten 
pounds  ;  they  are  far  heavier  than  the  air  they  displace  ;  they 
are  absolutely  heavier  than  so  many  flatirons. 

"  '  I  fancy  if  you  saw  cannon-balls  floating  through  the  air 
like  soap-bubbles  you  would  look  upon  it  as  a  sufficiently  sur- 
prising matter,  if  not  as  a  miracle.  The  only  reason  that  we 
are  not  surprised  at  the  soaring  bird  is  that  we  have  seen  it 
from  childhood.  Perhaps  if  we  had  seen  cannon-balls  float- 
ing in  the  air  from  our  childhood  we  would  not  stop  to  inquire 
how  they  did  it,  any  more  than  we  now  do  how  the  turkey 
buzzard  does  it.      I  am  speaking  now,  of  course,  not  of  birds 


The  Three  Secretaries  229 

that  fly  by  flapping  their  wings,  but  of  those  that  fly  without 
flapping  their  wings,  and  with  almost  no  visible  expenditure 
of  force.' 

"  It  was  from  watching  the  soaring  birds  that  Professor 
Langley  came  to  conclude  that  it  was  possible  to  build  solid 
models  very  much  heavier  than  the  air  and  drive  and  direct 
such  a  machine  with  such  an  ordinary  force  as  steam.  That 
is  to  say,  he  became  convinced  that  there  are  certain  shapes 
in  which  matter  can  be  disposed  so  that  the  more  rapidly  it 
moves  through  the  air,  in  a  sense,  the  less  power  it  takes  to 
move  it,  and  that  a  machine  could  be  built  to  skim  through 
the  air  very  much  as  a  skater  skims  along  the  surface  of  very 
thin  ice  —  the  faster  you  go  the  less  danger. 

"  Professor  Langley  believed  that  soaring  birds  have  an  in- 
tuitive knowledge  of  certain  properties  in  the  air  by  which 
they  are  able  to  skim  along  —  rising  and  falling,  soaring  up 
and  sailing  down,  and  turning  about  in  circles  without  any 
flapping  of  their  wings  or  apparently  any  other  effort.  Just 
what  these  properties  were  he  attempted  to  find  out  and  de- 
velop by  experiment. 

*'  Well,  the  upshot  of  the  matter  was  that  from  these  experi- 
ments it  was  demonstrated  that  a  machine,  not  a  balloon,  can 
be  made  which  will  produce  enough  mechanical  power  to 
support  itself  in  the  air  and  fly.  'Though,'  Professor  Lang- 
ley adds,  '  this  is  not  saying  that  we  have  got  skill  enough  to 
manage  this  power  so  as  to  rise  and  fly  about  in  the  air  and 
descend  safely.'  What  is  actually  demonstrated,  repeated 
hundreds  of  times  in  the  laboratory,  and,  finally,  with  the  suc- 
cessful machine  which  Professor  Langley  built,  is  that  the  fly- 
ing machine  is  possible.  All  that  now  remains  is  to  perfect 
it  and  learn  how  to  manaofe  it. 

"  The  experiments  which  Professor  Langley  carried  on  re- 
sulted in  showing  that  an  expenditure  of  one  horse-power,  in 
horizontal  flight,  will  support  about  200  pounds,  and  at  the 
same  time  carry  this  burden  at  a  rate  of  fifty  miles  an  hour 
through  the  air.  Now,  there  have  recently  been  built  steam 
engines  which,  with  fuel  and  water  for  a  short  flight,  weigh  a 
good  deal  less  than  twenty  pounds.      The  relative  weight  of 


230  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

an  engine  decreases  with  the  number  of  its  horse-power,  so 
that  there  seems  no  reason  to  doubt  that  what  Professor 
Langley  has  done  on  a  small  scale  may  be  done  on  a  large 
one,  and  very  shortly  at  that. 

"  Professor  Langley's  machine  measures  but  fourteen  feet 
from  tip  to  tip  ;  weighs,  complete,  twenty-four  pounds,  is  sol- 
idly built  of  steel,  and,  compared  with  the  air  which  supports 
it,  has  a  weight  of  a  thousand  to  one.  It  has  no  balloon 
arrangements  of  any  sort,  and  instead  of  trying  to  build  a 
vessel  lighter  than  the  air  and  filling  it  with  gases  to  make 
it  rise.  Professor  Langley  has  practically  built  a  machine  as 
heavy  as  he  likes  and  relied  upon  its  shape  and  power  for 
successful  flight. 

"This  is  just  the  opposite  of  what  almost  every  other  ex- 
perimenter in  this  field  has  tried  to  do,  although  it  was  appar- 
ent to  every  one  that  a  flying  machine,  to  be  of  any  commer- 
cial or  practical  value  whatever,  would  have  to  be  heavy 
enough  and  powerful  enough  to  drive  straight  against  or 
across  and  in  and  out  of  the  stoutest  gale  that  blows.  Other- 
wise it  would  forever  be  at  the  mercy  of  the  element.  What 
was  necessary  was  a  ship  that  would  ride  a  storm  in  the  air 
as  a  great  ocean  liner  rides  a  storm  at  sea. 

"  Professor  Langley  has  been  very  careful  to  say  that  he 
never  expressed  his  opinion  that  man  could  fly  of  his  own 
strength.  But  he  has  demonstrated  that  powerful  machines 
thousands  of  times  as  heavy  as  the  air  itself  can  be  built  to 
navigate  the  air." 

VI. 

Concerning  the  administrative  side  of  Secretary  Langley's 
work  during  the  past  ten  years,  it  seems  scarcely  necessary 
to  speak  at  length  in  this  place.  The  story  told  by  this  vol- 
ume, at  the  end  of  his  first  ten  years  of  service,  is  ample  evi- 
dence that  the  efficiency  of  the  Smithsonian  organization  has 
not  diminished  while  under  his  charge,  and  that  the  care  of 
this,  rather  than  of  his  scientific  pursuits,  has  occupied   the 


The   Three  Secretaries  231 

greater  portion  of  his  time  and  thought  during  the  period 
of  his  incumbency. 

No  one  can  ever  make  so  strong  an  impression  upon  the 
character  of  an  institution  as  he  to  whom  the  task  of  organizing 
it  is  intrusted.  It  is  manifestly  impossible  that  his  successors 
should  be  able  to  modify  materially  the  policy  of  an  institu- 
tion which  has  been  organized  for  a  definite  purpose  and  by 
the  hands  of  a  person  whose  judgment  and  ability  they  hold 
in  respect.  Their  work,  however,  is  none  the  less  important 
in  that  it  is  conservative  rather  than  entirely  constructive. 
Their  task  is  to  maintain  the  efficiency  of  the  organization 
and  to  keep  it  abreast  of  the  times.  They  must  be  alert  to 
appreciate  the  demands  which  arise  from  changed  conditions 
and  secure  the  means  for  a  growth  which  shall  not  only  be 
constant  but  symmetrical. 

The  history  of  the  Institution  bears  evidence  that  it  has 
been  under  the  constant  control  of  men  of  unusual  ability, 
energy,  and  personal  influence.  No  boards  of  trustees,  or 
regents,  no  succession  of  officers  serving  out  their  terms  in 
rotation,  could  possibly  have  developed  from  a  chaos  of  con- 
flicting opinions  a  strongly  individualized  establishment  like 
the  Smithsonian  Institution. 

The  names  of  the  first  two  Secretaries  are  so  thoroughly 
identified  with  the  history  of  the  Institution,  by  reason  of  their 
constant  connection  with  it  during  its  first  four  decades,  that 
their  biographies  together  could  form  almost  a  complete  his- 
tory of  its  operations.  The  period  during  which  the  third 
Secretary  has  served  is  of  comparatively  less  length,  yet  of 
great  importance  from  the  fact  that  he  has  done  so  much  to 
render  permanent  the  work  which  his  predecessors  began. 

Each  of  the  three,  in  addition  to  his  general  administrative 
work,  has  made  some  features  of  the  general  plan  peculiarly 
his  own.     Secretary  Henry  gave  especial   attention    to    the 


232  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

publications,  the  system  of  international  exchanges,  and  the 
development  of  that  great  system  of  meteorological  obser- 
vations, the  storm  predictions,  which  has  since  become  the 
Weather  Bureau. 

Secretary  Baird  continued  the  development  of  the  Museum, 
which  had  been  under  his  special  charge  during  the  twenty- 
seven  years  of  his  service  as  Assistant  Secretary,  secured  the 
erection  of  the  Museum  building,  gave  much  attention  to 
zoological  and  ethnological  exploration,  and,  in  connection 
with  his  special  work  as  Commissioner  of  Fisheries,  secured 
the  construction  of  the  exploring  ship  Albatross,  and  car- 
ried on  extensive  investigations  in  American  waters.  In  ad- 
dition to  his  Smithsonian  work  he  will  always  be  remembered 
as  one  of  the  greatest  of  naturalists,  the  founder  of  the  United 
States  Fish  Commission  and  of  "  public  fish-culture." 

Und.er  the  administration  of  Secretary  Langley  there  has 
been  renewed  activity  in  the  library  and  exchange  work,  and 
a  new  system  has  been  introduced  for  the  encouragement  of 
original  research  in  physical  and  biological  science.  During 
his  administration  important  donations  and  bequests  have 
been  added  to  the  permanent  fund  of  the  Institution.  The 
limit  of  one  million  dollars  which  may  by  law  be  deposited  in 
the  United  States  Treasury,  at  six  per  cent.,  has  nearly  been 
reached,  and  Congress  has  recognized  the  authority  of  the 
Institution  to  receive  and  administer  other  funds  beyond  this 
limit,  thus  making  it  possible  for  it  to  undertake  the  adminis- 
tration of  financial  trusts  for  any  purpose  within  the  scope  of 
its  general  plan. 

Secretary  Langley  will  always  be  remembered  as  the 
founder  of  the  Smithsonian  Astrophysical  Observatory  and 
of  the  National  Zoological  Park,  in  which  his  assiduous  per- 
sonal labor  was  largely  instrumental  in  securing  to  the  nation 
the  most  picturesque,  and  up  to  this  time  the  largest,  tract  of 


The  Three  Secretaries  233 

land  in  the  world  devoted  to  such  uses.  His  contributions  to 
science  during  his  Secretaryship  will  also  always  be  asso- 
ciated with  his  career  at  the  Smithsonian,  though  they  have 
been  necessarily  subordinated  to  administrative  duties  which 
are  the  principal  occupation  of  the  Secretary. 


VII. 

Mr.  Langley's  contributions  to  science  have  been  numerous. 
They  have  been  published  in  the  transactions  ot  various 
learned  societies  and  in  the  scientific  journals,  especially  the 
Coinptes  Rcndits  of  the  French  Academy  of  Sciences  and 
the  American  Journal  of  Science. 

He  published  a  series  of  articles  in  The  Century  Ma- 
gazine in  1884  and  1886  upon  astrophysical  research,  based 
upon  a  series  of  lectures  delivered  by  him  at  the  Lowell  In- 
stitute in  Boston  in  1883.  These  articles  have  since  been  re- 
published under  the  title  of  "The  New  Astronomy,"  which  is 
one  of  the  most  successful  of  modern  scientific  books  written 
in  popular  style. 

Mr.  Langley  is  a  correspondent  of  the  French  Institute  (in 
the  Academy  of  Sciences),  a  foreign  member  of  the  Royal  So- 
ciety of  London,  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Astronomical  Society 
of  London,  a  member  of  the  National  Academy  of  Sciences, 
and  of  numerous  other  foreig"n  and  American  scientific  bodies. 
In  1878  he  was  made  Vice-President  of  Section  A  of  the 
American  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  and 
in  1886  was  elected  President  of  that  association,  delivering 
the  presidential  address  at  the  Cleveland  meeting  in  1888,  en- 
titled the  "History  of  a  Doctrine."  He  has  received  numer- 
ous degrees  from  universities,  among  them  that  of  LL.  D. 
from  the  University  of  Wisconsin  in  1882,  the  University  of 
Michigan    in    1883,    from  Harvard  University  in    1886,   and 

16 


2  34  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

Princeton  University  in  1896;  and  in  1894  that  of  D.  C.  L. 
from  the  University  of  Oxford.  He  was  the  first  to  receive,  in 
1886,  the  Henry  Draper  medal  of  the  National  Academy  of 
Sciences  for  work  in  astronomical  physics.  In  1887  he  w^as 
awarded  the  Rumford  medal  by  the  Royal  Society  of  London, 
and  the  Rumford  gold  and  silver  medals  by  the  American 
Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences.  It  seems  especially  fit  that 
the  American  who  has  in  this  century  been  most  eminent  as 
a  student  of  the  laws  of  heat  should  thus  come  into  posses- 
sion of  the  two  memorials,  American  and  English,  of  the 
great  American  who  in  the  last  century  made  such  important 
contributions  to  the  same  branch  of  science. 

More  than  all  these  formal  honors,  by  far,  is  the  world- 
wide recognition  of  his  achievements  in  the  formulation  of 
the  principles  of  aerodynamics  and  the  discovery  of  so  much 
of  the  solar  spectrum. 


THE    BENEFACTORS 


By   Samuel   Pierpont   Langley 


^'HE  original  bequest  of  James  Smithson,  to- 
gether with  the  accrued  interest  and  savings, 
constituted  a  fund  of  over  seven  hundred  thou- 
sand dollars.  The  sum  now  placed  to  the  credit 
of  the  Smithsonian  deposit  in  the  Treasury  of 
the  United  States,  together  with  some  securities  undeposited, 
lacks  but  little  of  a  million,  about  one  quarter  of  a  million  of 
dollars  having  been  added  to  the  original  fund  in  the  past 
five  years. 

The  addition  has  been  made  by  several  benefactors  who 
have  recognized,  as  years  go  on,  the  ever-increasing  ability 
of  the  Institution  to  act  as  trustee  for  the  funds  whose  grivers 
have  aims  in  consonance  with  those  of  the  founder. 

I  shall  briefly  sketch  the  biography  of  these  men  who  have 
given  of  their  means  to  promote  the  usefulness  of  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution,  and  who  have  expressed  their  confidence 
in  the  policy  and  permanency  of  the  Institution  by  making  it 
their  trustee  in  carrying  out  their  design  for  the  increase  and 
diffusion  of  knowledge  among  men.  Before  passing  to  these, 
however,  the  fact  should  be  recalled  that  the  earliest  addition 

to  the  Smithson  fund   came  from  the  first  Secretary,  Joseph 

235 


236  The  SniitJisonian  Institution 


Henry.  In  the  year  1847  Professor  Henry  was  invited  to 
deliver  a  course  of  lectures  in  Princeton,  the  college  of  whose 
faculty  he  had  been  a  member  prior  to  his  acceptance  of  the 
chief  executive  office  of  the  newly-founded  Institution.  Prince- 
ton University, —  or  the  College  of  New  Jersey,  as  it  was 
then  known, — paid  him  for  this  course  of  lectures  an  honora- 
rium of  $1000,  which  Professor  Henry  placed  to  the  credit  of 
the  Board  of  Regents. 


't> 


In  1874  a  bequest  of  $1000  was  received  from  the  estate  of 
James  Hamilton,  "  the  interest  to  be  appropriated  biennially 
by  the  Secretaries,  either  in  money  or  a  medal,  for  such  con- 
tribution, paper,  or  lecture  on  any  scientific  or  useful  subject 
as  said  Secretaries  may  direct." 

Mr.  Hamilton  was  born  in  Carlisle,  Pennsylvania,  Octo- 
ber 16,  1793,  and  died  there  January  23,  1873.  He  was 
graduated  from  Dickinson  College  in  181 2,  and  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  Bar  in  18 16.  For  a  few  years  he  followed 
the  practice  of  his  profession,  and  then  retired  to  devote 
himself  to  the  more  congenial  pursuits  of  science  and  litera- 
ture. He  was  a  close  student  of  astronomy,  botany,  and 
mineralogy,  and  his  interest  also  extended  to  education,  for 
he  was  a  trustee  of  Dickinson  College  in  1824-33,  and  was 
almost  continuously  a  school  director  in  Carlisle  from  the 
inception  of  the  school  system  there  in  1836,  till  his  death. 
His  philanthropy  and  public  spirit  showed  itself  in  many 
ways.  Not  only  was  he  one  of  the  organizers  and  trustees 
of  the  Presbyterian  Church,  but  he  was  also  active  in  its 
work  as  well.  His  .charities  were  numerous  and  his  will 
included  more  than  a  thousand  items  of  benefaction. 

In  1879  a  bequest  of  $402.59  was  received  from  Doctor 
Simeon   Habel.      This  sum   was  increased  from  the  income 


THE  HODGKINS  MEDAL. 

[OBVERSE.] 


236  77/.  Institution 

^  xofessor  Henry  was 

:ii  Princeton,  the  c"  e 

-:  niber  prior  to  his  acceptance  o 

.  he  newly-founded  Institution.     Prince- 
New   Jersey,   as  it  was 


tt  i  Ji     a  1  "%_,  ■ 


■J,  Wl. 

ofR 


quest       ,     joo  was  received  fr  A 

jam  '^"'^    *' Hie  interest  \..,  ...^  appro^^.x^x,. 


/  or  a  m^  ^  '    r  i   ^^j^_ 


r  use 


O' 

1 1 


^cto- 

January 

!i   10  1  or  a  tew  years  -^wed 

profession,   and   tiien   retire  vote 

nimself  to  the  more  congenial  pursuits  ence  and  li 

-^  -"  close  stud""^    of  astronomy,  buLci 
ana  his  interest  aiso  extender' 

ckinson  Cc  1824-3;-'  was 

\  director  in   C  e 


>Lees 


In  1879  a  beque-  :  •  ■  ivca  n-om  ''       )r 

,   H<t54.(iaM,sa^I30aOH   ainj.on,  the  income 

[.aaaavao3 


The  Benefactors  237 

of  the  Institution  to  $500,  and   placed  to  the  credit  of  the 
Smithsonian  fund. 

Doctor  Habel  was  of  Austrian  birth  and  was  grad- 
uated at  the  University  of  Vienna  in  1846.  He  came  to 
America  and  undertook  an  extended  tour  throucrh  Central 
and  South  America.  Before  doing  this  he  spent  several 
months  at  the  Institution  familiarizing  himself  with  the  work 
of  the  Geological  Department.  In  1877  he  prepared  a  me- 
moir for  the  Institution  entitled  "The  Sculptures  of  Santa 
Lucia  Cosumalwhuapa,  in  Guatemala,  with  an  account  of 
Travels  in  Central  America  and  on  the  Western  Coast  of 
South  America,"  which  was  published  in  the  "Smithsonian 
Contributions  to  Knowledge." 

In  1889  a  bequest  of  $5000  was  received  from  Doctor 
Kidder,  to  be  used  for  the  promotion  of  physical  research. 

Doctor  Jerome  Henry  Kidder  was  born  in  Baltimore 
County,  Maryland,  on  October  26,  1842,  and  was  graduated  in 
1862  at  Harvard  University,  where  he  is  still  remembered  as 
foremost  in  the  gymnasium  as  well  as  on  his  class-rolls.  He 
immediately  tendered  his  services  for  the  Civil  War,  and  was 
placed  in  charge  of  the  sea-island  plantations  near  Beaufort, 
South  Carolina,  where  he  contracted  yellow  fever,  and  was 
sent  home  early  in  1863  ;  but  upon  recovery  he  enlisted  in  the 
Tenth  Maryland  Infantry,  in  which  he  served  as  private  and 
non-commissioned  officer  until  the  following  year,  when  he 
was  selected  to  be  medical  cadet,  and  in  that  capacity  was 
employed  in  the  military  hospitals  near  the  capital.  During 
this  time  he  was  prosecuting  the  study  of  medicine,  and  in 
1866  received  from  the  University  of  Maryland  the  degree  of 
M.  D.  In  the  same  year  he  was  commissioned  an  assistant 
surgeon  in  the  United  States  Navy,  becoming  full  surgeon  in 
the  month  of  May,  1876. 
16* 


238  The  Smithsoniaji  Institution 

Doctor  Kidder's  first  duty  was  in  Philadelphia.  After  a 
year  he  went  to  Japan,  where  he  quickly  acquired  the  lan- 
guage of  the  country,  and  in  other  ways  established  the  repu- 
tation which  attached  to  him  throughout  his  career  for  his 
"capacity  for  taking  pains."  While  on  this  foreign  service 
he  was  decorated  by  the  King  of  Portugal  in  recognition  of 
services  to  a  distressed  vessel  of  his  Majesty's  navy. 

Doctor  Kidder  took  part  in  observing  the  transit  of  Venus 
at  Kerguelen  Island,  in  1874,  as  surgeon  and  naturalist  of  the 
expedition,  and  the  excellent  results  of  his  scientific  labors 
and  researches  therewith  were  described  in  bulletins  of  the 
United  States  National  Museum.  After  the  return  of  this 
expedition.  Doctor  Kidder  arranged  his  specimens  and  col- 
lections in  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  and  began  those 
kindly  and  intimate  relations  with  it  which  continued  through 
the  remainder  of  his  life. 

In  1878  Doctor  Kidder  married,  in  Constantinople,  Annie 
Mary,  daughter  of  the  Honorable  Horace  Maynard,  Minister 
of  the  United  States  to  Turkey,  and  in  1884,  having  inherited 
an  adequate  fortune,  he  resigned  his  commission  and  estab- 
lished his  home  in  Washington,  and  organized  the  bacterio- 
logical laboratory  in  connection  with  the  Navy  Museum  of 
Hygiene,  and  also  made  a  sanitary  survey  of  the  site  pro- 
posed for  the  Naval  Observatory.  Later  he  was  appointed 
chemist  of  the  United  States  Fish  Commission,  and  in  that 
capacity  became  one  of  the  most  trusted  advisers  of  Pro- 
fessor Baird.  His  laboratory  was  in  the  Smithsonian  build- 
ing; and,  under  the  direction  of  the  Secretary  of  the  In- 
stitution he  made,  at  the  request  of  Congress,  an  exhaustive 
study  of  the  ventilation  of  the  Capitol  and  of  the  air  in  the 
Senate  chambers  and  the  hall  of  the  House,  and  submitted  an 
extended  report  for  the  use  of  the  committees  engaged  upon 
the  sanitary  reform  of  the  building.      In  1887,  after  the  death 


The  Benefactors  239 

of  Commissioner  Baird,  he  served  for  a  time  as  Assistant  Com- 
missioner of  Fisheries,  under  Commissioner  Goode.  While 
connected  with  tlie  Fish  Commission  he  carried  on  a  suc- 
cessful series  of  experiments  to  solve  the  problems  relative 
to  the  temperature  of  living  fishes,  which  have  been  made 
public  through  the  reports  of  the  Fish  Commission.  Besides 
the  reports  just  referred  to.  Doctor  Kidder  contributed  valu- 
able papers  to  various  professional  and  educational  publica- 
tions, and  held  for  years  a  place  on  the  literary  staff  of  the 
New  York  Woi'ld,  and  maintained  membership  in  many 
learned  societies.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Cosmos 
Club,  one  of  the  organizers  of  the  Harvard  Club  in  Washing- 
ton, and  a  prominent  member  in  the  Masonic  fraternity. 

In  1888  Doctor  Kidder  accepted  the  appointment  of 
curator  of  laboratory  and  exchanges  ;  and  the  writer  cannot 
speak  in  too  warm  terms  of  the  character  of  Doctor  Kidder 
as  shown  in  their  business  relations.  His  liberal  educa- 
tion and  views,  served  by  the  "  capacity  for  taking  pains " 
already  referred  to,  were  all  under  the  control  of  the  most 
conscientious  regard  for  duty,  and  made  him  a  valued  admin- 
istrator of  the  department  under  his  charge.  He  knew  how 
to  maintain,  together  with  exact  order,  the  kindliest  relations 
with  all  employed  in  it,  who,  it  is  safe  to  say,  remember  him 
with  an  affection  and  regard  due  to  his  excellent  personal 
qualities,  a  feeling  which  the  writer  profoundly  shares.  Just 
in  his  best  work,  in  his  fullest  physical  vigor.  Doctor  Kidder 
was  stricken  with  pneumonia,  and  died  after  a  brief  illness  in 
Washington  on  April  8,  1889. 

He  was  a  man  most  worthy  of  trust  in  every  relation  of  life, 
and  deeply  mourned  by  those  who  enjoyed  his  friendship. 

In  1 89 1  Alexander  Graham  Bell  presented  to  me  $5000  to 
aid  in  scientific  researches  I  was  carrying  on,  which  sum  was, 


240  The  Smithsonimi  Institution 

with  his  consent,  placed  under  the  general  charge  of  the  In- 
stitution, where  it  has  been  employed  for  objects  cognate  with 
those  contemplated  by  the  donor. 

The  present  brief  notice  of  Doctor  Bell  would  have  been  a 
fuller  one  were  it  not  that  a  reluctance  to  be  the  object  of 
public  notice  has  made  it  difficult  to  find  the  necessary  facts 
for  the  biographer. 

We  know  of  his  life  little  more  than  that  he  was  born  in 
Edinburgh,  Scotland,  on  March  3,  1847;  that  he  is  under- 
stood to  have  been  educated  in  London  and  Edinburgh;  that 
in  1870  he  removed  to  Canada,  and  that  in  1872  he  settled 
in  Boston,  where  he  introduced  the  system  of  visible  speech 
invented  by  his  father,  which  was  especially  for  the  benefit 
of  the  deaf  and  dumb,  and  where  he  became  professor  of 
vocal  physiology  in  the  Boston  University. 

At  this  time  the  transmission  of  sound  by  electricity  at- 
tracted his  attention,  and  he  made  the  invention  which 
brought  him  his  present  great  and  deserved  fame.  It  was  at 
the  Centennial  Exhibition  held  in  Philadelphia  in  1876  that 
the  telephone  was  first  exhibited.  It  attracted  the  immediate 
notice  of  Sir  William  Thomson  (now  Lord  Kelvin),  and 
other  eminent  electricians,  and  almost  at  once  it  engrossed 
the  attention  of  the  public,  and  the  news  of  the  discovery 
spread  over  the  civilized  world. 

Doctor  Bell's  scientific  work  was  by  no  means  confined  to 
the  telephone,  although  it  is  in  connection  with  that  invention 
that  his  name  is  best  known.  He  has  added  various  devices 
connected  with  the  transmission  of  speech  by  electricity,  among 
which  is  that  described  by  Antoine  Breguet  in  the  Coviptcs 
Rendus  of  the  French  Academy  of  Sciences  of  1880.^ 

Doctor  Bell,  among  other  rewards  of  his  invention  of  the 
telephone,  received  the  Volta  prize  of  fifty   thousand  francs 

1  Volume  xci,  pages  595  and  652. 


The  Benefactors  241 

from  the  Institute  of  France  in  1880,  and  with  this  and  con- 
siderable additions,  he  founded  in  1883  the  Volta  Bureau,  and 
erected  a  building  in  Georgetown,  where  it  is  installed.  It 
includes  a  library  and  facilities  for  investigations  into  the 
condition  of  the  deaf  and  dumb,  in  which  subject  Doctor 
Bell  has  always  continued  to  take  a  deep  interest. 

In  his  adopted  country,  Doctor  Bell's  contributions  to 
science  have  been  recognized  by  an  election,  in  1883,  to  the 
National  Academy  of  Sciences,  and  the  recent  conferment 
of  the  degree  of  LL.D.,  while  the  decoration  of  the  Legion 
of  Honor  has  been  received  by  him  from  the  French  gov- 
ernment. 

In  1 89 1  Thomas  George  Hodgkins  gave  $200,000  to  the 
Smithsonian  Institution,  stipulating  that  while  that  sum  should 
be  included  with  the  original  Smithson  Foundation,  the  in- 
come of  one-half  of  it  should  be  devoted  to  researches  and 
investigations  on  atmospheric  air  in  connection  with  the  wel- 
fare of  man.  Subsequent  to  his  death  an  additional  sum  of 
nearly  $50,000  was  received  by  the  Institution  from  his  es- 
tate, making  the  total  gift  one  of  about  a  quarter  of  a  million 
dollars. 

Mr.  Hodgkins  was  born  in  London,  England,  in  1803, 
and  died  in  Setauket,  Long  Island,  on  November  25,  1892. 
His  ancestors  were  clergymen,  and  belonged  to  the  class  of 
English  gentlemen,  but  his  father,  who  was  in  reduced  cir- 
cumstances, was  unable  to  keep  him  at  Eton  or  Harrow, 
and  sent  him  to  France,  where  he  remained  for  his  educa- 
tion until  he  was  about  fifteen  years  old.  During  this  time 
his  language,  habits,  and  manners,  became  rather  French 
than  Enorlish. 

He  returned  to  England;  but  troubles  with  a  stepmother 
made  his  home  unbearable,  and,  against  the  urgent  entreaty 


242  The  Smithsonian  Listitittion 

of  his  father,  he  shipped  before  the  mast  in  a  trading  vessel 
bound  for  Calcutta.  The  vessel  was  wrecked  near  the  mouth 
of  the  Hoogly,  and  young  Hodgkins  found  himself  penniless 
and  friendless  in  Calcutta,  where  he  was  taken  ill  and  carried 
to  the  hospital.  He  has  since  said  that  it  was  here,  while 
he  was  a  sick  lad,  and  was  told  that  he  had  not  six  months 
to  live,  that  he  made  up  his  mind  that  he  would  live,  that  he 
would  acquire  a  fortune,  and  that  he  would  devote  it  to  large 
and  philanthropic  ends. 

He  recovered  sufficiently  to  prepare  a  petition  to  the  Gov- 
ernor-General of  India,  who  was  then  the  Marquis  of  Hast- 
ings, asking  for  aid  to  return  to  England ;  and  he  walked  a 
long  distance  into  the  country,  where  the  Governor-General 
was  staying  at  his  country-seat,  to  deliver  it.  He  arrived  at 
the  viceregal  residence  barefooted  and  ill-clad,  and  asked 
an  audience  with  the  ruler  of  India  with  such  persistence  that 
the  attendants,  who  at  first  refused,  finally  consented  to  pre- 
sent his  petition.  This  so  impressed  the  Viceroy  when  he 
read  it  that  he  directed  that  the  young  sailor  should  be  ad- 
mitted to  see  him,  and  the  interview  that  followed  ended  by 
his  offering  young  Hodgkins  a  position  in  his  household 
which  any  gentleman's  son  might  have  been  willing  to  ac- 
cept, but  which  he  refused  from  his  overmastering  wish  to 
return  to  his  father. 

I  think  this  curious  adventure  (as  it  may  almost  be  called) 
deserves  narration  as  an  instance  both  of  the  remarkable  force 
of  Mr.  Hodgkins's  character  and  of  the  evidence  of  gentle 
breeding  his  manners  always  bore,  and  of  the  influence  both 
had  on  others  even  in  his  earliest  years. 

After  going  home  he  went  to  Spain  ;  later,  returning  to 
England,  he  married,  and  in  1830  came  to  this  country.  He 
immediately  engaged  in  business,  which  he  pursued  with  un- 
remitting energy  for  thirty  years,  when  he  retired  on  what  was 


The  Benefactor's  243 

at  that  time  considered  a  handsome  fortune.  The  fifteen 
years  following  this  he  spent  in  traveling  over  Europe  and 
America,  and  finally  in  1875  he  settled  down  in  Setauket, 
Long  Island,  upon  his  place  "  Brambletye  F"arm,"  which  he 
rarely  left,  except  for  an  occasional  visit  to  New  York  City, 
until  his  death. 

Mr.  Hodgkins  was  a  man  of  remarkably  self-poised  mind, 
singularly  independent  in  his  modes  of  thought,  and  indepen- 
dent also  of  the  need  of  social  converse  or  of  adventitious 
interests.  His  opinions  were  his  own,  and  he  found  in  the 
reading  which  confirmed  them  and  in  the  care  of  his  little 
farm  abundant  and  agreeable  occupation  for  the  leisure  of 
his  declining  years. 

He  was  a  man  of  keen  intelligence,  and  by  nature,  perhaps, 
still  more  a  thinker  and  a  scholar  than  a  man  of  affairs,  though 
even  in  the  latter  capacity  his  ability  was  proven  by  his  suc- 
cess in  business.  He  possessed  a  strong  will,  and  had  delib- 
erately formed  and  tenaciously  held  opinions  of  his  own  in 
relation  to  religious  and  philosophical  questions.  In  regard 
to  the  former,  it  may  be  sufficient  to  say  that  his  mind  was 
of  a  devout  cast,  and  that  while  he  had  thought  much  for  him- 
self, he  retained  to  the  last  an  absolute  trust  in  the  divine 
guidance  as  the  leadinor  motive  of  his  life. 

Mr.  Hodgkins  had  for  more  than  thirty  years  made  a  spe- 
cial study  of  the  atmosphere  in  its  relations  to  the  well-being 
of  humanity.  He  believed  that  most  of  the  physical  evils  to 
which  mankind  are  subject  arise  from  the  vitiation  of  the  air 
which  they  breathe,  and  that  the  study  of  the  atmosphere  is 
not  unimportant  even  with  relation  to  man's  moral  and  spirit- 
ual, as  well  as  his  physical  health ;  and  though  he  did  not 
point  out  any  line  of  investigation  likely  to  bear  fruit  in  the 
latter  direction,  it  was  his  hope  that  the  concentration  of 
thought  upon  the  atmosphere  and  its  study  from  every  point 


244  The  SmitJisonian  Instittttion 

of  view  would  in  time  lead  to  results  which  would  justify  his 
almost  devout  interest  in  the  subject. 

He  was  very  explicit  in  his  statements  that  it  was  not 
for  sanitary  science  or  for  meteorology,  or  for  the  like 
branches  of  study  alone,  or  for  those  which  might  seem  most 
obviously  suggested  by  the  words  of  his  trust,  to  profit  ex- 
clusively by  it,  for  he  believed  that  every  department  of 
philosophy  (using  the  term  in  its  widest  sense)  would  be 
found  to  be  finally  connected  with  every  other,  through  this 
common  bond  of  union  ;  so  that  it  was  his  particular  desire 
to  have  such  varied  investigations  in  the  atmosphere  made  as 
would  aid  in  the  enlargement  of  each  and  all  of  these  aspects 
of  knowledge. 

Mr.  Hodgkins  brought  to  all  his  studies,  as  to  this,  a  very 
retentive  memory,  while  general  reading  and  travel  had 
stored  his  mind  with  singularly  varied  information.  He  was 
a  good  French  scholar  and  loved  to  quote  from  the  French 
classics.  His  catholicity  of  mind  was  sufficient  to  include  a 
not  inconsiderable  sense  of  humor,  and  his  favorite  quotation 
from  Boileau  pointed  to  his  consciousness  of  a  perhaps  too 
imagfinative  indulo^ence  in  his  favorite  themes.  He  was  a 
punctilious  correspondent,  and  what  it  is  not  too  much  to  call 
his  real  literary  ability  was  never  shown  more  happily  than  in 
his  letters,  which  were  in  many  respects  models  of  epistolary 
ease,  and  even  of  charm  of  diction.  He  was  hospitable  and 
enjoyed  entertaining  the  few  friends  whom  he  admitted  to  his 
table,  where  his  manner,  as  a  host  of  the  old  school,  was  a 
happy  one. 

Mr,  Hodgkins  had  no  family  and  no  known  blood  relations, 
and,  recognizing  the  difficulties  which  often  arise  over  the 
settlements  of  large  estates,  he  chose  to  be  his  own  executor 
rather  than  leave  the  disposition  of  his  affairs  to  those  who 
might  either  misinterpret  or  disregard  his  requests  when  he 
could  no  longer  appear  as  a  witness  in  his  own  behalf.     He, 


The  Benefactors  245 

therefore,  gave  away  his   entire  estate,   amounting  to  about 
half  a  milHon  dollars,  to  various  public  institutions. 

His  funeral  was  unostentatious,  as  he  requested  it  should 
be,  only  his  intimate  friends  attending.  Among  these  I  was 
numbered ;  for  while  I  felt  it  an  official  duty  to  represent  this 
Institution  at  the  funeral  of  one  to  whom  it  owed  so  much,  I 
was  there  also  from  a  feeling  of  real  friendship  and  regard  to 
an  old  man  whose  singular  powers,  whose  lonely  life,  and 
whose  —  perhaps  often  unmet — affection  had  drawn  me  to 
him  as  to  a  personal  friend.^ 

In  1894  a  bequest  was  received  from  Robert  Stanton  Avery, 
consisting  of  almost  all  of  his  small  estate,  to  establish  "the 
fund  constituted  by  Robert  S.  Avery  and  his  wife  Lydia  T. 
Avery  for  the  extension  of  the  sciences." 

Robert  Stanton  Avery  was  born  near  Preston,  Connecti- 
cut, May  I,  1808;  and  died  in  Washington  City,  September 
12,  1894.  After  spending  nearly  fifteen  years  in  teaching 
and  studying,  he  entered  Harvard  Divinity  School  and  was 
graduated  in  1846.  Failing  health  prevented  his  acceptance 
of  a  pastoral  charge,  and  while  settling  up  his  father's  estate 
he  began  the  study  of  the  mathematics  and  their  application  to 

1  The  Secretary  of  the  Smithsonian  Insti-  in  her  left  hand,  and  in  her  right  a  scroll  em- 

tution  issued  a  circular  on  March  31,  1893,  blematic  of  knowledge  and  the  words  "Per 

announcing  a  series  of  prizes  for  contribu-  Orbe/n"  while  the  reverse  is  adapted  from  the 

tions  to  knowledge  in  regard  to  the  nature  seal  of  the  Institution  as  designed  by  Augus- 

or  properties  of  atmospheric  air.     The  same  tus  St.  Gaudens,  the  map  of  the  world  being 

circular  announced   the  establishment   of  a  replaced  by  the  words  "Hodgkins  Medal." 

meiial  to  be  known  as  "  The  Hodgkins  Medal  No   impression  of  the  Hodgkins  medal  in 

of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,"  to  be  awarded  gold  has  as  yet  been  awarded,  but  four  im- 

"for  important  contributions    to  our  know-  pressions  in  silver  and  eight  in  bronze  were 

ledge  of  the  nature  and  properties  of  atmo-  awarded  to   successful  competitors    for   the 

spheric  air  or  for  practical  applications  of  our  Hodgkins  prizes.     In  future  the  medal  will 

existing  knowledge  of  them  to  the  welfare  be  awarded  from  time  to  time  as  some  grand 

of  mankind."     The  medal   itself — the   ob-  scientific  discovery  is  made  that  is  worthy  of 

verse  and  reverse  of  which  are  shown  in  the  such  recognition.     The  medals  were  struck 

accompanying  illustration — was  designed  by  at  the  French  Mint  in  Paris,  and  are  seven 

Monsieur  J.  C.  Chaplain,  of  Paris,  a  member  and   a  half  centimeters  in  diameter  (about 

of  tlie  French  Academy  and  one  of  the  most  three   inches),  and  the  gold  medal  was   to 

eminent  medalists  in  the  world.     It  bears  on  have  had  a  bullion  value  of  $240  to  $300. 
its  obverse  a  female  figure  carrying  a  torch 


246  The  Sniithsonian  Institution 

the  physical  sciences.  In  1853  he  received  an  appointment 
in  the  Coast  Survey,  and  was  assigned  to  the  reduction  and 
compilation  of  tide-tables,  becoming  after  several  promotions 
chief  of  the  tidal  division  of  the  Survey,  which  place  he  held 
until  1885,  when  he  resigned.  Subsequently  he  devoted  him- 
self to  the  preparation  of  school-books  designed  to  extend  the 
teaching  and  use  of  phonetic  spelling. 

Mr.  Avery's  property  lay  chiefly  in  real  estate  in  Wash- 
ington, which  has  still  to  be  disposed  of,  and  his  bequest  has 
not  yet  become  effective.  He  has  indicated  a  wish  that  it  may 
be  employed  partly  in  researches  connected  with  the  ether, 
as  well  as  in  the  printing  of  some  mathematical  tables. 


THE    SMITHSONIAN    BUILDING 
AND    GROUNDS 

By  George  Brown  Goode 


«-■ ^v^ 


^^HAT    the     Smithsonian    Institution,   before    it 


could    begin    active  operations,   must   have   a 


|;^|\0\  home  of  its  own  would  doubtless  have  been 
^=^^  regarded  as  a  necessity  by  any  one  consider- 
''^^^^^^^^^^  ing  the  requirements  of  the  future.  Richard 
Rush,  however,  appears  to  have  been  the  first  to  state  this 
idea  in  words,  which  he  did  in  a  letter  addressed  November 
6,  1838,  to  the  Secretary  of  State,  in  response  to  a  request 
of  the  President  for  suggestions  in  regard  to  the  proper 
manner  of  carrying  out  the  bequest. 

In  the  bill  prepared  by  John  Ouincy  Adams,  and  presented 
February  18,  1839,  it  was  provided  that  the  observatory, 
which  was  to  be  the  first  of  the  Smithsonian  buildings, 
should  be  erected,  under  the  direction  of  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury,  upon  land  belonging  to  the  United  States,  which, 
after  its  selection,  should  be  granted  for  the  purpose  and  con- 
veyed as  a  deed  of  gift  to  the  trustees  of  the  Smithsonian 
fund.  In  those  days  the  locality  known  as  Camp  Hill,  near 
the  banks  of  the  Potomac,  opposite  Analostan  Island,  near 
the  mouth  of  Rock  Creek,  seems  to  have  been  under  consid- 


247 


248  TJie  Smithsonian  Institution 

eration.  This  site  was  the  one  which  was  designated  by 
Washington  for  the  National  University,  and  reserved  for  that 
purpose  upon  the  original  plan  of  the  city.  It  was  subse- 
quently used  for  the  purpose  Mr.  Adams  had  in  mind, 
namely,  as  the  site  of  the  United  States  Naval  Observatory, 
a  building  for  which  was  erected  upon  it  in  1843-44,  and 
occupied  until  1893,  when  a  group  of  finer  structures  were 
built  upon  Georgetown  Heights. 

In  another  bill,  introduced  by  Lewis  F,  Linn  into  the  Sen- 
ate February  10,  1841,  the  whole  of  the  tract  known  as  the 
Mall  was  appropriated  for  the  uses  of  the  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tution, with  the  provision  that  the  buildings  should  be 
erected  in  accordance  with  the  plans  prepared  by  and  under 
the  supervision  of  the  National  Institution,  to  be  approved  by 
the  President  of  the  United  States. 

In  bills  introduced  into  the  Senate  in  June  and  December, 
1844,  by  the  Library  committee, —  Rufus  Choate,  Benjamin 
Tappan,  and  James  McP.  Berrien, —  appeared  the  first  defi- 
nite characterization  of  the  building,  which  was  to  be  plain 
and  durable,  without  unnecessary  ornament,  and  to  contain 
provisions  for  cabinets  of  natural  history  and  geology,  and 
for  a  library,  a  chemical  laboratory,  and  lecture-rooms.  This 
building  was  to  be  placed  upon  a  site  to  be  selected  in  that 
portion  of  the  Mall  lying  west  of  Seventh  Street.  The  cost 
was  at  that  time  limited  to  eighty  thousand  dollars.  In  1846, 
however,  the  bill  of  Doctor  Robert  Dale  Owen,  without 
change  of  phraseology  from  those  which  had  preceded  it 
in  re2"ard  to  location  and  character  of  the  structure,  was 
adopted,  but  the  limit  of  the  cost  was  increased,  and  $242,- 
129,  the  exact  amount  of  the  Smithsonian  interest  which  had 
at  that  time  accrued,  "  together  with  any  additional  interest 
which  might  remain  after  paying  the  current  expenses  of  the 
succeeding  years,"  was  designated  for  that  purpose. 


Building  and  Grounds  249 

After  the  present  site  had  been  selected,  there  appears  to 
have  been  some  dissatisfaction  in  regard  to  it ;  nor  is  this  to 
be  wondered  at,  since  at  that  time  the  Mall  was  remote  from 
the  inhabited  portion  of  the  city,  being  a  part  of  what  was 
then  known  as  "The  Island,"  now  called  South  Washington. 
This  portion  of  the  city  was  cut  off  by  an  old  and  unsightly 
canal,  running  to  the  Potomac,  and  crossed  by  simple  wooden 
bridges  at  four  points  between  the  Capitol  and  the  Potomac 
River.  It  was  unfenced  and  waste,  occupied  from  time  to 
time  by  military  encampments  and  by  traveling  showmen. 
After  the  completion  of  the  east  wing  in  1850,  when  the  first 
lectures  were  held  in  the  Institution,  the  Regents  were 
obliged  to  build  plank  walks  for  the  accommodation  of  visit- 
ors. Indeed,  with  the  exception  of  the  Capitol  grounds  and 
those  surrounding  the  Executive  Mansion,  the  open  places  in 
the  city  were  entirely  unimproved. 

Soon  after  the  selection  of  the  present  site,  the  question 
was  reconsidered  by  the  Board,  and  a  committee  appointed 
to  obtain,  if  possible,  another  location.  In  the  bill  as  it  finally 
passed  Congress,  permission  had  been  given  to  locate  the 
building  on  the  space  between  the  Patent  Office  and  Seventh 
Street,  now  occupied  by  the  building  used  for  the  offices  of 
the  Interior  Department.  This  was  partly  to  enable  the  Insti- 
tution to  utilize  for  its  collections  the  large  hall  in  the  Patent 
Office  then  assigned  to  the  "  National  Cabinet  of  Curiosi- 
ties," partly,  no  doubt,  to  secure  a  more  central  location.  To 
obtain  this  ground,  however,  it  was  necessary  to  have  the 
approval  of  the  President  of  the  United  States  and  other 
public  officials,  which  was  not  found  practicable.  The  Com- 
mittee fixed  upon  Judiciary  Square,  an  open  space  of  rough 
ground,  in  which  at  that  time  the  City  Hall  (a  portion  of 
the  present  structure),  the  Infirmary,  and  the  City  Jail 
were  located.  Though  the  adjoining  streets  were  entirely 
^7 


250  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

vacant,  this  site  was  regarded  as  much  more  accessible 
than    the    Mall. 

A  proposition  was  submitted  to  the  Common  Council  of 
the  City  of  Washington,  that  the  site  of  the  City  Hall  should 
be  resigned  for  the  use  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  upon 
its  offering  to  pay  to  the  city  $50,000,  a  sum  deemed  suffi- 
cient to  erect  a  building  for  the  use  of  the  city  government 
upon  the  site  south  of  Pennsylvania  Avenue,  between  Sev- 
enth and  Ninth  streets,  now  occupied  by  the  Center  Market. 
A  bill  was  introduced  into  Congress,  authorizing  the  Regents 
to  purchase  the  City  Hall,  but  the  Common  Council  refused 
to  consider  the  proposition,  and  the  site  of  the  Mall  was 
used. 

From  the  very  beginning  Doctor  Owen  was  the  chief  ad- 
vocate of  a  large  and  showy  building.  In  this  matter  he  was 
supported  by  the  sympathy  of  the  people  of  Washington, 
and  especially  Mr.  William  W.  Seaton,  Mayor  of  the  city  and 
one  of  the  Regents,  whose  interest  in  the  realization  of  the 
plan  of  Smithson  undoubtedly  did  much  at  last  to  secure 
action  from  Congress.  Outside  of  Washington,  there  was 
much  opposition  to  an  expensive  building,  owing  partly  to 
the  manner  in  which  the  bequest  of  Stephen  Girard  had 
been  rendered  for  many  years  inoperative  by  the  action  of  its 
trustees. 

Doctor  Owen  himself  was  earnest  in  his  denunciation  of 
such  abuses.  "  Of  the  noble  Girard  fund,"  said  he,  "three 
quarters  of  a  million  of  dollars  are  lost  forever,  and  though 
half  a  generation  has  passed  away  since  the  eccentric  Phila- 
delphian  died,  not  one  child  has  yet  reaped  the  benefit  of  his 
munificent  bequest.  A  temple  has,  indeed,  arisen  that  out- 
shines Greece  and  her  Parthenon  ;  its  sumptuous  Corinthian 
pillars,  each  one  costing  a  sum  that  would  have  endowed  a 
professorship,  are  the  admiration  of  beholders  and  the  boast 


Building  and  Grounds  251 

of  the  Quaker  City ;  but  years  must  yet  elapse  before  the 
first  son  of  indigence  can  ascend  the  steps  of  that  princely 
portico  and  sit  down  within  those  marble  halls  to  receive  the 
education  for  which  its  simple  and  unostentatious  founder 
sought  to  provide." 

Doctor  Owen,  nevertheless,  more  than  any  other  person  at 
that  time  concerned  in  the  establishment  of  the  Institution, 
seems  to  have  felt  that  much  of  its  future  success  depended 
upon  the  erection  of  a  building  which  should  perform  a  legit- 
imate duty  in  dignifying  and  making  conspicuous  the  work 
of  the  organization  to  which  it  belonged.  Scarcely  any  one 
can  doubt  that  Doctor  Owen  was  rio^ht  and  that  the  useful- 
ness  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  has  been  materially  aided 
by  the  fact  that  its  building  has  for  fifty  years  been  one  of  the 
chief  architectural  ornaments  of  the  national  capital. 

The  first  act  of  the  Regents,  after  appointing  the  commit- 
tees on  organization  and  library,  was  to  instruct  the  Chancel- 
lor, Secretary,  and  Executive  committee  to  obtain  plans  for 
the  erection  of  buildings.  Doctor  Owen,  Mr.  Hough,  and 
General  Totten,  on  behalf  of  this  committee,  visited  several 
of  the  principal  cities,  examined  their  prominent  public  build- 
ings, and  conferred  with  several  architects.  At  a  meeting 
on  November  30,  1846,  they  reported  that  out  of  thirteen 
plans  submitted  to  them  they  had  unanimously  selected  two, 
by  Mr.  James  Renwick,  Jr.,  of  New  York  City,  one  in  the 
decorative  Gothic  style,  the  other  in  Norman,  or  Lombard  ; 
the  latter  was  recommended  as  being  simpler  and  less  ornate.^ 

The  style  of  architecture  of  the  preferred  plan  is  that  of 

1  Both  of  these  plans  are  shown  in  per-  and  show  the  structure  as  it  was  before  the 

spective  in  Owen's  "  Hints  on  PubHc  Archi-  reconstruction  of  the  east  wing, 

lecture,"  the  Gothic  design  facing  page  99,  The  battleniented  cornices  were  not  pro- 

Ihe  Norman,  pages  104  and  io8.     The  draw-  vided  for  in  tlie  first  plans,  but  were  an  after- 

ings  of  the   accepted    plan   already  possess  thought,  it  having  been  found  by  experience 

some  antiquarian  interest,  since    they  were  that  too  much  of  the  roof  was  visible  from 

lithographed  from  drawings  by  the  architect,  the  city. 


252  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

the  last  half  of  the  twelfth  century ;  the  latest  variety  of  the 
rounded  style,  as  it  is  found  immediately  anterior  to  the 
merging  of  that  manner  in  the  early  Gothic.  In  the  general 
design  and  most  of  the  details  the  architect  adhered  to  the 
period  to  which  this  style  is  referable.  The  general  feeling, 
however,  which  permeates  the  design,  especially  in  the  upper 
towers,  is  that  of  a  somewhat  later  era,  when  all  lingering 
reminiscences  of  the  post  and  lintel  manner  had  been  dis- 
carded and  the  ruling  principles  of  arch  architecture  were 
recognized  and  carried  out.  The  semicircular  arch  stilted  is 
employed  throughout,  in  doors,  windows,  and  other  open- 
ings. The  windows  are  without  elaborately  traceried  heads. 
The  buttresses  are  not  a  prominent  feature  and  have  no  sur- 
mounting pinnacles.  The  weather-moldings  consist  of  cor- 
bel courses,  with  bold  projection.  The  towers  are  of  various 
shapes  and  sizes ;  and  the  main  entrance  from  the  north, 
sheltered  by  carriage  porch,  is  between  two  of  unequal 
height. 

The  design  originally  consisted  of  the  main  center  build- 
ing, two  stories  high,  and  two  wings,  of  a  single  story,  con- 
nected by  intervening  ranges,  each  of  these  latter  having,  on 
the  north,  or  principal  front,  a  cloister,  with  open  stone 
screen.^ 

The  extreme  length  of  the  building,  from  east  to  west,  is 
447  feet.  Its  greatest  breadth,  across  the  center  of  the  main 
building  and  towers,  and  including  the  carriage  porch,  is 
i6o  feet.  The  east  wing  is  82  by  52  feet;  the  west  wing, 
including  its  projecting  apse,  is  84  by  40  feet,  and  38  feet 
high ;  and  each  of  the  connecting  ranges  is  60  by  49  feet. 
The  main  building  is  205  by  57  feet,  and,  to  the  top  of  its 
corbel  course,  58  feet  high. 

1  The  east  wing  has  since  been  entirely  disappeared,  whde  in  the  west  connecting 
rebuilt,  and  the  connecting  range  being  now  range  it  has  been  inclosed  to  form  a  ]iart  of 
four  stories  high,  the  cloister  at  this  end  has       the  Iniilding. 


Building  and  Grounds  253 

The  main  building  has  in  the  center  of  its  north  front  two 
towers,  of  which  the  higher  reaches  an  elevation  of  145  feet. 
On  its  south  front  it  has  a  single  massive  tower,  2)1  ^^^t 
square,  including  buttresses,  and  91  feet  high.  On  its  north- 
east corner  stands  a  double  campanile,  1 7  feet  square,  and 
measuring  to  the  top  of  its  finial  1 17  feet  high.  At  its  south- 
west corner  is  an  octagonal  tower  finished  with  open-work 
in  its  upper  portion ;  and  at  its  southwest  and  northwest 
corners  are  two  smaller  towers.  There  are  nine  towers  in 
all,  including  a  small  one  at  each  wing. 

In  concluding  his  description  of  the  plan  given  in  "  Hints 
on  Public  Architecture,"  Doctor  Owen  writes  : 

"I  am  not  acquainted  with  any  actual  example  yet  remain- 
ing from  what  has  been  variously  called  the  Lombard,  the 
Norman,  the  Romanesque,  and  the  Byzantine  school,  with 
which  the  Smithsonian  building  will  not  favorably  compare. 
In  so  far  as  the  architect  has  permitted  himself  to  innovate 
upon  ancient  precedents  from  the  style  in  which  he  designed, 
he  has  done  so,  in  my  judgment,  with  discretion  and  advan- 
tage. ...  I  esteem  myself  fortunate  in  being  able  in  this 
book  to  refer  to  an  actual  example,  at  our  seat  of  govern- 
ment, the  architect  of  which  seems  to  me  to  have  struck  into 
the  right  road,  to  have  made  a  step  in  advance,  and  to  have 
given  us  in  his  design  not  a  little  of  what  may  be  fitting  and 
appropriate  in  any  manner  (should  the  genius  of  our  country 
hereafter  work  out  such)  that  shall  deserve  to  be  named  as  a 
National  Style  of  Architecture  for  America." 

In  compliance  with  the  requirements  of  the  organizing  law, 
the  building  contained  provision  for  objects  of  natural  history 
and  a  geological  and  mineralogical  cabinet,  a  chemical  labo- 
ratory and  library,  and  gallery  of  art,  and  lecture-rooms. 

A  building  committee  of  three  was  appointed,  consisting  of 
Doctor  Robert  Dale  Owen,  wdio  acted  as  chairman,  Mayor 
17* 


2  54  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

William  W.  Seaton,  and  General  J.  G.  Totten/  This  com- 
mittee, having  been  empowered  to  enter  into  contracts  for  the 
completion  of  the  building,  began  its  sessions  February  1 7, 
1847,  and  within  thirty  days  had  decided  upon  the  materials 
to  be  used,  and  awarded  the  contract  for  building. 

It  was  at  first  intended  that  the  plan  should  be  executed 
in  white  marble.  The  quarries  at  Cockeysville,  Maryland, 
whence  was  procured  the  stone  used  in  building  the  Wash- 
ington Monument,  were  carefully  examined  with  this  in  view. 
Other  quarries  and  materials  were  also  considered,  and  about 
twenty- five  different  samples  were  tested  with  reference  to 
their  weathering  qualities  by  Professor  Charles  G.  Page. 
Doctor  David  Dale  Owen,  of  Indiana,  was  invited  to  Wash- 
ington to  make  surveys  of  the  marble  quarries  in  Baltimore 
County,  and  the  sandstone  quarries  in  Montgomery  County, 
Maryland.  Doctor  Owen  reported  that  the  brown  freestone 
obtained  in  the  neighborhood  of  Seneca  Creek,  on  the  Poto- 
mac river,  about  twenty-one  and  a  half  miles  from  Washing- 
ton, was  of  great  beauty  and  durability,  and  he  strongly  re- 
commended its  use.  This  was  found  to  be  attended  with  so 
much  economy  that  it  was  finally  decided  upon  ;  the  offer 
of  the  lowest  bidder  for  construction  having  been  $205,250 
for  the  building  in  Seneca  ashlar,  while  white  marble  ashlar 
would  have  cost  $23,000  more. 

The  journal  of  the  building  committee  for  the  year  shows 
that  between  February  17  and  November  26  it  held  forty-one 
meetings.  Its  transactions  are  reported  with  great  minute- 
ness in  the  appendix  to  the  second  report  of  the  Board  of 
Regents  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,'  and  also  in  the  vol- 

1  During  General  Totten's  absence  in  Mex-  Smithsonian  Institution,  January  6,  1848; 
ico  in  the  early  part  of  the  year,  his  place  ThirtiethCongress,  First  Session,  Senate  Mis- 
upon  the  committee  was  taken  by  Mr.  Wil-  cellaneous  Document,  No.  23.  The  report  of 
liam  J.  Hough.  the  building  Committee  is  contained  in  tliis 

2  Report  of  the  Board  of  Regents  of  the  volume  and  forms  pages  4-156.    This  report 


Building  and  G7'ottnds  255 

lime  entitled  "  Hints  on  Public  Architecture,"  which  was  pre- 
pared by  Doctor  Owen,  with  the  assistance  of  Mr.  Renwick, 
and  was  one  of  the  earliest  oublications  of  the  Institution. 

The  actual  location  of  the  building"  was  determined  March 
20,  1847,  t)y  a  resolution  of  the  committee  that  it  should  be 
placed  "upon  the  center  of  the  lot,  or  site,  of  the  said  Institu- 
tion, from  north  to  south,  and  upon  the  center  of  Tenth  Street." 

On  May  i,  1847,  the  corner-stone  of  the  building  was  laid 
with  imposing-  ceremonies.  The  event  was  made  the  occasion 
of  a  public  holiday.  A  procession  was  formed  at  City  Hall, 
under  the  direction  of  William  Beverly  Randolph,  Marshal-in- 
Chief  The  procession,  which  was  more  than  a  mile  in  length, 
was  composed  of  the  militia  of  the  District  of  Columbia,  the 
various  local  Lodges  of  Free  and  Accepted  Masons,  together 
with  delegations  of  Masons  from  Baltimore,  the  District  of 
Columbia,  and  Alexandria,  and  marched  to  tlie  music  of  three 
military  bands.  The  column  moved  along  F  Street  to  the 
Executive  Mansion,  where  the  President  and  his  cabinet,  the 
heads  of  Departments  and  the  Diplomatic  Corps  were  re- 
ceived in  line.  It  then  proceeded  by  the  way  of  Pennsylvania 
Avenue  and  Twelfth  Street  to  the  site  of  the  building.  A 
platform  was  erected  on  the  south  side  of  the  site,  and  to  this 
the  high  officials,  the  Regents  of  the  Institution,  the  Mayor 
and  Corporation  of  Washington,  and  other  guests  were  es- 
corted. The  Masonic  bodies  then  passed  up  to  the  corner- 
stone, which  was  laid  by  the  Grand  Master  of  the  District  of 
Columbia,  Mr.  Benjamin  B.  French,  accompanied  by  Colonel 
James  Page  and  Mr.  Charles  Gilman,  Grand  Masters  of 
Pennsylvania  and  Maryland.  Mr.  French  held  in  his  hand 
the  gavel  used  by  President  Washington  in  laying  the  corner- 
stone of  the  Capitol  of  the  United  States,  and  wore  the  Ma- 
is not  included  in  the  first  five  reports  of  the  "  nals  of  the  Board  of  Regents,  Reports  ol 
Institution,  issued  in  iS52,and  but  few  copies  Committee,"  etc.,  by  William  J.  Rhees,  Wash, 
are  in  existence.     It  is  reprinted  in  '•  Jouin-       ington,  1879,  pages  597-695. 


256  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

sonic  apron  presented  to  Washington  by  tlie  Grand  Lodge 
of  France  through  General  Lafayette,  also  worn  by  Wash- 
ington on  the  earlier  occasion.  A  prayer  was  offered  up 
by  Grand  Chaplain  Mcjilton,  of  the  Grand  Lodge  of 
Maryland. 

An  address  was  delivered  by  Chancellor  Dallas  and  a 
national  salute  was  fired  by  the  Columbia  artillery,  while  the 
band  played  a  national  air.  Benediction  was  then  pro- 
nounced by  the  Reverend  French  S.  Evans,  "and  thus," 
writes  a  witness,  "were  concluded  the  ceremonies  of  the 
day,  which  were  witnessed  by  at  least  six  or  seven  thousand 
persons."^ 

Although  the  time  estimated  as  necessary  for  the  comple- 
tion of  the  building  was  five  years,  considerable  progress  had 
been  made  before  the  end  of  1847.  The  work  was  carried 
on  under  the  superintendence  of  James  Renwick,  Jr.,  the 
architect,  and  of  Robert  Mills,  assistant  architect. 

In  April,  1849,  the  east  wing  of  the  building  was  ready  for 
occupation  by  the  Secretary  and  his  staff,  and  before  the 
end  of  the  year  the  west  wing  was  also  completed  and  was 
being  temporarily  fitted  for  occupation  by  the  library. 

During  the  year  1850  the  work  continued  on  the  interior 
of  the  center  building,  but  as  the  committee  had  adopted  a 
resolution,  "directing  the  interior  of  the  center  building  to 
be  constructed  in  fire-proof,  and  that  the  time  be  extended 
until  the  accumulating  interest  would  be  sufficient  to  meet 
the  additional  expense,"  the  completion  of  the  building  pro- 
ceeded very  slowly.  As  far  as  the  employment  of  fire-proof 
material  was  concerned,  the  committee  wisely  argued  that 
the  additional  cost  would  be  repaid  by  the  permanence  of  the 

1  Second  Annual   Report,  pages  132-143,  Smithsonian  Institution,   May  I,  1847,"  by 

where  the  address  of  the  Chancellor  is  given.  George  M.  Dallas,  Chancellor  of  the  Institu- 

It  was  reprinted  as  "Address  delivered  on  tion.     Washington:  Printed  at  office  of  Blair 

occasion  of  Laying  the  Cornerstone  of  the  &  Rives.  1847,  October.     Pages  1-8. 


BMilding  and  Grounds  257 

building-,  and  the  perfect  security  that  would  be  afforded  to 
the  valuable  collection  that  would  be  preserved  in  that  por- 
tion of  the  building".  It  was  hoped  that  the  towers  would 
be  finished  and  roofed  in  during  the  winter,  but  this  unfor- 
tunately proved  impossible. 

The  construction  of  the  interior  of  the  main  building  was 
continued  during  1852,  and  the  materials  used  were  fire- 
proof. 

It  was  during  this  year  that  the  contract  between  the 
Board  of  Regents  and  the  builder  was  declared  completed  by 
the  architect.  This  included  the  finishing  of  the  exterior  of 
the  entire  building,  the  interior  of  the  exterior  wings  and 
connecting  ranges,  and  the  interior  of  the  towers,  leaving 
the  whole  interior  of  the  main  building  to  be  finished.  This 
covered  a  space  200  feet  long  by  50  feet  wide  and  about  60 
feet  hieh,  to  be  divided  into  a  basement  and  two  stories.  The 
valuable  services  of  Mr.  Renwick  were  discontinued,  and 
Captain  Barton  S.  Alexander,  of  the  United  States  Engineer 
Corps,  was  detailed  to  take  charge  of  the  construction.  Cap- 
tain Alexander  promptly  prepared  plans  for  the  completion 
of  the  work.  The  consideration  of  these  and  the  procuring 
of  estimates  required  some  time,  so  that  the  new  work  did 
not  begin  until  June  13,  1853. 

In  the  Report  for  1853  the  building  committee  reported  that 
the  roof  had  been  temporarily  secured,  the  wooden  frame- 
work which  had  occupied  the  interior  of  the  building  re- 
moved, and  that  an  excavation  had  been  made  for  a  cellar. 
It  was  further  reported  that  the  foundation  walls,  piers,  and 
arches  of  a  large  basement  had  been  completed ;  piers  built 
in  the  main  story,  and,  in  fact,  about  nine-tenths  of  the  brick- 
work finished  as  well,  leaving  as  unfinished  work  the  neces- 
sary stairways  for  lecture-room  and  gallery,  the  supporting 
of  the  roof  in  such  a  manner  as  to  do  away  with  the  columns 


258  The  Sinithsonian  Institution 

in  the  second  story,  flooring,  plastering-,  and  painting  to  com- 
plete the  interior  finish,  and  providing  seats  for  the  lecture- 
room. 

According  to  the  Report  of  the  committee  for  1855,  it  would 
appear  that  early  in  the  year  the  edifice  was  completed,  and 
the  final  report  of  the  architect  approved  by  the  committee. 

As  various  changes  were  made  in  the  original  plan,  the 
following  brief  description  of  interior  arrangements  will  not 
be  inappropriate.  The  interior  of  the  east  wing  was  sepa- 
rated into  two  stories,  the  upper  of  which  was  divided  into  a 
suite  of  rooms  for  the  accommodation  of  the  family  of  the 
Secretary ;  the  lower  story  comprised  principally  a  large 
single  room,  appropriated  to  the  storage  of  publications  and 
the  reception  and  distribution  of  books  connected  with  the 
system  of  exchange.  The  upper  story  of  the  eastern  con- 
necting range  was  divided  into  a  number  of  small  apartments 
devoted  to  the  operations  in  natural  history,  and  the  lower 
story  was  fitted  up  as  a  working  laboratory. 

The  interior  of  the  main  edifice,  200  feet  long  by  50  feet 
wide,  consists  of  two  stories  and  a  basement.  The  upper 
story  was  divided  into  a  lecture-room  capable  of  holding  two 
thousand  persons;  and  into  two  additional  rooms,  one  on 
either  side,  each  50  feet  square,  one  of  which  was  appropri- 
ated to  a  museum  of  apparatus,  and  the  other  at  that  time  to  a 
gallery  of  art.  Both  were  occasionally  used  as  minor  lecture- 
rooms  and  for  the  meetings  of  scientific,  educational,  or  in- 
dustrial associations.  The  lower  story  of  the  main  building 
consisted  of  one  large  hall  for  a  museum  or  a  library.  It 
was  unoccupied  at  first,  but  was  used,  as  the  means  were 
provided  for  furnishing  it,  with  proper  cases  for  the  exhibi- 
tion of  natural  history  and  other  collections.  The  basement 
of  this  portion  of  the  building  was  used  as  a  lumber-room 
and  as  a  receptacle  for  fuel. 


TTIE   SMITIISONIAJSr   BUILDING 


258  .   ...stituti'-^'^ 

tering,  and  painting  t- 
iMM  providing  seats  for  the  Ic^*:' 

nittee  for  1855,  it 
ice  was  compi 
t  of  t  hv  the  commi 

original   '^^ 
fo  ments  w 

ate.  oi  the  east  wing  was  sepa- 

into  two  stories,  the  upper  of  which  was  divided  in 
'^or  the  accommodation  of  ^he  fami- , 

^■"^'  i.^ed    principally  a    ictigc 

iblications  - 


),  and  the  lo\vti 
itorv. 
ce,  200  feet  long  by  50 
ement.     The  u] 
'tnrv  was  divided  into  a  lecture-room  capable  of  holding 

"•"^    persoiia,    cind  into   two   additional  rooms,  one  ui; 
50  feet  square,  one  of  which  was  appro- 
ad  the  other  at  that  time 

minor  lecture- 


were 

prov 

rinn  of  Thr  basen: 

M    tills  )er-ro^ji.i 

■      IS 


.TJ 


6Titd::mrrf"m:t7iOHnTTM8  ariT 


Building  mid  Grounds  259 

The  west  wing  was  occupied  as  a  library  and  was  suffi- 
ciently large  to  accommodate  all  the  books  that  were  received 
during  the  ten  years  following  its  completion. 

The  principal  towers  were  divided  into  stories,  and  thus 
furnished  a  large  number  of  rooms  of  different  sizes,  which 
came  in  time  into  use  in  the  varied  operations  of  the  Institu- 
tion. A  large  room  in  the  main  south  tower  was  appro- 
priated to  the  meetings  of  the  Establishment  and  the  Board 
of  Regents ;  three  rooms  in  one  range,  in  the  main  front 
towers,  were  used  as  offices ;  and  two  rooms  below,  in  the 
same  towers,  were  used  for  drawing,  engraving,  and  work- 
shops. There  were  in  the  whole  building,  of  all  sizes,  ninety 
different  apartments,  of  which  eight  were  of  a  large  size,  and 
were  intended  for  public  exhibitions. 

In  order  that  the  principal  of  the  Smithsonian  fund  should 
not  be  encroached  upon  for  building  purposes,  it  was  neces- 
sary, as  has  been  shown,  to  proceed  slowly,  and  this  proved 
of  further  advantage,  for,  to  quote  Secretary  Henry: 

"The  delay  in  finishing  the  building  has  not  only  been 
attended  with  advantao-e  in  husbandino-  the  funds,  but  also 
in  allowing  a  more  complete  adaptation  of  the  interior  to 
the  purposes  of  the  Institution.  It  is  surely  better,  in  the 
construction  of  such  an  edifice,  to  imitate  the  example  of 
the  mollusk,  who,  in  fashioning  his  shell,  adapts  it  to  the 
form  and  dimensions  of  his  body,  rather  than  that  of  an- 
other animal  who  forces  himself  into  a  house  intended  for 
a  different  occupant.  The  first  point  to  be  settled,  in  com- 
mencing a  building,  is  the  uses  to  which  it  is  to  be  applied. 
This,  however,  could  not  be  definitely  ascertained  at  the 
beginning  of  the  Institution,  and  hence  the  next  wisest  step 
to  that  of  not  commencing  to  build  immediately  was  to 
defer  the  completion  of  the  structure  until  the  plan  of 
operations  and  the  wants  of  the  Establishment  were  more 
precisely    known," 


26o  The  Smith  soman  Institution 

In  1857  the  building  committee  reported  that  the  object  for 
which  they  had  been  appointed  might  be  considered  accom- 
pHshed,  although  a  large  portion  of  the  interior  of  the  edifice 
was  still  unfinished.  Thereafter  the  building  was  carried  on 
very  slowly,  and  for  some  time  only  a  very  few  workmen  were 
employed  on  its  construction. 

The  expenses  for  furnishing  the  interior,  including  the 
alcoves  and  galleries  for  books  in  the  library,  as  well  as  the 
cases  for  the  specimens  in  the  museum,  were  defrayed  by  a 
special  appropriation  from  Congress.  The  building  com- 
mittee was  continued  in  charge  of  such  matters,  although  no 
formal  report  was  made  between  1857  and  1866. 

On  January  4,  1865,  a  fire  occurred  in  the  Smithsonian 
building  which  destroyed  the  roof  and  all  of  the  interior  of  the 
upper  story  of  the  main  portion  of  the  edifice,  the  interior  of 
the  two  large  north  towers  and  also  of  the  large  south  tower. 
Fortunately,  the  loss  to  the  Institution  was  not  very  great, 
although  the  burning  of  the  roof  of  the  main  building  caused 
the  destruction  of  the  contents  of  the  second-story  rooms 
immediately  beneath  it,  and  also  those  of  the  three  principal 
towers  adjacent.  Besides  the  official  correspondence  and  other 
papers,  and  the  duplicate  copies  of  published  documents,  the 
personal  effects  of  Smithson,  including  numerous  manuscripts 
written  by  himself,  were  almost  entirely  destroyed.  The 
apparatus  presented  by  Doctor  Robert  Hare,  the  lens  used 
by  Priestley  in  the  evolution  of  oxygen,  and  many  other  pieces 
of  apparatus  in  the  collection  were  seriously  damaged,  but  not 
sufficiently  to  prevent  their  restoration.  The  most  important 
loss  was  the  destruction  of  a  large  collection  of  paintings  be- 
longing to  Mr.  J.  M.  Stanley,  but  as  these  were  his  personal 
property  and  not  insured,  the  loss  fell  on  him. 

The  first  steps  toward  the  reconstruction  of  the  building 
was  to  secure  the  services  of  a  competent  person  as  architect 


Building  and  Grounds  261 

and  engineer  to  prepare  the  plans  and  superintend  the  work. 
F'or  this  purpose  Mr.  Adolph  Cluss  was  employed,  under 
the  direction  of  a  building  committee  consisting  of  Richard 
Delaficld,  Richard  Wallach,  and  Joseph  Henry.  He  made  a 
critical  survey  of  the  building  to  ascertain  the  actual  state  of 
the  walls  and  to  determine  what  parts  it  was  necessary  first 
to  repair.  This  survey  revealed  the  fact  that  the  original  con- 
struction was  defective,  and  in  many  respects  the  building  was 
unsuited  as  a  repository  for  records  and  other  valuable  arti- 
cles. In  consequence  it  was  determined  to  not  only  restore 
the  ravages  made  by  the  fire,  but  also  to  rebuild  the  defective 
parts  so  as  to  render  the  building  thoroughly  fire-proof  and 
entirely  stable  both  as  regards  material  and  mode  of  construc- 
tion. The  expense  of  this  reconstruction  was  estimated  to 
be  about  $150,000,  and  the  building  operations  were  con- 
tinued until  1867,  during  the  summer  of  which  year  the 
building  was  again  ready  for  occupancy. 

Since  that  date  changes  have  been  made  from  time  to 
time  in  accordance  with  the  requirements  of  the  Institution. 
Of  these  perhaps  the  most  important  have  been  the  transfer 
of  the  executive  offices  to  the  east  wing  of  the  building,  for- 
merly occupied  by  Secretary  Henry  as  his  private  residence, 
and  the  reconstruction  of  this  wing  and  the  connecting  range 
in  1884,  whereby  more  commodious  quarters  were  secured. 

In  1880-81  the  growth  of  the  museum  compelled  the 
erection  of  an  annex  building,  to  contain  the  overflow  of  the 
collections;  and  an  appropriation  of  $250,000  was  made  by 
Congress  and  a  simple  structure  of  brick,  iron,  and  glass  was 
built  close  to  the  Smithsonian  building,  upon  the  southeast. 
This  building  is  entirely  devoid  of  architectural  pretensions, 
and  does  not  require  many  words  of  description.  It  should 
be  stated,  however,  that  the  object  of  the  building  committee 
having  it  in  charge  was  to  obtain  the  largest  possible  amount 


262  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

of  space  with  the  very  limited  appropriation.  The  plan  was 
designed  by  General  Montgomery  C.  Meigs,  U.  S.  A.,  well 
known  as  an  engineer  and  as  the  superintendent  of  the  ex- 
tension of  the  United  States  Capitol,  aided  by  Adolph  Cluss, 
by  whom  the  plans  were  drawn  and  the  structure  superin- 
tended. The  building  is  300  feet  square  and  one  story  in 
height,  with  pavilions  three  stories  high  at  each  corner,  and 
in  the  center  of  each  side.  In  addition  to  the  seventeen  ex- 
hibition halls,  there  are  in  the  pavilion  160  rooms  for  offices 
and  workshops.  The  amount  of  floor  space  available  for 
exhibition  purposes  is  90,000  feet,  the  cost  for  each  square 
foot  having  been  less  than  $2.50.  Notwithstanding  the  ex- 
treme economy  of  the  structure,  which  has  cost  less  than 
25  per  cent,  as  much  for  the  accommodation  afforded  as  any 
other  permanent  building  ever  erected,  it  was  completed  for 
less  than  the  amount  of  the  appropriation,  and  a  small  balance 
recovered  into  the  treasury.  The  floors  are  laid  directly 
upon  the  earth,  and  the  building  is  absolutely  without  base- 
ment rooms.  There  is  thus  no  opportunity  for  work  rooms 
and  store  rooms,  which  is  a  most  serious  defect.  In  other 
respects,  however,  as  the  experience  of  15  years  has  demon- 
strated, the  building  is  admirably  suited  for  its  purposes,  and 
has  been  much  more  useful  than  many  far  more  pretentious 
and  costly  structures. 

In  1890  a  small  structure  for  an  astrophysical  observatory 
was  erected  on  the  grounds  immediately  south  of  the  Smith- 
sonian building  and  a  description  of  it,  together  with  the 
ground  plan  showing  the  location  of  the  principal  instruments, 
is  given  in  the  chapter  on  the  Astrophysical  Observatory. 

The  grounds  were  first  laid  out  under  the  directions  of  the 
Regents  in  1849,  and  planted  with  trees  and  shrubs,  com- 
prising about  one  hundred  and  fifty  species,  chiefly  Amer- 
ican, and  were  inclosed  in  a  hedge  of  Pyrocanthus,  Osage 


Building  and  Grounds  263 

Orange,  and  Cherokee  Rose,  and  ornamental  gateways  gave 
access  to  the  grounds  from  the  adjoining  streets. 

The  original  planting  was  soon  replaced,  however,  by  a 
more  elaborate  system,  designed  by  Andrew  J.  Downing, 
who  was  invited  by  President  Fillmore  to  lay  out  the  entire 
Mall,  from  the  Capitol  to  the  river.  This  plan  is  the  one 
still  in  use,  although  the  untimely  death  of  its  designer  inter- 
fered with  its  proper  execution,  since  many  trees  planted  for 
temporary  purposes  were  allowed  to  remain,  and  to  injure 
or  destroy  more  hardy  species,  intended  to  be  permanent  in 
the  final  effect.  The  conception  was,  however,  one  of  the 
most  successful  of  all  ever  carried  out  by  Mr.  Downing,  and 
has  done  much  to  perpetuate  his  fame  as  the  earliest  and  one 
of  the  greatest  of  American  landscape  gardeners.  His  mem- 
ory is  honored  by  a  monument  in  the  form  of  a  marble  vase^ 
which  stands  in  these  (grounds  northeast  of  the  Smithsonian 
building.  It  is  about  200  feet  east  of  the  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tution and  about  640  feet  north. 

A  bronze  statue  of  Professor  Henry,  by  William  W.  Story, 
was  ordered  by  provision  of  Congress  enacted  in  1880,  and 
was  erected  in  the  Smithsonian  grounds  about  one  hundred 
and  fifty  feet  to  the  northwest  of  the  building.  The  statue 
was  unveiled  on  April  19,  1883,  at  the  time  of  the  annual 
meeting  of  the  National  Academy  of  Sciences,  on  which  oc- 
casion a  brief  address  by  Chief  Justice  Waite  was  delivered, 
in  which  he  said,  "llie  statue  which  will  now  be  unveiled  has 

1  The  design  for  this  memorial  was  made  On  the  base  of  the  pedestal  are  the  follow- 

by  Calvert  Vaux,  who  for  many  years  was       ing  words  : 
Mr.  Downing's  associate  in  business.     Its  "THT9    AfFMORT\T 

execution  was   by  Robert   Launitz,  a   well-  ,,,  .  j       j  i  »•  j    . 

•'  '  Was  erected  under  a  resolution  passed  at 

known  sculptor.     On   the  front  side  of  the  t>i  -i  a  ^   ^  • 

"  rhiladelphia, 

monument  is  the  following  inscription :  .    ^     .     .o,,   i     .1 

^  ^  in  Sept.,  I052,  by  the 

"  This  vase  American  Pomological  Society, 

Was  erected  by  his  Friends  of  which  Mr.  Downing  was  one  of  the 

IN  MEMORY  OF  Original  founders." 

Andrew  Jackson  Downing, 

Who  died  July  28,  1852,  aged  37  years." 


264 


The  Smithsonimi  Institution 


been  erected  by  the  United  States  as  a  token  of  gratitude  for 
the  labors  of  his  useful  life,  and  for  his  faithful  administration 
of  the  important  public  trust  so  long  in  his  keeping." 

Subsequent  to  the  unveiling  an  oration  was  delivered  by 
President  Noah  Porter,  of  Yale  College.^ 

1  A  full  report  of  the  proceedings  is  given  in  the  Smithsonian  Report,  1883,  page  17. 


THE    SMITHSONIAN    LIBRARY 


By  Cyrus  Adler 


^)HE  SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION  is  a 
world  institution  ;  its  funds  are  held  in  trust 
by  the  government  of  the  United  States  for 
the  benefit  of  all  men  ;  its  influence,  spread 
''52£:2^^^^^5^  as  it  is  throughout  the  world,  cannot  be 
readily  seen,  nor  counted,  nor  measured.  In  spite  of  the 
evidences  of  its  work  in  the  promotion  of  science,  through 
the  publications,  the  Museum,  the  Bureau  of  Exchanges,  the 
Bureau  of  Ethnology,  the  Astrophysical  Observatory,  and 
its  other  well-known  agencies,  no  one  acquainted  with  its  in- 
ner working  can  doubt  that  all  of  these  put  together  represent 
but  a  fractional  part  of  its  share  in  the  intellectual  activities 
of  the  world.  Of  no  department  is  this  statement  so  true  as 
of  the  library. 

The  idea  of  the  formation  of  the  library  may  be  said  to  be 
contemporaneous  with  the  first  announcement  of  the  Smith - 
son  bequest,  and  to  antedate  the  establishment  of  the  Institu- 
tion itself  In  all  the  discussions  in  Conofress  relatinsf  to  the 
utilization  of  the  bequest,  the  idea  of  a  library  played  a  promi- 
nent part.  In  the  Twenty-sixth  Congress  (1839-41)  a  bill 
was  introduced   "  to  provide   for   the   disposal   and   manage- 

18  ==^5 


266  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

ment  of  the  fund  bequeathed  by  James  Smithson  to  the 
United  States."  This  bill  would  have  appropriated  the  larger 
part  of  the  sum  for  the  establishment  of  an  astronomical  ob- 
servatory, but  even  with  this  as  the  main  purpose,  it  included 
the  following  items : 

"For  the  library,  one  year,  $30,000;  $10,000  for  the  first 
supply;  $20,000  for  a  fund  for  an  income  of  $1,200  a  year, 
for  a  constant  supply  of  new  works  and  periodical  publications 
upon  science  in  other  parts  of  the  world,  or  in  America." 

Senator  Choate,  of  Massachusetts,  strongly  advocated  the 
use  of  a  large  part  of  the  fund  for  library  purposes.  In  a 
speech  delivered  on  January  8,  1845,  ^^  said: 

"We  cannot  do  a  safer,  surer,  more  unexceptionable  thing 
with  the  income,  or  with  a  portion  of  the  income  —  perhaps 
twenty  thousand  dollars  a  year  for  a  few  years  —  than  to 
expend  it  in  accumulating  a  grand  and  noble  public  library 
—  one  which,  for  variety,  extent,  and  wealth,  shall  be,  and 
be  confessed  to  be,  equal  to  any  now  in  the  world." 

At  the  conclusion  of  his  speech,  Mr.  Choate  moved  to 
amend  the  bill  under  consideration  by  the  insertion  of  the 
following  clause : 

"And  whereas,  an  ample  and  well-selected  public  library 
constitutes  one  of  the  permanent,  constant,  and  effectual 
means  of  increasing  and  diffusing  knowledge  among  men  ; 
therefore,  be  it  further  enacted  that  a  sum  not  less  than 
$20,000  be  annually  expended,  of  the  interest  of  the  fund 
aforesaid,  in  the  purchase  of  books  and  manuscripts  for  the 
formation  of  a  library  of  the  institution  aforesaid,  which,  for 
its  extent,  variety,  and  value,  shall  be  worthy  of  the  donor  of 
the  said  fund,  and  of  this  nation,  and  of  the  age." 

On  January  9,  1845,  ^^  debate  in  the  Senate  was  resumed. 


The  Smithsonian  Library  267 

The  first  section  of  the  bill  contained  the  followino-  clause : 


t> 


"  Provided,  That  the  books  to  be  purchased  for  said  institu- 
tion shall  consist  of  works  on  science  and  the  arts,  especially- 
such  as  relate  to  the  ordinary  business  of  life,  and  to  the 
various  mechanical  and  other  improvements  and  discoveries 
which  may  be  made." 

Mr.  Choate  moved  to  strike  out  this  proviso  "to  avoid  a 
premature  decision  on  the  point  at  issue  as  to  the  plan  of 
a  general  library,  or  a  special  one  limited  to  works  on  physi- 
cal science." 

Senator  Tappan,  of  Ohio,  opposed  the  motion.  "  He 
argued  that  a  library  limited  to  the  works  on  sciences  and 
the  arts,  specified  in  the  proviso,  would  be  the  only  suitable 
and  appropriate  library  for  the  institution." 

Senator  Pearce,  of  Maryland,  agreed  with  Mr.  Choate  and 
desired  that  the  Institution  should  become  a  "complete  na- 
tional library." 

Mr.  Choate's  resolution  to  strike  out  the  provision  finally 
prevailed. 

Mr.  Choate  next  moved  to  strike  out  the  eighth  section, 
and  to  substitute  the  amendment  given  above. 

Senator  Crittenden,  of  Kentucky,  moved  to  add  a  proviso 
limiting  the  classes  of  books  which  might  be  purchased. 

"  Mr.  Choate  argfued  that  this  limitation  was  not  onlv  un- 
necessary,  but  would  most  certainly  prove  injurious.  It  was 
unnecessary,  because  no  national  library,  such  as  he  contem- 
plated, and  such  as  he  hoped  the  Senate  would  authorize, 
could  be  made  complete  without  every  one  of  the  works  on 
science  and  the  arts  which  the  Senators  for  Ohio  and  Ken- 
tucky could  possibly  desire." 

Senator  Rives,  of  Virginia,  thought  "if  we  were  to  have  a 
library  at  all  to  carry  out  this  great  object,  it  really  seemed 


268  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

to  him  that  the  Hbrary  ought  to  be  coextensive  with  the 
Hmits  of  human  knowledge." 

Senator  Niles,  of  Connecticut,  "  did  not  think  it  came 
within  the  purpose  of  the  donation  to  establish  a  great  na- 
tional library.  If  the  donor  thought  that  the  best  way  of 
increasing  and  diffusing  knowledge  among  men,  he  would 
have  enjoined  the  establishment  of  such  a  library." 

Mr.  Tappan  moved  an  amendment  to  add  "$91,862  out 
of  the  interest  due,  to  the  original  fund,  so  that  the  invest- 
ment should  be  $600,000." 

"  Mr.  Choate  objected  to  this  as,  in  effect,  cutting  off  the 
means  for  establishing  a  national  library." 

The  amendment  was  rejected. 

The  bill  was  recommitted  to  the  Committee  on  Library, 
which  on  January  21,  1845,  reported  a  new  bill.  It  provided 
for  a  building  "for  the  reception  of  an  extensive  library,  equal 
to  the  first-class  libraries  in  the  world." 

"An  annual  expenditure  of  not  less  than  $20,000  out  of 
the  interest  of  the  fund  is  authorized  to  be  made  in  the  pur- 
chase of  books  and  manuscripts  for  the  library  of  the  institu- 
tion, which  library  is  to  comprehend  in  due  proportion,  with- 
out preference  or  exclusion  of  any  branch  of  knowledge, 
works  pertaining  to  all  the  departments  of  human  knowledge, 
as  well  as  physical  science,  and  the  application  of  science  to 
the  arts  of  life,  as  all  other  sciences,  philosophy,  history, 
literature,  and  art ;  and  for  its  extent,  variety,  and  value,  said 
library  shall  be  worthy  of  the  donor  of  the  fund,  and  of  this 
nation  and  the  age.  The  managers  to  employ  a  librarian 
and  assistants,  and  to  fix  their  salaries ;  also  to  prescribe  the 
regulations  under  which  the  library  shall  be  kept,  visited  and 
used." 

Senator  Buchanan,  of  Pennsylvania,  said  he  "had  arrived 
at  the  conclusion  that  the  best  mode  of  distributinof  this  fund 
was  by  the  purchase  of  a  great  library." 


The  Sinithsonian  Library  269 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  Senator  Choate,  who  believed 
most  strongly  in  the  establishment  of  a  great  library  in  the 
United  States,  was  a  determined  advocate  of  employing  the 
Smithson  bequest  in  this  manner.  He  actually  succeeded  in 
having  adopted  by  the  Senate  of  the  United  States,  on  Jan- 
uary 23,  1845,  the  bill  concerning  the  provision  of  which  the 
foregoing  is  a  discussion, — in  effect,  to  devote  the  greater  part 
of  the  income  arising  from  the  bequest  to  the  establishment  of 
a  library.  This  bill  failed  of  passage  in  the  House,  and  was 
referred  to  in  later  debates  as  "the  library  plan." 

The  leading  spirits  in  the  Senate  would  have  devoted  the 
larger  part  of  the  fund  to  a  library.  The  members  of  the 
House  interested  in  the  matter  were  opposed  to  this  plan. 
Mr.  Robert  Dale  Owen,  of  Indiana,  in  a  debate  on  April  22, 
1846,  after  reviewing  the  discussion  in  the  Senate,  introduced 
a  bill  which  allowed  an  expenditure  of  $10,000  a  year  for  books. 
He  argued  against  the  attempt  to  make  a  general  library. 
He  asserted  that  Smithson's  tastes  were  scientific,  and  not 
antiquarian,  and  that  had  he  desired  to  found  a  great  librar)- 
he  would  have  said  so.  Mr.  Ingersoll  and  some  other  mem- 
bers of  the  House  agreed  with  Mr.  Owen  in  his  objection  to 
the  establishment  of  a  great  library,  while  Mr.  Stanton,  of 
Ohio,  thought  "that  the  annual  appropriation  of  $10,000  for 
the  gradual  formation  of  a  library  might  have  been  limited 
to  a  smaller  amount."  "The  library  plan,"  however,  had 
friends  as  well  as  opponents  in  the  House.  Mr.  George  P. 
Marsh,  of  Vermont,  on  April  23,  1846,  in  speaking  of  the  pro- 
vision for  the  annual  expenditure  of  $10,000  a  year  for  the 
library,  said:  "I  consider  this  the  most  valuable  feature  of 
the  plan,  though  I  think  the  amount  unwisely  restricted." 
And  he  proceeded  to  argue  at  great  length  in  favor  of  a 
general  library.  He  also  moved  several  amendments,  all 
with  a  view,  as  he  said,  to  direct  the  appropriations  entirely 
18* 


270  The  Smithsonian  Institntion 

to  the  purposes  of  a  library.  Mr.  Owen  argued,  in  reply,  that 
a  library  might  diffuse  knowledge,  but  would  not  increase  it. 
One  of  the  ideas  which  was  broached  during  these  discus- 
sions was  that  the  library  should  be  peripatetic. 

The  Act  which  finally  passed  establishing  the  Smithsonian 
Institution  was  in  effect  a  compromise  between  the  views 
urged  in  the  Senate  and  in  the  House ;  for  whereas  a  library 
was  mentioned  as  but  one  of  the  objects  of  the  Institution, 
yet  Section  8  of  this  Act  expressly  provides  for  a  library  in 
the  following  terms : 

"The  said  Regents  shall  make,  from  the  interest  of  the 
said  fund,  an  appropriation,  not  exceeding  an  average  of 
twenty-five  thousand  dollars  annually,  for  the  gradual  forma- 
tion of  a  library,  composed  of  valuable  works  pertaining  to 
all  departments  of  human  knowledge." 

At  the  second  meeting  of  the  Board  of  Regents,  held  on 
September  8,  1846,  a  committee  of  three,  appointed  to  digest 
a  plan,  reported  a  scheme  which  was  adopted  by  the  Board  on 
January  25,  1847. 

This  report  practically  recommended  that  half  of  the  income 
be  set  aside  for  a  library  and  museum,  and  that  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution  become  a  center  of  bibliographical  informa- 
tion for  the  entire  country.  The  report  fully  expresses  the 
aim  of  the  Institution  with  regard  to  its  own  library,  and 
the  other  libraries  of  the  country.  It  begins  with  a  state- 
ment that  the  proposition  that  the  building  about  to  be 
erected  should  contain  library  room  sufficient  to  receive 
one  hundred  thousand  volumes  was  made  rather  in  the  spirit 
of  the  charter  and  against  the  deliberate  conviction  of  the 
committee,   and  then  proceeds  as  follows : 

"  But,  without  a  vast  accumulation  of  books  in  this  metrop- 
olis,   your    committee    conceive    that    the    Librarian    of  the 


The  Smithsonian  Library  271 

Smithsonian  Institution  may,  under  a  proper  system,  become 
a  centre  of  literary  and  bibliographical  reference  for  our  en- 
tire country.  Your  committee  recommend  that  the  librarian 
be  instructed  to  procure  catalogues,  written  or  printed,  of  all 
important  public  libraries  in  the  United  States,  and  also,  in 
proportion  as  they  can  be  obtained,  printed  catalogues  of  the 
principal  libraries  in  Europe,  and  the  more  important  works 
on  bibliography.  With  these  beside  him,  he  may  be  consulted 
by  the  scholar,  the  student,  the  author,  the  historian,  from 
every  section  of  the  Union,  and  will  be  prepared  to  inform 
them  whether  any  works  they  may  desire  to  examine  are  to 
be  found  in  the  United  States,  and,  if  so,  in  what  library  ;  or, 
if  in  Europe  only,  in  what  country  of  Europe  they  must  be 
sought.  Informed  by  these  catalogues,  it  will  be  easy,  and 
your  committee  think  desirable,  for  those  who  may  be  charged 
with  the  selection  of  books,  to  make  the  Smithsonian  Library 
chiefly  a  supplemental  one ;  to  purchase,  for  the  most  part, 
valuable  works,  which  are  not  to  be  found  elsewhere  in  the 
Union ;  thus  carrying  out  the  principle  to  which  your  com- 
mittee has  already  alluded  as  influencing  all  their  recommen- 
dations, that  it  is  expedient,  as  far  as  may  be,  to  occupy 
untenanted  ground. 

"Exceptions  to  this  rule  must  here,  of  course,  be  made;  as 
in  the  case  of  standard  works  of  reference  required  for  the 
immediate  purposes  of  the  institution,  and  also  of  the  very 
numerous  works,  many  of  current  science,  which,  by  a  proper 
system  of  exchanges,  we  may  procure  without  purchase.  In 
this  latter  connection,  the  Transactions  and  Reports  of  the 
institution  will  obtain  for  us  valuable  returns." 

In  all  the  early  discussions  of  the  Board  of  Regents  the 
library  received  the  fullest  consideration.  Indeed,  one  of  the 
first  definite  acts  of  that  body  was  a  resolution  passed  at  its 
third  meeting,  September  9,  1846: 

"  That  the  Secretary  be  requested,  without  unnecessary  de- 
lay, to  collect,  on  behalf  of  the  institution,  all  the  documents. 


272  The  Smithsonian  Instihition 

Congressional  and  others,  connected  with  the  history  of  the 
Smithsonian  bequest,  and  of  its  legislation,  and  cause  them 
to  be  substantially  bound,  as  a  commencement  of  its  library." 

In  a  letter  written  by  Professor  Charles  C.  Jewett  to  Pro- 
fessor Henry,  the  former  proposed  that  the  library  should 
consist  of  three  classes  of  books ;  first,  those  which  may  be 
immediately  needed  in  the  scientific  department;  second,  the 
bibliographical  works  and  descriptions,  histories,  and  cata- 
logues of  similar  institutions;  third,  a  general  collection  con- 
sisting of  memoirs,  transactions,  and  journals  of  the  learned 
societies  of  Europe  and  America.  "  These  three  classes  of 
books,"  he  says,  "will  form  a  library  quite  unique,  and  one 
of  great  utility."  There  were  other  details  of  Professor 
Jewett's  plan  which  will  be  referred  to  later. 

These  various  ideas  were  reduced  to  form  in  the  program 
of  organization  presented  to  the  Board  of  Regents  by  Profes- 
sor Henry  on  December  8,  1847,  the  following  portions  of 
which  relate  to  the  library. 

"  To  carry  out  the  plan  before  described,  a  library  will  be 
required,  consisting,  ist,  of  a  complete  collection  of  the  trans- 
actions and  proceedings  of  all  the  learned  societies  in  the 
world ;  2d,  of  the  more  important  current  periodical  publica- 
tions, and  other  works  necessary  in  preparing  the  periodical 
reports. 

"  With  reference  to  the  collection  of  books,  other  than  those 
mentioned  above,  catalogues  of  all  the  different  libraries  in 
the  United  States  should  be  procured,  in  order  that  the  valu- 
able books  first  purchased  maybe  such  as  are  not  to  be  found 
in  the  United  States. 

"Also  catalogues  of  memoirs,  and  of  books  in  foreign  libra- 
ries, and  other  materials,  should  be  collected  for  rendering 
the  institution  a  centre  of  bibliographical  knowledge,  whence 
the  student  may  be  directed  to  any  work  which  he  may 
require." 


7 he  Smithsonian  Library  273 

Professor  Henry  submitted  this  plan  of  organization  in 
advance  to  a  number  of  learned  societies  and  individuals 
throughout  the  country  for  their  criticism  ;  and  among  the  re- 
plies the  following,  from  the  American  Academy  of  Arts  and 
Sciences  at  Boston,  is  of  unusual  interest.  This  reply  was 
signed  by  Edward  Everett,  Jared  Sparks,  Benjamin  Pierce, 
Henry  Wadsworth  Longfellow,  and  Asa  Gray.      It  stated: 

"A  library  is  one  of  the  objects  contemplated  in  the  act  of 
Congress  establishing  the  Board  for  the  management  of  the 
trust.  It  is  requisite  for  carrying  out  the  plan  above  proposed. 
At  the  same  time  it  will  be  observed  that  the  distribution  by 
exchange  of  the  publications,  which  that  scheme  of  operations 
will  call  into  existence,  will  rapidly  provide  the  Institution, 
without  farther  expense,  with  the  class  of  works,  often  of  a 
costly  character,  which  are  most  directly  important  as  the 
means  of  advancing  and  diffusing  positive  knowledge.  It  is 
accordingly  in  these  that  the  Secretary  proposes  to  lay  the 
foundations  of  the  library;  forming,  ist,  a  complete  collection 
of  the  Transactions  and  Proceedings  of  all  the  learned  socie- 
ties in  the  world;  and,  2d,  a  similar  collection  of  all  the  current 
periodical  publications,  and  other  works  necessary  in  prepar- 
ing the  contemplated  periodical  reports.  .  .  .  Such  a  library 
as  the  plan  proposes  may  be  fairly  regarded  as  an  impor- 
tant instrument  for  the  increase  and  diffusion  of  knowledofe." 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that,  with  very  slight  dissent,  all  the 
persons  concerned  in  the  early  conduct  of  the  Institution, — 
the  members  of  Congress,  the  Regents,  Professor  Henry,  and 
Professor  Jewett, — concurred  in  the  idea  that  the  library 
should  be,  first,  a  library  of  science,  and  second,  a  collection 
of  catalogues  and  bibliographical  apparatus.  While  it  may 
be  said  that  portions  of  the  original  plan  have,  by  force  of 
circumstance,  been  somewhat  modified,  the  most  important 
has  never  been  deviated  from  : 


2  74 


The  Smithsonian  Institittion 


"To  procure  a  complete  collection  of  the  memoirs  and 
transactions  of  learned  societies  throughout  the  world,  and  an 
entire  series  of  the  most  important  scientific  and  literary 
periodicals." 


This  may  be  said,  in  brief,  to  have  been  the  policy  of  the 
Institution,  with  regard  to  its  library,  from  the  beginning  to 
the  present  day ;  although  while  making  this  its  primary 
object  the  Institution  has  acquired  many  valuable  works 
other  than  serials  and  journals,  in  almost  every  department 
of  human  knowledge. 

The  first  librarian  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  was 
Charles  C.  Jewett,  who  was  nominated  Assistant  Secretary 
acting  as  Librarian,  by  the  Secretary,  which  nomination 
was  approved  at  a  meeting  of  the  Board  of  Regents  held 
on  January  21,  1847. 

While  it  is  beyond  the  purpose  of  this  chapter  to  discuss 
the  personnel  of  the  library  of  the  Institution,  Mr.  Jewett  is 
so  unique  a  figure  in  the  history  of  library  work  in  America, 
and  so  much  of  his  activity  in  behalf  of  the  libraries  of  the 
country  is  contemporaneous  with  his  stay  in  the  Institution, 
that  a  brief  reference  to  him  is  essential.^ 

Charles  Coffin  Jewett  was  born  in  Lebanon,  Maine,  on 
August  12,  18 16.  He  studied  in  the  Latin  School  in  Salem, 
Massachusetts,  and  entered  Dartmouth  College  in  1831, 
leaving  it  in  his  sophomore  year  for  Brown  University,  and 
graduating  in  1835.  For  two  years  (1835  to  1837)  he  was 
principal  of  the  Academy  in    Uxbridge,    Massachusetts.      In 


1  The  first  biographical  sketch  of  Professor 
Jewett  was  a  brief  address  by  Doctor  Reuben 
Guild,  printed  in  the  Providence  Evening 
Press,  Friday,  February  lo,  1868,  two  days 
after  Mr.  Jewett's  death.  This  notice  was 
reprinted  in  Providence,  in  octavo  form,  and 
also  in  the  "Smithsonian  Report"  for  1867, 
page  128.     The  most  extended  notice  was 


also  by  Doctor  Guild,  being  a  memorial 
sketch  of  Professor  Jewett,  published  in  The 
Library  Journal,  Volume  XII,  November, 
1887,  pages  507-511.  See  also  "Historical 
Catalogue  of  Brown  University,"  Providence, 
R.  I.  (1764-1894),  Providence,  1895,  page 
116;  N'e'iv  England  Historical a7id  Genealogi- 
cal Register,'^  oXvane.  XXII,  1868,  page  365. 


The  Smithsonian  Library  275 

1838  he  received  the  degree  of  Master  of  Arts  from  Brown 
University,  and  in  1840  was  graduated  at  the  Andover  Theo- 
logical Seminary.  He  had  devoted  himself  more  especially 
to  philology,  Oriental  languages,  and  antiquities ;  and  had 
made  a  plan  for  extended  travels  through  the  East. 

"He  was  unexpectedly  delayed  in  the  accomplishment  of 
this  plan  by  the  misdirection  of  a  letter,  and  that  apparently 
slight  circumstance  determined  his  subsequent  course,  and 
gave  complexion  to  all  his  after  life."  ^ 

While  pursuing  his  theological  course  in  Andover  he  as- 
sisted in  the  arrangement  of  the  library  and  the  preparation 
of  its  catalogue.  From  1840  to  1841  he  was  the  principal  of 
Day's  Academy  in  Wrentham,  Massachusetts. 

Brown  University  had  been  for  some  time  making  an  effort 
to  increase  its  library,  and  the  Honorable  Nicholas  Brown 
had  erected  a  special  building  for  a  library  and  chapel.  It 
had  been  the  custom  for  a  member  of  the  faculty,  in  addition 
to  his  teaching  functions,  to  take  charge  of  the  library,  but 
this  plan  was  found  unsatisfactory,  and  on  October  7,  1841, 
the  Board  of  Trustees  passed  a  resolution  that  "  Mr.  Charles 
C.  Jewett,  of  Salem,  Massachusetts,  be  employed,  under  the 
direction  of  the  library  committee,  to  make  out  a  new  and 
approved  catalogue  of  the  University  library." 

This  catalogue  was  completed  and  published  in  the  autumn 
of  1843.  It  consists  of  two  parts,  a  descriptive  catalogue  of 
the  works  in  the  library  and  an  index  of  subjects,  and  at  once 
brought  Mr.  Jewett  into  favorable  notice,  being  declared  "so 
original  and  intrinsically  valuable,  that  it  at  once  placed  him 
at  the  head  of  the  bibliographers  of  this  country."-  In  1843 
Mr.  Jewett  was  appointed  professor  of  modern  languages  and 

1  New  England  Historical  and  Genealogical  Register,  Volume  XXII,  1868,  page  365. 

2  Ibidem. 


276  The  Smithsonian  Instittition 

literature  in  Brown  University,  a  place  which  he  held,  as  well 
as  that  of  librarian,  until  1848.  His  appointment  was  made 
with  the  understanding  that  he  should  have  the  opportunity 
of  traveling  for  the  purpose  of  familiarizing  himself  with  the 
modern  languages,  and  of  making  the  acquaintance  of  libra- 
rians and  library  methods  abroad.  During  this  time  he  also 
purchased  for  the  Brown  University  Library  a  collection  of 
7,000  books,  which  still  forms  one  of  the  most  choice  por- 
tions of  that  valuable  library. 

As  stated  before.  Professor  Jewett  was  appointed  assistant 
secretary  and  librarian  by  Professor  Henry  in  1847,  but  it 
was  some  little  time  before  he  actively  began  the  work  ol 
collecting  books.  Meanwhile,  he  formed  various  projects 
which  were  of  high  importance  for  the  development  of  Ameri- 
can libraries.  His  ideas  as  to  the  proper  functions  of  the 
Smithsonian  Institution  in  library  and  bibliographical  work 
entirely  coincided  with  those  of  Professor  Henry,  and  he 
early  made  an  attempt  to  secure  a  complete  catalogue  of 
all  the  libraries  in  the  United  States.  The  method  that 
he  proposed  was  to  secure  two,  or  even  three,  copies  of  the 
printed  catalogues  of  the  various  libraries,  to  supplement 
these  by  manuscript  copies,  and  to  make  in  this  way  a  cat- 
alogue on  slips,  or  cards,  of  all  the  libraries  in  the  United 
States.  It  was  this  activity,  and  the  correspondence  which 
it  occasioned,  that  brought  about  the  publication  of  his 
"Notices  of  Public  Libraries  in  the  United  States  of  America" 
by  the  Smithsonian  Institution  in  1851,  which  was  "the  pi- 
oneer attempt  to  give  a  description  of  all  our  libraries."^ 

1  "Public  Libraries  in  the  United  States  States,  and  British  Provinces  of  North  Amer- 

of  America."    Special  Report  of  the  Bureau  ica."     Philadelphia,  J.  B.  Lippincott  &  Co., 

of  Education.    Washington,  1876,  page  xviii.  1859.     The  various  reports  of  the    Bureau 

A  most  useful  elaboration  of  this  work  was  of  Education  as  to  the  libraries  in  this  coun- 

published  in   1859  by  Mr.  W.  J.  Rliees,  un-  try  are  its  legitimate  successors.     See  also 

der  the  title  "  Manual  of  Public   Libraries,  The    Library   Journal,  Volume    xi,     1886, 

Listitutions,   and    Societies    in    the    United  page  199. 


The  Sinithsonian  Library  277 

Speaking  of  this  publication  Professor  Henry  said  : 

"The  Report  on  the  statistics  of  Libraries  of  the  United 
States,  prepared  by  Professor  Jewett,  has  been  ordered  to  be 
printed  by  Congress,  as  an  appendix  to  the  Regents'  Report. 
A  sufficient  number  of  extra  copies  will  be  presented  to  the 
Institution,  for  distribution  to  all  the  libraries  from  which 
statistical  information  was  received.  It  forms  a  volume  of 
about  two  hundred  and  twenty-five  pages,  and  will,  I  am  sure, 
be  considered  an  important  contribution  to  Bibliographical 
Statistics."  ^ 

"This  report  is  intended  merely  as  a  beginning,  to  be 
followed  by  others  on  the  same  subject.  It  has  been  sent  to 
all  the  libraries  of  the  United  States,  with  the  request  that  its 
deficiencies  may  be  pointed  out  and  additional  materials  fur- 
nished to  render  it  more  perfect.  The  great  interest  which 
is  felt  in  this  work  is  manifested  by  the  amount  of  statistical 
information  which  has  already  been  received  and  returned 
for  the  copies  distributed."^ 

Professor  Jewett  had  begun  already  in  1849,  as  a  prelimin- 
ary to  his  plan  of  making  a  general  catalogue  of  books  in  the 
United  States,  to  prepare  a  catalogue  of  all  the  books  in 
the  libraries  of  Washington  ;  and  much  progress  was  made. 
Meanwhile,  his  plan  for  forming  a  general  catalogue  of  the 
libraries  of  the  United  States  was  being  carried  on  in  con- 
junction with  another  plan,  that  of  furnishing  catalogues 
by  a  cheap  and  satisfactory  process  to  individual  libraries. 
Professor  Jewett  was  of  the  opinion  that  the  printing  of  cata- 
logues of  American  libraries,  most  of  which  were  repetitions 
of  titles  already  printed,  was  a  great  waste  of  money  and 
effort.  He,  therefore,  proposed  the  plan  of  printing  these 
catalogues  by   preparing   a  set  of  stereotyped   titles,  which 

1 "  Smithsonian  Report,"  1850,  page  14. 
2  Professor  Henry  in  "  Smithsonian  Report,"  1851,  page  14. 


278  The  Smithsonian  Institutiori 

were  to  be  under  the  control  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution, 
but  at  the  disposal  of  any  librarian  upon  application.  This 
plan  he  had  already  worked  out  in  1847,  and  had  communi- 
cated it  to  Mr.  Henry  Stevens  before  the  latter  went  abroad. 
He  first  proposed  it  in  public  at  the  fourth  meeting  of  the 
American  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  held 
in  1850;  and  later  described  it  more  at  length  in  a  pamphlet 
issued  by  the  Institution,  entitled  "  On  the  Construction  of 
Catalogues  of  Libraries  and  a  General  Catalogue,  and  their 
Publication  by  Means  of  Separate  Stereotyped  Titles."  A 
second  and  enlarged  edition  of  this  pamphlet,  with  quite  a 
number  of  changes,  was  published  in   1853. 

It  will  be  seen  by  a  study  of  the  rules  drawn  up  by  Pro- 
fessor Jewett,  as  well  as  by  an  examination  of  the  specimens 
which  accompanied  the  reports,  that  he  is  entitled  to  the 
credit  of  having  paved  the  way  for  the  valuable  work  in 
scientific  bibliography  to  which  so  many  of  our  countrymen 
have  since  contributed,  and  which  is  now  assuming  so  great 
an  importance  to  the  learned  men  of  the  world.  His  description 
of  a  book  is  most  accurate ;  a  publication  was  to  him  as  much 
an  object  of  careful  study  as  is  a  natural  history  specimen  to 
a  naturalist.  His  annotations  were  of  great  value  and  made 
with  the  most  exact  discrimination.  He  was,  it  is  true,  pre- 
paring catalogues  and  not  bibliographies,  and  himself  drew  a 
careful  distinction  between  these  two  classes  of  works.  Yet 
he  felt  that  the  library  catalogue  should  give  some  of  the 
information  which  was  in  theory  appropriate  only  to  the  bib- 
liographical dictionary. 

The  scheme  attracted  at  the  time  most  favorable  notice. 
In  accordance  with  a  rule  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  it 
was  referred  to  a  commission,  consisting  of  Edward  Everett, 
Charles  Folsom,  librarian  of  the  Boston  Athenaeum;  Joseph 
G.  Cogswell,  superintendent  of  the   Astor  Library;    George 


The  Smithsonian  Library.  279 

Livermore,  of  Boston ;  Samuel  F.  Haven,  librarian  of  the 
American  Antiquarian  Society,  and  Edward  Everett  Hale. 
This  commission  made  a  report  favorable  to  the  scheme, 
reserving-,  however,  an  opinion  as  to  the  merits  of  a  new 
system  of  electrotyping  which  had  been  proposed  as  the 
more  economical. 

This  plan  of  Professor  Jewett  has  continued  to  meet  with 
the  commendation  of  librarians  and  bibliographers.  Sabin  ^ 
describes  it  as  "a  well  written  summary  of  all  that  has  been 
done  towards  solving  this  difficult  subject.  Librarians  and 
private  collectors  will  find  in  it  many  valuable  practical 
hints."     Mr.  Charles  A.  Cutter  says  :  ^ 

"Mr.  Jewett's  plan  for  a  general  catalogue  of  all  the  libra- 
ries in  the  country  is  well  known.  Something  might  have 
been  done  by  the  aid  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  of  which 
he  was  then  librarian  ;  but  as  the  directors  resolutely  con- 
fined their  efforts  to  the  propagation  of  science,  and  as  there 
was  at  that  time  no  other  national  organization  sufficiently 
strong  to  move  in  the  matter,  the  plan  came  to  nothing.  It 
has  been  often  mentioned  since,  in  terms  of  regret  and  long- 
ing; but  no  one  has  had  the  courage  or  seen  the  way  clear 
to  make  any  definite  proposal." 

Doctor  William  F.  Poole,  at  the  Milwaukee  conference  of 
the  American  Library  Association  in  1886,  spoke  of  Professor 
Jewett's  "rules"  as  a  simplification  and  improvement  on  the 
plan  then  employed  at  the  British  Museum.     He  said  further: 

"  Another  project  he  was  much  interested  in  at  the  time ; 
and  it  was  highly  creditable  to  his  enterprise  and  ingenuity. 
It  is  an  honest  attempt  to  lessen  the  cost  of  printing  elabo- 
rate catalogues,  which  were  then,  and  are  now,  absorbing 
funds  which  ought  to  be  expended  in  books." 


1"  Bibliotheca  Americana,"  Volume  ix,  1877,  page  268. 
2  The  Library  Journal,  Volume  I,  1877,  page  220;  see  also  Volume  xiii,  18S8,  page  107. 


28o  The  Sniifhsonian  Institution 

Mr.  George  Watson  Cole  ^  says  : 

"We  shall  come  back  to  Professor  Jewett's  ideas  upon 
these  points  as  being  in  all  respects  the  most  satisfactory. 
The  recent  revival  of  his  method  of  printing  by  separate 
stereotyped  titles,  by  the  Publishers  Weekly,  attests  the 
soundness  of  his  judgment." 

The  experiments  with  materials  continued,  the  plan  receiv- 
ing the  heartiest  support  and  approval,  both  on  the  part  of 
the  Secretary  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  and  the  Board 
of  Recrents.  Inasmuch  as  the  Institution  had  not  then  a  suffi- 
ciently  large  library  on  which  an  experiment  could  be  made, 
it  was  decided  that  it  would  be  advisable  to  attempt  to  pub- 
lish a  catalogue  of  the  Library  of  Congress  upon  this  plan, 
and  the  Secretary  and  the  Regents  called  the  attention  of  the 
Library  Committee  of  Congress  to  the  matter.  Congress 
promptly  appropriated  $3,000  to  begin  the  preparation  of  a 
catalogue  of  its  library  on  the  plan  proposed  by  Professor 
Jewett.  The  work  was  immediately  begun,  and  in  1853 
Professor  Jewett  reported  that  upwards  of  6,000  volumes  had 
already  been  catalogued. 

It  has  frequently  been  asked  what  became  of  this  plan. 
No  better  description  has  ever  been  given  of  the  causes  of 
its  failure  than  that  of  Doctor  Poole  before  the  American 
Library  Association  in  1886.     He  said: 

"The  material  he  [Jewett]  used  was  a  sort  of  clay  from 
Indiana.  Congress  made  an  appropriation  for  executing  the 
plan.  I  recollect  that  the  librarians  of  the  country  generally 
favored  it,  and  that  I  did  not.  I  remember  that  I  spoke  of  it 
at  the  time  as  '  Professor  Jewett's  mud  catalogue.'  My  views 
concerning  it  were  based  on  some  practical  knowledge  of 
legitimate  typography,  and  from  specimens  of  the  work  which 

l"The  Future  of  Cataloguing,"  The  Library  Journal,  Volume  xv,  1890,  page  174. 


The  Smithsonian  Library  281 

Professor  Jewett  exhibited.^  ....  It  failed  ....  from  me- 
chanical defects  in  the  process, —  the  shrinking  and  warping 
of  the  blocks  in  baking,  and  the  intractable  nature  of  the 
material  when  baked,  which  made  the  exact  adjustment  of 
the  blocks  on  the  press  impossible.  ...  It  is  not  necessary, 
to  be  a  successful  man,  that  one  should  be  successful  in  every- 
thing he  undertakes.  Errors,  mistakes,  and  blunders  even, 
mark  the  path  of  all  the  great  inventors,  and  the  benefactors 
of  the  race.  One  who  was  so  full  of  resources  and  expedi- 
ents in  library  economy  as  Professor  Jewett  could  afford  to 
make  an  erroneous  judgment  on  the  process  of  using  baked 
clay  in  typography." 

The  first  conference  of  librarians  which  ever  assembled  in 
the  world  was  held  in  the  city  of  New  York,  in  1853.  Of 
this  convention  Professor  Jewett  was,  says  Doctor  Guild, 
"to  my  certain  knowledge  the  prime  mover."  He  was  the 
president  of  the  convention,  and  upon  its  adjournment  was 
appointed  the  chairman  of  its  executive  committee,  and  its 
reassembling  was  made  subject  to  his  call.  The  convention 
met  on  September  15,  1853,  and  was  in  session  for  three 
days.     In  speaking  of  this  conference  Doctor  Poole  said: 

"  Professor  Jewett  was  the  leading  spirit  in  the  call  and 
management  of  the  convention,  and  its  President.  Indeed, 
he  may  justly  be  ranked  as  the  ablest  and  most  zealous  of  the 
early  American  reformers  in  the  methods  of  library  manage- 
ment." "The  convention  of  1853  ....  made  a  lasting  im- 
pression on  the  minds  of  all  the  librarians  who  were  present, 
and  must  be  regarded  as  an  era  in  American  bibliography." 

Sir  Anthony  Panizzi,  the  distinguished  librarian  of  the 
British  Museum,  was  invited  to  be  present  by  Professor 
Jewett,  and  we  learn  from  his  "Life  and  Correspondence," 

1  See  also  "  Some  Notes  on  Co-operative  or  Labor-Saving  Methods  of  Printing  Library 
Catalogues,"  by  A.  Growoll,  The  Library  Journal,  V o\\kme.  xill,  l888,  page  280. 

19 


282  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

by  Louis  Fagan,  that  though  he  earnestly  desired  to  accept 
this  invitation,  he  was  unable  to  attend.  He  writes  to  Mr. 
Haywood,  July  21,  1853  : 

"As  to  my  going  anywhere,  I  have  to  tell  you  of  a  dream 
which  I  should  like  to  become  a  reality.  There  is  going  to 
be  a  congress  of  librarians  in  the  United  States,  which  is  to 
open  on  the  fifteenth  of  September  next,  and  where  all  the 
great  questions  connected  with  the  management  of  a  great 
library  are  to  be  discussed,  and  uniform  principles  adopted 
....  They  wish  me  to  go,  and  I  should  like  it  amazingly  ; 
but  the  expense  is  too  heavy.  I  will  try,  if  possible,  to  get 
enough  from  the  trustees.  Do  you  think  it  possible,  in  case 
of  my  going,  that,  if  the  packet  is  not  full,  I  might  have  a 
cabin  to  myself? " 

As  bearing  on  Professor  Jewett's  own  plans,  this  conven- 
tion adopted  the  following  resolutions : 

'^Resolved,  That  the  thanks  of  this  convention  be  presented 
to  the  Board  of  Regfents  and  officers  of  the  Smithsonian  In- 
stitution  for  their  steady  and  effective  efforts  for  the  increase 
and  diffusion  of  knowledge  among  men  ;  and  particularly  for 
the  measures  which  they  have  adopted  for  the  encourage- 
ment and  promotion  of  the  public  libraries  of  our  country." 

''Resolved,  That  we  have  considered  attentively  the  plan 
for  constructing  catalogues  of  libraries,  and  a  general  cata- 
logue of  the  public  libraries  of  the  United  States,  by  means 
of  separate  stereotype  titles,  originated  and  prepared  by  Pro- 
fessor C.  C.  Jewett,  and  developed  by  him  while  librarian  of 
the  Smithsonian  Institution.  That  we  regard  it  as  an  object 
of  high  importance  to  the  interests  of  our  public  libraries,  and 
to  the  promotion  of  learning,  and  worthy  to  share  in  the 
funds  of  the  Institution  and  the  zealous  exertions  of  its  offi- 
cers ;  the  more  so  as  it  is  an  enterprise  which  cannot  be 
successfully  prosecuted,  except  under  the  guidance,  protec- 
tion, and  pecuniary  support  of  this  central  establishment  for 
the  increase  and  diffusion  of  knowledpfe. 


The  Smith so7tiaji  Library  283 

^'Resolved,  That  we  have  learned  with  pleasure  that  Con- 
gress, on  the  recommendation  of  the  library  committee,  made 
an  appropriation  for  the  practical  testing  of  the  plan  in  its 
application  to  the  Library  of  Congress,  and  that  the  work  is 
now  in  successful  progress." 

In  1855  a  difference  of  opinion  between  Professor  Henry 
and  Professor  Jewett  caused  the  latter's  retirement  from  the 
Institution.  Both  Doctor  Guild  and  Doctor  Poole  expressed 
the  opinion  that  Professor  Jewett's  retirement  represented 
the  culmination  of  a  struggle  between  science  and  literature, 
in  which  science  prevailed.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  say  that 
a  struoftrle  between  science  and  literature  would  in  no  wise 
involve  the  question  of  a  library.  Science  has  much  greater 
need  of  books  than  has  literature;  under  the  conditions  which 
prevail  among  scientific  investigators  of  the  present  day,  and 
even  of  the  earlier  day,  collections  of  books  were  absolutely 
essential  for  the  prosecution  of  their  studies.  It  was  not  so 
much  a  question  of  policy  as  it  was  a  question  of  administra- 
tion which  occasioned  the  retirement  of  Professor  Jewett. 

His  name  will  always  be  held  in  grateful  remembrance  at 
the  Smithsonian  Institution,  as  it  is  among  all  the  librarians 
of  America.  The  Institution  has  more  than  carried  out  the 
idea  of  the  establishment  of  a  great  library  in  Washington, 
by  the  very  substantial  aid  that  it  has  given  to  the  Library 
of  Congress,  and  by  its  policy  of  cooperation  with  that 
library,  on  every  occasion,  to  make  it  a  truly  national  library. 
While  it  has  abandoned  the  idea  of  publishing  catalogues  of 
libraries,  it  has  probably  rendered  a  greater  service  to  libra- 
ries by  the  publication  of  a  large  number  of  scientific  bibli- 
ographies. 

Professor  Jewett's  retirement  created  a  profound  sensation 
in  the  Board  of  Regents  and  Congress.  Senator  Choate, 
who    had    been    from    the    first    an    ardent  supporter  of  the 


284  TJie  Smithsonimi  Institutioii 

library,  pure  and  simple,  tendered  his  resignation  as  a  Con- 
gressional Regent  thereupon.  An  investigation  of  the  policy 
of  the  Institution  followed;  but  the  investigating  committee, 
both  in  the  Senate  and  in  the  House,  supported  the  policy 
which  Professor  Henry  had  pursued. 

Although  offered  the  presidency  of  a  college  and  a  profes- 
sorship in  another  college,  Professor  Jewett  preferred  to 
accept  the  office  of  Superintendent  of  the  Boston  Public 
Library,  whose  new  building  had  just  then  been  completed. 
The  next  ten  years  of  his  life  were  devoted  to  the  develop- 
ment of  this  great  library. 

"It  was  a  fortunate  misfortune,"  said  President  D.  C.  Gil- 
man,  of  the  Johns  Hopkins  University,  "that  removed  Pro- 
fessor Charles  C.  Jewett  from  the  Smithsonian  Institution 
and  placed  him  at  the  head  of  the  Boston  Library."^ 

"  He  was  chosen,"  says  Doctor  Guild,  "because  he  was, 
by  common  consent,  the  ablest  bibliographer  and  most  ac- 
complished librarian  in  the  country.  .  .  .  For  more  than  ten 
years  Mr.  Jewett  has  thus  been  identified  with  the  best  inter- 
ests of  learning  in  the  metropolis  of  New  England.  The 
catalogues  which  he  has  prepared,  and  the  rules  for  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  library  which  he  has  suggested,  have  served 
as  models  for  similar  libraries  in  all  parts  of  the  country." 

He  had  the  largest  share  in  the  preparation  of  the  index  to 
the  catalogue  of  the  Boston  Public  Library  (1861),  and  pub- 
lished in  the  same  year  a  plan  for  the  circulation  and  use  of 
the  books  in  the  upper  hall  of  the  Public  Library.  He  pro- 
posed a  system  of  charging  books,  which,  with  minor  excep- 
tions, is  still  in  use  there,  and  is  the  prevailing  practice  in 
most  of  the  large  libraries  of  this  country.  ^ 

1 "  Development  of  the  Public  Library  in  Oilman  (formerly  librarian  of  Yale  College) 

America."   An  address  delivered  at  the  open-  published  by  the  University,  189 1,  page  4. 

ing  of  the  Cornell  University  Library,  Octo-  ^  The  Library  Journal,  Volume  xiv,  1889, 

ber  7,  1891,  Ithaca,  New  York,  by  Daniel  C.  page  206. 


The  Smithsonian  Library  285 

Of  the  catalogue  of  Bowdoin  College  library,  1863,  which 
was  compiled  mostly  in  accordance  with  Professor  Jewett's 
rules,  Mr.  Sabin  says  that  it  was  a  model  catalogue.  "Our 
profession,"  says  Doctor  Poole,  "is  a  debtor  to  Professor 
Jewett  for  his  early  and  scholarly  services  in  bibliography 
and  in  library  economy";  and  Mr.  W.  I.  Fletcher,  the 
accomplished  librarian  of  Amherst  College,  mentions  him  as 
one  of  the  five  librarians  who  "  should  be  held  in  everlasting 
remembrance."  ^ 

During  the  twenty  years  of  the  existence  of  the  American 
Library  Association  hardly  a  conference  has  passed  at  which 
his  name  has  not  been  mentioned  with  a  full  appreciation  of 
his  services. 

Professor  Jewett  was  then,  by  common  consent,  one  of  the 
most  active  librarians  of  his  time  ;  the  originator  of  much  of 
the  system  of  methodical  practice  in  library  work  which  is 
now  so  generally  adopted  in  the  United  States,  and  is  begin- 
ning to  be  regarded  with  favor  in  the  countries  of  Europe. 
Under  his  care  the  Smithsonian  collection  grew,  in  six  years, 
to  32,000  volumes.  He  was  one  of  the  first  imbued  with  the 
spirit  of  cooperation,  out  of  which  so  much  valuable  library 
work  has  grown,  and  to  which  all  the  hope  of  future  biblio- 
graphical work  turns. 

The  decided  indorsement  by  Congress  of  the  policy  pur- 
sued by  Professor  Fienry  marked,  in  a  certain  way,  an  epoch 
in  the  history  of  the  Institution,  releasing  it  from  the  obliga- 
tion of  creating  a  great  library,  as  one  of  its  main  objects. 
Indeed,  its  more  active  cooperation  with  the  library  of  Con- 
gress was  foreshadowed  at  this  time.  One  of  the  sources  of 
the  increase  of  the  library  was  the  copyright  system.  At 
one  time,  the  Institution  was  actually  charged  with  the 
granting  of  copyrights,  and  it  published,  in  good  bibliograph- 

1  "  Public  Libraries  in  America."     Boston,  1894,  page  80. 
19* 


286  The  Srnithsoniajt  Institution 

ical  form,  in  the  Report  for  1850,  a  complete  list  of  copyright 
articles  (August  10,  1846,  to  December  31,  1849),  the  first  of 
the  kind,  I  believe,  ever  published,  and  one  which  has  only 
been  followed  in  recent  years  by  the  list  issued  by  the  Treas- 
ury Department.  The  care  of  the  copyright  articles,  however, 
was  more  burdensome  than  advantageous  to  the  Institution, 
and  the  Secretary  and  the  Librarian  repeatedly  urged  either 
the  repeal  or  a  modification  of  the  law.  The  charge  of  the 
books  and  other  articles,  which  came  by  virtue  of  the  copyright 
act,  and  which  added  but  little  of  any  real  value  to  the  collec- 
tion, was  a  serious  drain  on  the  funds  of  the  Institution.  In 
1864  Congress  had  appropriated  a  considerable  sum  of  money 
for  the  enlargement  of  its  own  library  ;  and  as  the  large  collec- 
tion of  books,  which  almost  entirely  filled  the  west  half  of  the 
Institution,  had  become,  both  for  its  preservation  and  care, 
too  great  a  charge  upon  the  resources  of  the  Institution,  and 
as  the  Secretary  of  the  Institution  was  at  this  time  alarmed 
by  the  fire  which  had  recently  taken  place  and  had  threatened 
the  entire  building,  Congress,  at  the  request  of  the  Board  of 
Regents,  passed  an  act  to  provide  for  the  transfer  of  the 
custody  of  the  library  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  to  the 
Library  of  Congress.  Professor  Henry  said  on  this  point, 
in  1865 : 

*'The  suggestion  has  been  made  in  previous  reports  that 
considerable  relief  might  be  afforded  to  the  Institution  by  the 
transfer  of  its  library,  under  certain  conditions,  to  the  new 
and  spacious  halls  which  Congress  is  providing  for  its  own 
library,  and  the  importance  of  the  proposition  has  been  much 
enhanced  by  considerations  connected  with  the  recent  disas- 
ter. The  west  wing  of  the  building,  in  which  the  library  is 
now  contained,  is  not  fire-proof,  and  is  already  filled  to  over- 
flowing. To  provide  another  depository  for  it,  which  shall 
render  it  entirely  secure  from  fire,  and  be  sufficient  for  its 
continued  increase,  will  far  exceed  the  means  of  the  Institu- 


The  Smithsonian  Library  287 

tion,  and,  although  some  inconvenience  would  be  experienced 
in  regard  to  ready  access  to  the  books,  yet,  in  consideration 
of  the  great  value  of  the  collection,  by  far  the  most  perfect  of 
its  kind  in  the  United  States,  it  has  been  thought  proper  to 
ask  Congress  to  allow  the  deposit  of  this  library  to  be  made 
in  one  of  the  new  fire-proof  rooms  preparing  for  the  exten- 
sion of  its  own  collection  of  books. 

"  I  am  informed  by  Mr.  Spofford,  the  librarian  of  Congress, 
that  these  two  new  rooms  will  be  sufficient  to  accommodate 
the  Smithsonian  library,  and  to  furnish  space  for  the  growth 
of  the  Congressional  library  for  the  next  fifteen  or  twenty 
years.  The  object  of  the  transfer  is,  of  course,  not  to  sepa- 
rate this  unique  and  highly-prized  collection  of  books  from  its 
relations  to  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  for  it  must  still  bear 
its  name  and  be  subject  to  its  control,  but  merely  to  deposit 
it  where  its  preservation  will  be  more  certain  and  its  useful- 
ness more  extended." 


This  act  made  it  incumbent  upon  the  government  to  care 
for  the  collection,  preserved  to  the  Institution  its  customary 
use  of  its  library,  gave  to  it,  through  the  Secretary,  the  use  of 
the  Library  of  Congress,  and  authorized  the  Institution  to 
withdraw  the  library  upon  reimbursement  to  the  Treasury  for 
the  expenses  incurred  in  binding  and  care. 

The  passage  of  this  bill  through  Congress  aroused  consid- 
erable interest.  Senator  Sumner,  of  Massachusetts,  said,  on 
March  22,  1866,  "I  am  very  much  interested  in  that  question. 
I  have  paid  some  little  attention  to  the  subject  in  advance." 
On  March  27  the  bill  again  came  up.  Senator  Hendricks, 
of  Indiana,  inquired 

"whether  this  bill  contemplates  the  permanent  transfer  of 
these  books  to  the  Congressional  Library  ?  These  books 
belong  to  the  Smithsonian  trust  fund,  which  I  think  ought 
not  to  be  diverted." 


2  88  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

To  which  Senator  Howe,  of  Maine,  who  was  in  charge  of 
the  bill,  replied:  "The  Senator  will  see,  if  he  looks  over  the 
bill,  that  it  does  not  transfer  the  title  of  the  books.  It  is  the 
custody  of  the  books  that  is  transferred  to  the  Congressional 
library  for  safe  keeping,  as  well  as  for  the  better  accommo- 
dation of  the  public."  Senator  Trumbull,  of  Illinois,  enforced 
this  statement: 

"  I  will  state  to  the  Senator  from  Indiana  that  this  is  a 
mutual  arranorement  entered  into  between  the  Regents  of  the 
Smithsonian  Institution  and  the  Committee  on  the  Library, 
satisfactory  to  both  parties.  It  is  thought  to  be  safer  to  have 
them  deposited  there.  There  is  danger  of  them  at  present, 
as  the  building  in  which  they  are  is  not  fire-proof." 

Professor  Henry  said,  in  speaking  of  the  transfer  of  the 
books  to  the  Library  of  Congress : 

"To  those  who  have  not  fully  considered  the  subject,  it 
might,  at  first  sight,  appear  that  this  transfer  of  a  large  number 
of  rare  and  valuable  books  from  the  building  of  the  Institution 
would  be  attended  with  serious  inconveniences,  and  be  a  vir- 
tual relinquishment  of  the  control  of  property  procured  at  the 
expense  of  the  Smithsonian  fund.  But  it  will  be  evident, 
on  a  statement  of  the  facts,  that  the  advantages  accruing  to 
the  Institution  and  the  public  from  the  transfer  far  outweigh 
any  inconvenience  which  may  arise  on  account  of  it;  and  that 
it  will  tend  to  increase  the  efficiency  of  the  funds,  while  it  adds 
to  the  security  and  even  facilitates  the  general  use  of  the 
library." 

Mr.  A.  R.  Spofford  wrote  in  1876  as  follows: 

"  In  the  year  1866,  the  Library  of  Congress  received  a  most 
important  accession  in  the  transfer  to  its  shelves  of  the  whole 
collection  of  books  gathered  by  the  Smithsonian  Institution, 
and  representing  twenty  years'  accumulation  since  its  estab- 


The  Smithsonian  Library  289 

lishment.  This  collection  was  a  most  valuable  complement 
to  the  library  already  gathered  at  the  Capitol.  .  .  .  With  this 
large  addition  (numbering  nearly  40,000  volumes)  the  Library 
of  Congress  became  at  once  the  most  extensive  and  valu- 
able repository  of  material  for  the  wants  of  scholars  which 
was  to  be  found  in  the  United  States.  By  the  terms  of  trans- 
fer of  the  Smithsonian  library,  Congress  became  its  custodian 
durine  such  time  as  the  Rejjents  of  the  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion  should  continue  the  deposit,  it  being  stipulated  that  the 
expense  of  binding  and  cataloguing  of  all  books  should  be  de- 
frayed by  Congress  in  return  for  this  valuable  and  annually 
increasing  addition  to  its  stores.  This  arrangement,  while  it 
relieves  the  funds  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  from  an  an- 
nual charge  in  maintaining  a  library,  secures  to  the  National 
Library  an  invaluable  scientific  department  without  material 
cost ;  and  the  deposit,  supplying  as  it  does  a  much  larger 
library  of  use  and  reference  to  the  scholars  of  the  country  than 
is  to  be  found  in  any  one  body  elsewhere,  is  likely  to  be  a 
permanent  one."  ^ 

"The  union  of  the  library  of  the  Institution  with  that  of 
Congress  still  continues  to  be  productive  of  important  results. 
The  Smithson  fund  is  relieved  by  this  arrangement  from 
the  maintenance  of  a  separate  library,  while  at  the  same  time 
the  Institution  has  not  only  the  free  use  of  its  own  books,  but 
also  those  of  the  Library  of  Congress.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  collection  of  books  owned  by  Congress  would  not  be 
worthy  the  name  of  a  national  library  were  it  not  for  the 
Smithsonian  deposit.  The  books  which  it  receives  from  this 
source  are  eminently  those  which  exhibit  the  progress  of  the 
world  in  civilization,  and  are  emphatically  those  essential  to 
the  contemporaneous  advance  of  our  country  in  the  higher 
science  of  the  day."  ^ 

The  books  were  actually  transferred  in  1866,  and  Doctor 
Theodore  Gill,  who  had  been  for  some  time  the  librarian  of 

1  "  Public  Libraries  in  the  United  States,"  Washington,  1876,  page  256. 
2  "Smithsonian  Report,"  1S73,  page  27. 


290  The  Smithsonian  Institutioit 

the  Institution,  was  appointed  an  assistant  librarian  of  the 
Library  of  Congress,  and,  as  his  especial  duty,  had  under  his 
care  the  publications  of  learned  societies  and  scientific  pe- 
riodicals, which  constitute  the  bulk  of  the  Smithsonian  library. 

From  this  time  on  the  Institution  became,  in  a  certain  way, 
an  office  for  receipt  and  record  of  publications.  Exchanges 
were  continued,  but  there  was  no  other  source  of  increase, 
while  the  entire  care  of  the  books  was  assumed  by  the  Li- 
brary of  Congress. 

With  the  great  growth  of  the  museum,  consequent  upon 
the  accessions  after  the  close  of  the  Centennial  Exhibition  in 
Philadelphia  in  1876,  and  the  very  much  enlarged  scientific 
activity  which  grew  up  in  the  Institution  through  the  work 
of  the  body  of  scientific  men  placed  in  charge  of  these 
collections,  it  was  found  absolutely  essential  to  have  a  work- 
ing library  of  books  at  the  Institution.  The  first  consider- 
able impetus  to  this  collection  was  the  gift  by  Professor 
Baird  of  his  library,  to  form  the  nucleus  of  a  library  for  the 
National  Museum.  This  important  gift  he  announced  in  the 
following  words : 

"  In  the  increasing  amount  of  routine  work  with  which  I 
am  charged  in  the  several  capacities  of  Secretary  of  the 
Smithsonian  Institution,  Director  of  the  National  Museum, 
and  Commissioner  of  Fish  and  Fisheries,  it  has  become  en- 
tirely out  of  the  question  to  continue  those  special  researches 
in  zoology  to  which  I  devoted  so  much  time  in  the  early 
years  of  my  connection  with  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  and 
for  which  I  had  accumulated,  at  my  own  expense,  a  large 
number  of  important  works.  These  I  have  now  formally  pre- 
sented to  the  Library  of  the  National  Museum,  feeling  as- 
sured that  they  will  do  the  most  good  in  that  connection." 

To  which  he  added  the  statement : 

"  The  most  important  source  of  supply  to  the  Library  of  the 
National  Museum  consists  in  the  direct  exchanges  of  publi- 


The  Smithsonian  Library  291 

cations  for  those  of  foreign  museums,  and  of  scientific  socie- 
ties, and  of  specialists  in  natural  history.  Little,  if  anything, 
however,  comes  in  not  obtained  under  similar  circumstances 
by  the  exchanges  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution. 


"  1 


In  1887  the  present  Secretary,  Mr.  S.  P.  Langley,  when 
Assistant  Secretary,  in  charge  of  the  library  and  exchanges, 
inaugurated  a  new  policy  for  the  further  increase  of  period- 
ical and  serial  literature  in  the  library  of  the  Institution.  He 
obtained,  by  correspondence  with  a  large  number  of  scientific 
men  as  well  as  through  the  aid  of  institutions  of  learning,  an 
extensive  list  of  learned  societies  and  scientific  periodicals, 
embracing  thirty-six  hundred  titles,  a  fair  proportion  of 
which  have  since  been  added  to  the  library  by  the  exchange 
of  publications.  He  drew  up,  at  the  same  time,  a  code  of 
regulations  for  the  conduct  of  the  library,  which,  with  one  or 
two  additions,  is  still  in  force. 

The  library  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  whose  incep- 
tion and  development  have  been  sketched  above,  consists  of 
a  methodical  collection  of  the  transactions  of  learned  socie- 
ties and  scientific  periodicals,  and  publications  of  acade- 
mies and  universities,  throughout  the  world,  made  by  steady 
effort,  on  a  systematic  plan,  for  a  half  century,  and  reinforced 
by  liberal  purchases  in  the  early  years  to  secure  the  back  sets 
of  important  publications  of  this  kind. 

A  collection  of  this  sort  was  the  ideal  from  the  beginning. 
It  was  proposed  in  the  first  letter  for  the  plan  of  the  library 
sent  by  Professor  Jewett  to  Professor  Henry,  before  the  for- 
mer came  to  the  Institution.  In  his  fifth  Report,  Professor 
Henry,  speaking  of  the  collections  of  transactions  and  pro- 
ceedings of  learned  societies,  said  : 

"  In  a  few  years  it  is  believed  as  complete  a  collection  of 
these  will  be  gathered  as  it  is  possible  to  obtain." 

1"  Smithsonian  Report,"  1882,  page  34. 


292  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

In  1854,  in  the  ninth  Report,  he  stated  : 

"  The  reading"  room  of  the  library  receives  the  leading  peri- 
odicals of  this  country  and  Great  Britain,  together  with  a 
number  from  France,  Germany,  etc. ;  and,  therefore,  offers  de- 
sirable facilities  for  the  reading  community  of  Washington, 
and  for  those  who  visit  the  seat  of  government,  to  keep  up 
with  the  general  progress  of  knowledge ;  while  by  means  of 
the  more  profound  transactions  of  learned  societies  the 
student  is  afforded  the  opportunity  of  becoming  acquainted 
with  the  advances  made  in  special  branches  of  literature  and 
science." 

In  the  next  Report  it  is  emphasized 

"that  the  Smithsonian  library  is  intended  to  be  a  special 
one,  as  complete  as  possible  in  Transactions  and  all  works  of 
science." 

In  the  Report  for  1856  he  stated  : 

"The  series  of  transactions  and  scientific  periodicals  is 
gradually  becoming  more  and  more  complete ;  and,  in  the 
course  of  a  few  years,  this  collection  will  be  as  extensive  as 
any  to  be  found  in  the  Old  World." 

In  1858^  Professor  Henry  said: 

"  The  fact  has  been  repeatedly  mentioned  in  preceding 
reports  that  the  principal  object  aimed  at  in  the  collection 
of  the  library  is  to  procure  as  perfect  and  extensive  a  series  as 
possible  of  the  transactions  and  proceedings  of  all  the  learned 
societies  which  now  exist  or  have  existed  in  different  parts 
of  the  world.  It  is  to  works  of  this  character  that  the  student 
of  science  is  obliged  to  refer  for  the  minute  history  of  the  pro- 
gress of  any  special  branch  to  which  he  may  be  devoted, 
and  to  ascertain  accurately  what  has  been  published  on  his 
particular  subject  previous  to  commencing  his  own  labors,  or 
at  least  before  he  gives  the  results  to  the  world,  in  order  that 

1  •'  Smithsonian  Report,"  page  36. 


MILLARD   FILLMORE. 


SECON'D  CHANCELLOR  OF  THE  SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION, 

1849-1850. 


-\~ 


on 


un  liis 


■  iTTTTTTHvir  ZAiM08HTiMa  am  oJjaOKAH)  avTcnsH 


The  Smithsonian  Library  293 

he  may  do  justice  to  those  who  have  preceded  him  in  the 
same  path,  and  have  due  regard  to  his  own  reputation  in  not 
pubHshing  facts  and  principles  as  new  discoveries  which  have 
long  since  been  recorded  in  the  annals  of  science." 

In  1864^  Professor  Henry  wrote: 

"  It  was  therefore  deemed  preferable  and  more  consonant 
with  the  purposes  of  the  Institution  to  form  a  special  library, 
which  might  constitute,  as  it  were,  a  supplement  to  the 
Library  of  Congress,  and  consist,  for  the  most  part,  of 
complete  sets  of  the  proceedings  and  transactions  of  all  the 
learned  societies  in  the  world,  and  of  other  serials  essential 
for  reference  by  students  specially  engaged  in  original  scien- 
tific research.  The  efforts  of  the  Institution  to  carry  out  this 
plan,  which  has  since  been  sanctioned  by  Congress,  have  been 
eminently  successful.  Principally  through  exchanges,  and 
occasionally  by  purchase,  a  more  complete  collection  of  the 
works  above  mentioned  has  been  procured  than  is  to  be 
found  in  any  library  of  the  United  States,  or  is  easily  met 
with  even  in  Europe.  The  Institution  has  been  assisted  in 
making  this  collection  by  the  liberality  of  many  of  the  older 
libraries  abroad,  which,  on  application,  have  furnished  from 
their  duplicates  volumes,  and  even  whole  sets,  to  complete 
series  of  works  long  since  out  of  print,  and  which  in  some 
cases  could  not  have  been  obtained  through  any  other  means." 

Mr.  Spofford^  wrote  in  1876  of  this  collection  that  it  consists 

"of  the  publications  of  more  than  two  thousand  societies 
and  institutions  without  the  limits  of  the  United  States, 
besides  nearly  all  American  societies  whiTi  print  their 
transactions  or  proceedings," 

which,  he  says,  affords 

"a  rich  repository  of  scientific  results,  continua.  v  increasing, 
for  the  reference  and  use  of  American  scholars.' 

1  "Smithsonian  Report,"  1S64,  page  57. 
2  "  Public  Libraries  in  the  United  Stales,"  Washington,  1876,  page  684. 


294  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

And,  again/  he  says  that  the  collection  is 

"quite  unique  in  the  multitude  of  publications  of  learned 
societies  in  all  parts  of  the  world  and  in  nearly  all  of  the 
modern  languages." 

Between  the  years  1887  and  1894  new  periodicals  to  the 
number  of  1853  were  added  to  the  list,  while  1042  defective 
series  were  either  completed  or  filled  out  as  far  as  the  pub- 
lishers were  able  to  supply  missing  numbers. 

In  the  year  1895  the  Institution  was  currently  receiving 
3045  periodicals,  magazines,  and  publications  of  learned  so- 
cieties. This  number  did  not  include  all  such  publications 
arriving  at  the  Institution,  as  many  societies  whose  publica- 
tions are  issued  irregularly  had  not  been  included  in  the 
periodical  record.  These  publications  were  roughly  divided 
into  three  classes,  of  which  1565  were  devoted  to  pure  sci- 
ence, 704  to  applied  science,  and  776,  called  miscellaneous, 
included  literary,  artistic,  and  trade  publications.  All  the 
well  known  modern  languages  were  represented,  and  even 
some  of  the  less  known,  among  which  might  be  mentioned 
Arabic,  modern  Greek,  Finnish,  and  Japanese ;  and  two  publi- 
cations in  Volapiik.  Nearly  one  hundred  publications  have 
been  added  since  this  report  was  prepared. 

Various  catalogues  have  been  printed,  but  none  in  recent 
years.  The  catalogue  of  these  publications  belonging  to  the 
library  up  to  1883  was  at  that  time  typewritten  and  bound 
together  in  thirteen  large  volumes,  some  of  them  consisting 
of  more  than  one  thousand  pages ;  while  since  that  time  they 
are  cataloofued  on  a  card  record. 

But  although  the  library  is  devoted  mainly  to  these  pub- 
lications, yet  it  is  not  wholly  wanting  in  works  of  a  differ- 
ent nature.     Some  of  these  have  come  through  special  gift. 

1  Page  256. 


The  Smithsonian  Library  295 

Thus,  the  Hbrary  of  the  founder,  James  Smithson,  which  con- 
sists of  1 15  volumes  and  a  collection  of  manuscripts,  became 
the  property  of  the  Institution.^ 

The  Duke  of  Northumberland  presented,  in  1859,  a  series 
of  expensive  illustrated  works,  privately  printed,  relating  to 
the  local  history  of  the  county  which  bears  his  name.'^ 

The  library  whicli  belonged  to  the  National  Institute  and 
contained  a  large  number  of  valuable  books,  especially  relat- 
ing to  meteorology  and  ethnology,  passed  into  the  possession 
of  the  Smithsonian  Institution.^ 

A  large  number  of  catalogues  of  libraries  and  of  public 
institutions  of  the  United  States  were  collected;  those  of 
colleges  were  turned  over  to  the  Bureau  of  Education,  form- 
ing the  nucleus  of  its  present  collection. 

In  1852  the  Institution  received  from  Mr.  J.  O.  Halliwell, 
of  England,  54  volumes,  mostly  folios,  of  original  documents, 
consisting  of  bills,  accounts,  inventories,  legal  instruments, 
and  other  business  papers,  extending  from  1632  to  1729,  and 
intended  to  illustrate  the  history  of  prices  in  England. 

The  Prussian  Government  presented  a  copy  of  the  great 
work  on  Egypt  by  Lepsius,  and  later  that  distinguished 
scholar  himself  presented  a  complete  collection  of  his  own 
works.  The  Ministry  of  Public  Instruction  at  Paris  sent  the 
"  Description  de  I'Egypte,"  published  by  order  of  Napoleon 
the  First. 

The  Royal  Library  of  Dresden  presented  a  series  of  232 
original  discourses  or  theses  and  tracts  written  by  Luther 
or  his  contemporaries.  The  Reverend  Doctor  Morris,  then 
librarian  of  the  Peabody  Institute  at  Baltimore,  said  of  this 
collection  that  it  was  interesting  to  the  bibliographer  because 
all  the  copies  were  first  impressions,  and  not  reprints. 

1  See  "  Smithsonian  Report,"  1857,  page  35. 
2  Ibidem,  1859,  page  103.  3  Ibidem,  1862,  page  16. 


296  The  Smithsonian  Institutioit 

He  added :  ^ 

"They  present  specimens  of  paper  and  printing  which  are 
very  creditable  to  the  artisans  of  that  day,  ranging  as  they 
do  from  15 18,  the  year  after  the  Reformation  began,  to  1546, 
the  year  of  Luther's  death.  These  writings  have  come  to  us 
in  the  same  type  and  paper  in  which  they  were  distributed 
by  thousands  over  the  land  at  the  dawn  of  the  Reformation. 
While  the  language  in  which  they  are  written,  both  German 
and  Latin,  is  not  as  refined  as  that  employed  by  scholars 
of  the  present  day,  and  while  the  pictorial  illustrations  are 
coarse,  yet  these  productions  show  the  extraordinary  progress 
which  the  typographic  art  had  already  made  in  the  early  part 
of  the  sixteenth  century.  Many  of  them  have  the  title-pages 
ornamented  with  a  broad  margin  of  wood-cut  figures,  most 
of  them  mythological  and  grotesque,  and  all  curious.  They 
are  specimens  of  the  engraving  of  that  day,  exceedingly  in- 
teresting to  the  student  of  the  history  of  art,  for  these  are 
undoubted  originals,  which  collectors  of  ancient  prints  prize 
so  highly.  A  few  of  them  are  unskilfully  illuminated,  prob- 
ably executed  by  some  incipient  artist,  who  tried  his  hand 
on  these  coarse  and  cheap  wood-cuts.  The  subjects  of  the 
pamphlets  are  diverse  and  curious,  and  the  titles  of  many  of 
those  which  are  controversial,  as  was  the  general  custom  of 
that  day,  are  expressed  in  language  more  forcible  than  re- 
fined." 

The  University  of  Tubingen  presented  twenty-eight  folio 
and  quarto  volumes  of  rare  and  curious  incunabula. 

From  the  Honorable  G.  V.  Fox,  Assistant  Secretary  of  the 
Navy,  there  were  received  179  volumes,  illustrating  the  phys- 
ical geography,  ethnology,  and  resources  of  the  Russian 
Empire,  which  had  been  given  to  him  by  the  Czar  on  the 
occasion  of  his  visit  to  St.  Petersburg  to  present  a  resolu- 
tion of  Congress  congratulating  that  monarch  on  his  escape 
from  assassination.^ 

1 "  Smithsonian  Report,"  l866,  page  30.  '^  Ibidtni,  1867,  page  60. 


The  Smithsonian  Library  297 

From  the  Secretary  of  State  for  War  of  Great  Britain 
there  came,  in  1868,  a  series  of  facsimiles  of  the  national 
manuscripts  of  England,  including  documents  belonging  to 
each  reign,  from  William  the  Conqueror  to  Queen  Anne, 
arranged  chronologically,  so  as  to  illustrate  the  changes  in 
handwriting  and  the  language  of  the  different  periods  of 
English  history.^ 

It  sometimes  happened  that  books  were  presented  to  the 
Institution  by  a  special  act  of  Congress,  the  report  of  the 
Wilkes  Exploring  Expedition  and  the  works  of  Thomas 
Jefferson,  Jolin  Ouincy  Adams,  and  Alexander  Hamilton 
being  notable  instances. 

From  Mariette  Bey  came  facsimiles  of  the  Egyptian 
papyri  in  the  Boulak,  now  the  Gizeh,  Museum  in  Cairo. 

Another  most  interesting  collection  was  received  in  1874, 
being  the  gift  of  Major- General  Lefroy,  Governor  of  Ber- 
muda, through  his  relative,  Mrs,  Dundas,  of  Canon  Hall, 
Larbert,  New  Brunswick.  Concerning  these  Mr.  Spofford 
made  the  following  report :  ^ 

"These  original  records  form  a  collection  of  the  highest 
interest  and  value  as  materials  of  personal  and  political  his- 
tory at  a  period  which  must  ever  remain  the  most  important 
era  in  the  annals  of  the  United  States.  One  of  the  volumes 
contains  twelve  reports  submitted  to  the  lords  of  Her 
Majesty's  treasury  by  John  Wilmot,  Colonel  Dundas,  and 
the  other  commissioners,  upon  the  losses  and  services  of  the 
claimants  who  were  loyal  to  the  British  crown  during  the 
revolutionary  war,  and  who  were  afterward  indemnified  by 
act  of  Parliament.  Six  reports  in  addition,  signed  by  Colonel 
Dundas  and  Mr.  J.  Pemberton,  commissioners,  and  extend- 
ing from  A.  D.  I  784  to  I  789,  are  also  embraced.  Thirty-four 
of  the  manuscript  volumes  contain  a  large  amount  and  variety 
of  facts  and  testimony  regarding  the  landed  possessions  and 

1 "  Smithsonian  Report,"  1868,  page  43.  "^Ibidem,  1874,  page  25. 

20 


298  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

personal  property  of  hundreds  of  British  subjects  in  the  New- 
England  States,  as  well  as  in  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Penn- 
sylvania, etc.  As  most  of  these  papers  have  never  been 
published,  they  are  the  more  valuable  and  original  and 
unique  repositories  of  information  regarding  the  persons  to 
whom  they  relate,  the  descendants  of  many  of  whom  still 
survive  among  the  people  of  the  United  States." 

Alexander  Dallas  Bache,  so  intimately  connected  with  the 
Institution  in  many  capacities,  presented  his  collection  of  rare 
scientific  pamphlets. 

The  library  of  Henry  R.  Schoolcraft,  containing  many 
valuable  ethnological  works,  has  been  permanently  deposited 
with  the  Institution. 

Robert  Stanton  Avery,  who  left  the  greater  part  of  his 
estate  to  the  Institution,  also  bequeathed  his  library  of  pam- 
phlets and  periodicals. 

Another  special  feature  of  the  library  is  the  large  collection 
of  pamphlets  and  of  books  relating  to  scientific  matters,  and 
of  the  theses  of  universities ;  a  great  number  of  maps  and 
works  of  a  general  literary  nature,  and  books  of  reference. 
Among  the  sciences,  meteorology  was  one  which  was  espe- 
cially represented  by  a  rich  collection  of  manuscript  and 
published  material.  In  accordance  with  its  general  plan  of 
cooperation,  the  Institution  delivered  to  the  Weather  Bureau 
all  its  manuscript  material  relating  to  meteorology. 

In  1 85 1  a  very  valuable  collection  of  etchings,  engravings, 
and  books  which  had  been  made  abroad  with  great  care  by 
George  P.  Marsh  was  purchased  for  the  Institution.  In  report- 
ing on  this  collection  in  1850,  Professor  Jewett  said :  "This 
collection,  though  not  the  largest  in  the  country,  is  believed 
to  be  the  choicest."  It  contains  the  work  of  nearly  every 
engraver  of  celebrity,  among  whom  may  be  mentioned  Diirer, 
Rembrandt,  Da  Vinci,  Claude   Lorraine,  as  well  as   special 


The  Smithsonian  Library  299 

folios  of  old  Italian  and  German  masters;  also  a  collection 
of  works  relating  to  the  history  of  art,  very  complete  in  its 
day.  Another  collection  of  engravings  was  presented  to  the 
Institution  by  Mr.  C.  B.  King,  in  1861.^  From  time  to  time 
there  have  been  additions  to  this  collection,  largely  by  gift 
and  occasionally  by  purchase. 

The  plan  formulated  by  Secretary  Langley,  and  executed 
under  his  direction,  for  the  greater  increase  of  the  library  of 
the  Institution  by  exchange  than  had  heretofore  obtained, 
has  been  described  above.  This  plan  was  so  successful  that 
the  library  has  almost  doubled  in  size  within  the  past  five 
years,  the  normal  increase  for  a  year  now  amounting  to  from 
thirty  to  thirty-five  thousand  entries  of  the  record  book. 
In  fact,  it  may  be  fairly  said  that  the  library  is  now  on  a 
more  favorable  footing,  so  far  as  increase  is  concerned,  than 
it  was  at  the  time  when  the  Institution  was  first  organized, 
and  when  almost  half  of  its  endowment  was  assigned  for 
library  purposes. 

In  addition  to  the  library  of  the  Institution  proper  Secre- 
tary Langley  began,  in  1891,  the  collection  of 

"  a  limited  number  of  books,  not  forming  part  of  the  Smithson- 
ian deposit  in  the  Library  of  Congress,  obtained  by  purchase 
from  the  Smithsonian  fund  and  retained  at  the  Institution 
under  the  name  of  the  '  Secretary's  Library.'  These  books 
are  mostly,  but  not  exclusively,  books  of  scientific  reference, 
certain  art  serials  being  included  among  them."- 

Various  other  small  collections  are  now  beinQf  made  for 
the  use  of  the  Astrophysical  Observatory,  the  Zoological 
Park,  for  the  immediate  use  of  the  Institution,  denominated 
"  OfiEice  Library,"  and  files  of  popular  literary  magazines  for 
the  employees. 

1  A  catalogue  of  this  collection  is  contained  in  the  "  Smithsonian  Report,"  l86l,  page  86. 
2  "  Smithsonian  Report,"  1 891,  page  12. 


300  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

To  state  the  number  of  volumes  which  this  collection  rep- 
resents is  now  almost  impossible,  since  they  have  not  been 
counted  for  a  number  of  years;  but  it  will  give  some  approxi- 
mate idea  of  the  size  of  the  library  to  say  that,  at  present, 
that  portion  which  is  known  as  the  "  Smithsonian  Deposit,"  in 
the  Library  of  Congress,  numbers  357,000  books,  pamphlets, 
periodicals,  and  maps;  and  other  collections,  independent  of 
the  "Smithsonian  Deposit,"  would  considerably  increase  this 
number. 

Yet  this  vast  collection  is  not  assembled  in  any  one  place 
so  as  to  be  visible  to  the  eye  and  to  make  an  impression  by 
its  mass.  The  greater  portion  of  it  is  deposited  in  the 
Library  of  Congress,  and  it  is  expected  that  with  the  com- 
pletion of  the  new  building  for  that  library  a  section  of  it, 
adequate  for  the  purpose,  will  be  assigned  for  the  use  of  the 
Smithsonian  Deposit,  so  that  this  great  body  of  scientific 
literature  will  again  become  really  available. 

The  Institution  at  present  maintains  a  reading-room  con- 
taining 500  bins  for  periodicals,  and  a  reading-room  for  the 
complete  sets  of  transactions  of  the  six  or  seven  great  acade- 
mies of  the  world.  It  is  collecting  such  works  of  reference 
as  are  indispensable  for  the  use  of  its  staff,  and  maintains,  in 
connection  with  the  Museum,  a  working  library,  which  had 
its  origin  in  the  gift  of  the  library  of  Professor  Baird.  This 
collection  now  numbers  some  25,000  works  and  about  10,000 
pamphlets,  which,  while  accessible  to  scientific  men  in  Wash- 
ington and  elsewhere,  are  primarily  intended  for  the  use  of 
the  scientific  staff  of  the  Institution.  The  Museum  library 
is  itself  divided  into  twenty-three  sections,  placed  in  the 
work-rooms  of  the  specialists,  containing  most  valuable 
books  and  series.  These  special  collections  range  in  number 
from  200  to  3000  titles.  They  are  all  received,  accessioned, 
and  catalogued  in  the  central  library.     Each  book  or  pam- 


The  Smithsonian  Library  301 

phlet  delivered  to  a  sectional  library  is  receipted  for,  the 
receipt  cards  being  so  arranged  as  themselves  to  form  a 
catalogue  of  the  sectional  library.  The  curator  or  officer  in 
charge  of  each  department  is  responsible  for  each  book  de- 
livered to  him,  and  his  receipt  therefor  is  held  by  the  libra- 
rian. All  general  books  of  reference,  all  works  relating  to 
explorations,  and  all  serials  devoted  to  more  than  one  subject 
are  kept  in  the  central  library.  The  librarian  may  at  any 
time  recall  any  book  from  a  sectional  library,  and  a  person 
coming  to  the  central  library  to  use  a  book  which  is  in  a 
sectional  library  can  get  it  almost  as  readily  as  though  it 
were  actually  on  the  shelves ;  so  that  the  sectional  libraries 
are,  in  fact,  little  else  than  alcoves  distributed  around  the 
building,  each  one  in  charge  of  a  specialist  whose  interest 
in  his  own  department  aids  materially  in  the  growth  of  the 
whole  library,  while  the  control  of  these  sections  is  absolute, 
and  no  general  interest  suffers  because  of  this  specialization. 

Realizing  that  in  the  near  future  it  may  be  desirable 
that  many  important  works  belonging  to  the  Institution 
(which  it  has  been  found  more  convenient,  in  view  of  the 
crowded  condition  of  the  Library  of  Congress,  to  care  for  at 
the  Museum  and  the  Institution)  may  be  sent  to  the  new 
library  building,  the  Museum  has  made  a  steady  effort  to 
develop  an  independent  library  for  the  use  of  its  scientific 
staff;  but  no  clashing  has  ever  taken  place,  and  the  entire 
work  proceeds  on  a  uniform  plan,  under  entire  cooperation. 

It  is  thus  manifest  that  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  while 
not  unmindful  of  the  demands  of  general  literature,  and  even 
art,  has  been  steadily  collecting  the  periodical  literature  of 
the  world.  It  aims  to  gather  from  all  quarters  the  memoirs 
of  learned  societies,  the  publications  of  museums,  institutions, 
academies,  and  of  scientific  departments  of  government. 
Other  libraries  in  America  devote  themselves  to  special  sub- 
20* 


302  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

jects ;  no  one  has  found  the  means,  or  has  had  the  desire,  to 
make  a  great  collection  of  this  nature.^  Professor  Henry  fre- 
quently said  that  cooperation,  not  monopoly,  is  the  watch- 
word of  the  Smithsonian  Institution.  Its  policy  has  always 
been  to  devote  itself  to  such  useful  fields  of  labor  as  no  other 
institution  could  be  found  ready  to  take  up. 

The  growth  of  its  own  library  has  been  specially  favored 
by  the  magnitude  and  value  of  the  publications  which  it  has 
had  to  offer  in  exchange,  both  those  issued  by  Congress  and 
those  printed  from  its  private  fund.  By  means  of  its  publica- 
tions, and  by  means  of  its  exchange  service,  the  Smithsonian 
Institution  has  incidentally  secured  a  library  more  valuable  in 
actual  amount  and  more  unique  in  character  than  it  could 
possibly  have  obtained  had  the  plan  of  a  library,  pure  and 
simple,  so  ardently  advocated  by  Senator  Choate,  been  car- 
ried out.  Doctor  G.  Brown  Goode,  the  Assistant  Secretary 
of  the  Institution,  estimated  in  1895  that  "the  value  of  the 
books  distributed  since  the  Institution  was  opened  has  been 
nearly  $1,000,000,  or  nearly  twice  the  original  bequest  of 
Smithson."  ^ 

I  have  little  doubt  that  the  Institution  has  received  in  ex- 
change more  than  the  entire  value  of  all  the  money  expended 
for  publications,  and  that  its  collection  of  scientific  transac- 
tions and  periodicals  is  one  of  the  two  most  important,  and 
possibly  the  most  important,  in  the  world. 

1  In  accordance  with  the  plan  adopted  for  2  «  An   Account   of  the   Smitlisonian    In- 

the  federation  of  the  libraries  in  Chicago,  the  stitution,  Its   Origin,  History,  Objects,  and 

John  Crerar  Library  will  devote  itself  in  part  Achievements."     City  of  Washington.     For 

to  scientific  and  literary  periodicals.  distribution  at  the  Atlanta  Exposition,  1895. 


THE    UNITED    STATES    NATIONAL 

MUSEUM^ 

By  Frederick  William  True 


^MONG  the  powers  conferred  on  Congress  by 
the  Constitution  is  authority  "to  promote  the 
progress  of  science  and  useful  arts,  by  secur- 
ing for  Hmited  times  to  authors  and  inventors 
the  exclusive  right  to  their  respective  writings 
and  discoveries." "  A  result  of  this  provision  was  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  Patent  Office  and  the  assembling  in  connec- 
tion therewith  of  numerous  models  of  inventions. 

A  building  for  the  Patent  Office  was  erected  in  1812,  but 
it  was  destroyed  by  fire  in  1836,  and  with  it  the  models  and 
records  it  contained. 

"  In  the  Patent  Office  building,  and  with  it  destroyed," 
writes  Doctor  Goode,^  "there  was  gathered  a  collection  of 
models  which  was  sometimes  by  courtesy  called  the  '  Ameri- 
can Museum  of  Arts,'  and  which  afforded  a  precedent  for  the 


1  Nothing  could  have  been  more  desirable, 
or  in  every  way  more  fitting,  than  that  this 
chapter  on  the  National  Museum  should  have 
been  from  the  pen  of  the  late  Doctor  Goode, 
who  alone  possessed  the  ability  to  present 
the  subject  adequately.  I  have  quoted  from 
his  printed  papers  as  extensively  as  circum- 
stances would  permit,  and  the  first  part  of 


the  chapter  is  little  more  than  a  paraphrase 
of  portions  of  his  writings. —  F.  W.  T. 

2  Article  i,  section  8. 

3  Goode,  G.  Brown.  "  The  Origin  of  the 
National  Scieniific  and  Educational  Institu- 
tions of  the  United  States.''  "Annual  Re- 
port of  the  American  Historical  Association 
for  the  year  lS89,"page  7. 


303 


304  The  SmitJiso7tian  Institution 

larger  collection  of  models  and  natural  products,  which  re- 
mained under  the  custody  of  the  Commissioner  of  Patents 
until  1858,  when  it  was  transferred  to  the  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tution and  became  a  part  of  the  present  National  Museum." 

Though  an  assemblage  of  objects  of  more  or  less  scientific 
interest  was  thus  early  formed  as  an  indirect  result  of  the 
policy  pursued  by  the  government,  the  establishment  of  a 
national  museum  was  earlier  in  the  minds  of  many  American 
statesmen,  especially  in  connection  with  the  educational  in- 
stitutes which  it  was  thought  the  government  should  found 
for  the  intellectual  advancement  of  the  people. 

In  the  plan  for  a  federal  university  published  in  the  Penn- 
sylva7iia  Gazette  in  1788,  and  commonly  credited  to  Madi- 
son,^ section  8  relates  to  natural  history,  and  in  connection 
therewith  the  remark  is  made : 

"To  render  instruction  in  these  branches  of  science  easy, 
it  will  be  necessary  to  establish  a  museum,  and  also  a  garden, 
in  which  not  only  all  the  shrubs,  etc.,  but  all  the  forest  trees 
of  the  United  States  should  be  cultivated." 

The  plan  for  a  "  National  Institution  "  put  forth  by  Joel 
Barlow  in  1806  includes  mention  of  the  natural  history  and 
art  museums  of  France  in  the  preamble,  and  in  the  plan 
itself  (though  ambiguously  worded)  are  provisions  for  collec- 
tions of  minerals  and  philosophical  instruments. 

While  these  and  other  similar  plans  show  that  the  forma- 
tion of  national  collections  of  art  and  science  was  thought 
desirable  by  the  fathers,  they  did  not  result  directly  in  the 
establishment  of  museums  under  the  government.  The  first 
really  scientific  collection  that  came  into  the  possession  of  the 
government  was  probably,  as  Doctor  Goode  has  remarked,^ 

1  See  Goode,  ibidem,  pages  66,  126,  who  2 Goode.     "Genesis  of  the  National  Mu- 

believed  Benjamin  Rush,  of  Pennsylvania,  to       seum."  Report  United  States  National  Mu- 
have  been  the  author  of  the  plan.  seum,  1891,  page  273. 


The  United  States  National  Mnseiim        305 

Smithson's  cabinet  of  minerals,  which  was  deHvered,  with 
the  remainder  of  the  Smithson  estate,  into  the  hands  of 
Richard  Rush,  the  agent  of  the  United  States,  in  1838. 
The  collection  is  described  by  a  committee  of  the  Na- 
tional Institute  as  follows  : 

"Amoncr  the  effects  of  the  late  Mr.  Smithson  is  a  cabinet 
which,  so  far  as  it  has  been  examined,  proves  to  consist  of  a 
choice  and  beautiful  collection  of  minerals,  comprising  prob- 
ably eight  or  ten  thousand  specimens.  The  specimens, 
though  generally  small,  are  extremely  perfect,  and  consti- 
tute a  very  complete  geological  and  mineralogical  series,  em- 
bracing the  finest  varieties  of  crystallization,  rendered  more 
valuable  by  accompanying  figures  and  descriptions  by  Mr. 
Smithson,  and  in  his  own  writing.  The  cabinet  also  contains 
a  valuable  suite  of  meteoric  stones,  which  appear  to  be  suites 
of  most  of  the  important  meteorites  which  have  fallen  in 
Europe  during  several  centuries." 

Three  years  later,  in  1841,  there  was  formed  in  Washing- 
ton, chiefly  through  the  exertions  of  Honorable  Joel  R. 
Poinsett,  of  South  Carolina,  a  scientific  organization  under 
the  name  of  the  National  Institute,  with  the  avowed  pur- 
pose of  assembling  scientific  collections.  Article  14  of  the 
bill  of  incorporation  reads  thus : 

"The  resident  and  corresponding  members  shall  exert 
themselves  to  procure  specimens  of  natural  history,  and  so 
forth ;  and  the  said  specimens  shall  be  placed  in  the  cabinet, 
under  the  superintendence  of  a  board  of  curators,  to  be  ap- 
pointed by  the  directors.  All  such  specimens,  and  so  forth, 
unless  deposited  specially,  shall  remain  in  the  cabinet ;  and, 
in  case  of  the  dissolution  of  the  institution,  shall  become  the 
property  of  the  United  States."^ 

The  Institute  was  dissolved  in  1861  and  its  collections 
deposited    in    the    Smithsonian    Institution,       "By    this    so- 

1  Rhees,  W.  J.  "  The  Smithsonian  Institution  :  Documents  Relative  to  its  Origin,"  page  240. 


3o6  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

clety,"  remarks  Doctor  Goode,  "the  nucleus  for  a  National 
Museum  was  gathered  in  the  Patent  Office  building  in  Wash- 
ington, and  public  opinion  was  educated  to  consider  the  es- 
tablishment of  such  an  institution  worthy  of  the  attention  of 
the  government  of  tHe  United  States."  ^ 

The  first  collections  of  any  magnitude  which  the  National 
Institute  took  under  its  care  were  those  of  the  United 
States  Exploring  Expedition  which  was  sent  out  by  the 
Navy  Department,  under  Lieutenant  Wilkes,  in  1838.  Ear- 
lier expeditions  under  the  auspices  of  the  government  had 
been  organized,  but  they  either  made  no  collections  or  de- 
posited such  as  they  did  make  in  private  museums  outside 
of  Washington. 

The  first  collections  of  the  exploring  expedition  were  re- 
ceived in  Philadelphia  in  1840  and  were  temporarily  stored 
in  a  room  belonging  to  the  Philadelphia  Museum.  Poinsett 
induced  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  James  K.  Paulding, 
to  forward  these  collections  to  Washington,  and  interested 
himself  to  secure  from  Congress  an  appropriation  of  $5000 
to  defray  the  cost  of  their  transportation  and  subsequent 
arrangement. 

In  April,  1841,  the  collections  were  deposited  in  a  portion 
of  a  room  in  the  new  Patent  Office,  designated  for  the 
purpose  by  the  Secretary  of  State.  Doctor  Henry  King,  a 
geologist  and  mining  expert  and  curator  of  the  National 
Institute,  was  in  direct  charge.  The  compensation  of  the 
curator  was  paid  from  the  appropriation  of  Congress  already 
referred  to. 

With  what  rapidity  collections  accumulated  under  the 
charge   of  the   National  Institute   may  be  learned  from  the 

1  Report  of  the  United  States  National  to  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  by  Doctor 
Museum,  1893,  page  3.  For  a  full  account  Goode,  the  reader  is  directed  to  pages  38-48 
of   the    National  Institute   and   its  relation       of  the  present  work. 


The  United  States  National  Museum        307 

report  of  the  committee  of  the  Institute  dated  January  i, 
1842.  This  report  recites  that  "the  entire  collection  is  de- 
posited in  the  upper  rooms  of  the  Patent  Office;  it  con- 
sists of:^ 

"Donations  from  foreign  governments. 

"  Donations  from  other  institutions,  foreign  and  domestic. 

"Donations  from  ministers  and  consuls  abroad,  and  from 
officers  of  our  Army  and  Navy. 

"  Donations  from  individuals  and  from  members  of  the 
Institution.  The  Iowa  collection  of  mineralogical  and  geo- 
logical specimens,  made  by  R,  D.  Owen,  Esquire,  under  the 
direction  of  the  Treasury  Department. 

"The  collection  of  mineralogical  and  geological  specimens 
which  had  been  on  deposit  in  the  bureau  of  the  Corps  of 
Topographical  Engineers. 

"The  collection  of  portraits  of  distinguished  Indians,  and 
the  collection  of  Indian  curiosities  which  had  been  on  deposit 
in  the  War  Department. 

"The  minerals,  books,  papers,  and  personal  effects  of  the 
Smithsonian  bequest. 

"The  two  shipments  which  have  been  received  from  the 
exploring  squadron,  consisting  of  minerals,  specimens  of  nat- 
ural history,  works  of  art,  implements  of  war,  and  curiosities. 

"The  books,  minerals,  and  works  of  art  belonging  to  the 
late  Columbian  Institute. 

"The  books,  papers,  and  proceedings  of  the  late  American 
Historical  Society. 

"  Cabinets  and  specimens,  deposited  by  members  in  trust, 
for  public  use." 

These  collections,  according  to  the  same  report,  comprised 
about  1000  books  and  pamphlets,  50  maps  and  charts,  500 
castings  in  plaster  (medals  and  seals),  186  paintings,  about 
1600  bird-skins,  160  skins  of  quadrupeds,  50  skins  of  fishes; 
200  jars,  2  barrels,  and  10  kegs   of  fishes,   reptiles,  etc.,   in 

1  Goode.     "  Genesis  of  the  United  States  National  Museum,"  page  347. 


3o8  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

spirits ;  50,000  botanical  specimens,  3000  insects,  several 
hundred  thousand  shells,  500  corallines,  more  than  2000  crus- 
taceans, 300  starfishes,  etc.,  100  sponges,  7000  separate  speci- 
mens of  minerals,  and  50  boxes  of  the  minerals  and  geological 
specimens.  Those  engaged  in  caring  for  the  collections  at 
this  time  were  the  curator  of  the  Institute,  Doctor  King, 
a  taxidermist,  a  botanical  assistant  and  two  other  assistants, 
a  mechanic,  and  a  laborer. 

Thus  was  established  what  in  reality  was  a  National  Mu- 
seum, containing  collections  belonging  to  the  government, 
sustained  by  an  appropriation  from  Congress,  and  employing 
a  curator  and  assistants.  For  a  time  prosperity  seemed 
assured,  but  complications  soon  arose  which  proved  disas- 
trous in  the  highest  degree  not  only  to  the  museum  but  to 
the  National  Institute  itself. 

The  room  in  the  Patent  Office  set  apart  for  the  collections 
by  direction  of  the  Secretary  of  State  was  needed  for  the 
display  of  models  of  inventions,  and  the  Commissioner  of 
Patents  made  strong  protests  against  its  occupancy  by  the 
Institute. 

In  August,  1842,  Congress  authorized  the  occupancy, 
"until  other  provisions  be  made  by  law,"  and  also  appro- 
priated $20,000  for  the  care  and  arrangement  of  the  collec- 
tions, but  in  addition  ordered  that  the  persons  having  the 
work  in  charge  should  be  appointed  by  the  Joint  Committee 
of  the  Library. 

Only  a  month  earlier  a  charter  had  been  granted  to  the 
Institute,  in  which  all  trusts  previously  held  were  confirmed. 
"The  supporters  of  the  Institute,"  writes  Doctor  Goode,^ 
"were  disposed  to  urge  that  this  was  applicable  to  the  col- 
lections of  the  *  exploring  squadron '  at  that  time  in  the  cus- 
tody of  the  Institute.     The   question   did  not   come  up  in  a 

.  1  Goode.     "  Genesis  of  the  United  States  National  Museum,"  page  311. 


The  United  States  National  Mitseimi        309 

troublesome  way  at  this  time,  for  the  Library  Committee,  at 
that  time  [not]  unfriendly,  simply  confirmed  the  choice  of  cura- 
tor made  by  the  National  Institute,  and  appointed  Doctor 
Pickering"  to  the  position,  Doctor  Pickering  being  thenceforth 
subject  to  the  Congressional  Committee,  and  only  by  courtesy 
acting  for  the  National  Institute." 

A  little  later,  in  1843,  ^^  Library  Committee  having  no 
longer  any  consideration  for  the  Institute,  without  consult- 
ing its  officers,  appointed  the  Commissioner  of  Patents  to  have 
general  charge  of  the  government  collections,  and  Captain 
Wilkes,  the  head  of  the  exploring  expedition,  to  arrange 
and  display  them.  Captain  Wilkes  proceeded  with  the  work, 
pushing  aside  the  collections  of  the  Institute  to  make  place 
for  those  of  the  government,  yet  professing  an  interest  in 
the  welfare  of  the  Institute  and  the  security  of  its  prop- 
erty. The  drift  of  matters  came  to  the  attention  of  the 
officers  of  the  Institute  only  by  rumor,  but  Colonel  J.  J. 
Abert  initiated  a  correspondence  with  Captain  Wilkes,  in- 
quiring whether  he  or  his  assistants  would  devote  any  time 
to  the  care  of  the  collections  of  the  Institute,  and  stating 
that  if  such  was  not  the  case  the  attention  of  the  Institute 
would  be  immediately  called  to  the  necessity  of  otherwise 
protecting  its  property.  The  replies  were  not  satisfactory. 
Captain  W^ilkes  held  that  as  he  and  his  assistants  were 
paid  by  the  government  they  could  not  spend  any  time  in 
working  upon  collections  belonging  to  a  private  organiza- 
tion. Nevertheless,  he  expressed  an  intention  not  to  dis- 
turb the  collections  of  the  Institute  more  than  should  be 
really  necessary  in  working  out  those  of  the  government, 
and  to  watch  over  them  as  far  as  possible. 

A  few  months  later,  in  a  correspondence  relative  to  the 
"Ontonagon"  copper  boulder  now  in  the  National  ^luseum, 
the  Commissioner  of  Patents  took  the  same  ground,  and  held 


3IO  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

also  that  he  had  entire  control  over  the  room  in  which  the 
property  of  the  Institute  was  deposited. 

At  the  end  of  1843,  therefore,  the  National  Institute 
found  itself  bereft  of  the  control  of  the  government  collec- 
tions, without  funds,  except  the  membership  dues,  which 
were  much  in  arrears,  and  without  quarters  for  its  large  and 
rapidly  accumulating  collections. 

"The  real  cause  of  the  decline  of  the  National  Institute," 
writes  Doctor  Goode,^  "  was  simple  enough.  Failing  to 
secure  grants  of  money  from  Congress,  the  society  was  over- 
whelmed by  the  deluge  of  museum  materials,  which  in  re- 
sponse to  its  enthusiastic  and  widely-circulated  appeals  came 
to  it  from  all  quarters  of  the  world.  The  annual  receipts 
from  the  assessment  of  members  were  insufficient  to  pay  for 
the  care  of  the  collections,  and  although  by  virtue  of  the  long 
term  of  its  charter  the  collections  were  kept  together  until 
1 86 1,  there  was  little  science  and  little  energy  manifested  in 
this  administration." 

While  the  events  we  have  mentioned  were  taking  place 
extended  discussions  were  going  on  in  Congress,  and  in  the 
country  generally,  regarding  the  proper  disposition  to  be 
made  of  the  bequest  of  James  Smithson.  It  is  unnecessary 
in  the  present  connection  to  consider  the  various  views  put 
forth  further  than  to  remark  that  several  schemes  included 
provisions  for  museums  of  natural  history  and  the  arts. 

The  act  of  incorporation  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution 
passed  August  10,  1846,  provided  that  the  Regents,  having 
selected  a  proper  site,  "  shall  cause  to  be  erected  a  suitable 
building  of  plain  and  durable  materials  and  structure,  without 
unnecessary  ornament,  and  of  sufficient  size,  and  with  suitable 
rooms  or  halls  for  the  reception  and  arrangement,  upon  a 
liberal  scale,  of  objects  of  natural  history,  including  a  geologi- 

1  Goode.     "  Genesis  of  the  United  States  National  Museum,"  page  328. 


TJie  United  States  National  Museum        3 1 1 

cal  and  mineralogical  cabinet;  also,  a  chemical  laboratory,  a 
library,  a  gallery  of  art,  and  the  necessary  lecture  rooms." 

It  is  further  provided  that  the  Regents  "may  so  locate 
said  building,  if  they  shall  deem  it  proper,  as  in  appearance  to 
form  a  wing  to  the  Patent  Office  building,  and  may  so  con- 
nect the  same  with  the  present  hall  of  said  Patent  Office 
building,  containing  the  National  Cabinet  of  Curiosities,^  as  to 
constitute  the  said  hall,  in  whole  or  in  part,  the  deposit   for 

the  cabinet  of  the  said   Institution,  if  they  deem  it  expedient 
to  do  so."     This  plan  was  not  adopted. 

Section  6  of  the  same  act  provides  that  "in  proportion  as 
suitable  arrangements  can  be  made  for  their  reception,  all 
objects  of  art  and  of  foreign  and  curious  research,  and  all 
objects  of  natural  history,  plants,  and  geological  and  minera- 
logical specimens  belonging,  or  hereafter  to  belong,  to  the 
United  States,  which  may  be  in  the  city  of  Washington,  in 
whosesoever  custody  the  same  may  be,  shall  be  delivered  to 
such  persons  as  may  be  authorized  by  the  Board  of  Regents 
to  receive  them,  and  shall  be  arranged  in  such  order  and  so 
classed  as  best  to  facilitate  the  examination  and  study  of 
them,  in  the  building  so  as  aforesaid  to  be  erected  for  the 
Institution." 

Considering  the  section  relating  to  buildings  mandatory, 
and  under  the  belief  that  the  collections  beloncrino-  to  the 
government  must  be  accepted  and  housed,  the  Board  of 
Regents  of  the  newly-established  Institution  proceeded  at 
once  with  the  erection  of  a  lar^je  brown-stone  structure. 

For  various  reasons  the  building  was  many  years  in  con- 
struction, and  during  this  period  the  first  Secretary,  Joseph 
Henry,  became  more  and  more  pronounced  in  his  opinion 
that  the  government  collections  should  not  be  cared  for  at  the 
expense  of  the  Smithsonian  fund.      Indeed,  he  was  in  doubt 

1  See  Goode,  op.  cit.,  page  301, 


312  The  Sifiithsonian  Institution 

whether  the  Institution  ought  to  form  extensive  miscellaneous 
collections  to  be  maintained  permanently  at  the  expense  of 
its  funds,  although  he  fully  appreciated  the  value  of  collec- 
tions, and,  as  will  presently  appear,  labored  to  carry  out  the 
program  adopted  for  the  Institution  by  acquiring  and  caring 
for  such  special  collections  as  could  be  made  the  direct  means 
of  increasing  and  diffusing  knowledge.  In  the  Report  for 
1850  he  remarked: 

"  It  would  not  be  in  accordance  with  the  spirit  of  the  or- 
ganization to  expend  the  income  in  the  reproduction  of  col- 
lections of  objects  which  are  to  be  found  in  every  museum  of 
the  country.  Natural  history  can  be  much  more  effectively 
promoted  by  special  collections  of  new  objects,  by  appropri- 
ations for  original  explorations  and  researches,  and,  above 
all,  by  assistance  in  the  preparation  of  the  necessary  drawings, 
and  by  presenting  to  the  world,  in  a  proper  form,  the  labors 
of  naturalists.  In  conformity  with  these  views,  it  has  been 
resolved  to  confine  the  collections,  principally,  to  objects  of  a 
special  character,  or  to  such  as  may  lead  to  the  discovery  of 
new  truths,  or  which  may  serve  to  verify  or  disprove  existing 
or  proposed  scientific  generalizations."^ 

Again,  in  the  Report  for  185 1,  perhaps  thinking  that  his 
position  regarding  museums  might  be  misunderstood,  he 
wrote : 

"  I  would  distinctly  disavow  the  intention  of  underrating 
the  importance  of  collections  in  themselves.  On  the  con- 
trary, it  ought  to  be  the  duty  of  the  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion to  point  out  the  means  by  which  they  may  be  made, 
and  to  aid  in  the  work,  to  the  extent  of  its  ability,  by 
embracing  all  opportunities  which  may  offer  for  procuring 
specimens  for  distribution,  and  by  facilitating  exchange  and 
assisting  explorations."  ^ 

1  "  Smilhsonian  Report,"  1850,  page  21  (reprinted  in  Report  for  1853,  page  202). 
2" Smithsonian  Report,"  1851,  page  24  (reprinted  in  Report  for  1853,  page  227). 


The  United  States  National  Mttsetim        313 

In  the  same  connection  he  expressed  his  views  regard- 
ing the  importance  of  a  National  Museum,  in  the  following 
words  : 

"Though  the  formation  of  a  general  collection  is  neither 
within  the  means  nor  the  province  of  the  Institution,  it  is 
an  object  which  ought  to  engage  the  attention  of  Congress. 
A  general  museum  appears  to  be  a  necessary  establishment 
at  the  seat  of  government  of  every  civilized  nation.  .  .  .  An 
establishment  of  this  kind  can  only  be  supported  by  govern- 
ment ;  and  the  proposition  ought  never  to  be  encouraged  of 
putting  this  duty  on  the  limited,  though  liberal  bequest  of  a 
foreigner.  The  Smithsonian  Institution  will  readily  take 
the  supervision  of  an  establishment  of  this  kind,  and  give 
plans  for  its  organization  and  arrangement,  provided  it  be 
requested  to  do  so,  and  the  means  for  effecting  the  object  be 
liberally  supplied."  ^ 

In  1850  Professor  Spencer  F.  Baird  was  appointed  Assist- 
ant Secretary  of  the  Institution  in  charge  of  publications  and 
museum.  He  brought  with  him  from  Carlisle,  Pennsylvania, 
not  only  a  considerable  zoological  collection  assembled  by  his 
own  activity,  but,  what  was  vastly  more  important,  a  system 
of  recording,  assorting,  and  distributing  collections  which  was 
sufficiently  comprehensive  and  elastic  to  meet  the  needs  of  a 
great  museum.  In  December,  1850,  he  placed  in  the  hands 
of  Secretary  Henry  a  full  outline  of  operations  which  he  after- 
ward carried  into  practice  with  the  most  signal  success.  He 
perceived  that  the  numerous  surveying  parties  which  the 
government  was  sending  out  from  year  to  year  into  the 
Western  territories  would  be  powerful  agencies  in  increas- 
ing the  knowledge  of  the  natural  history  of  the  country  if 
they  could  be  induced  to  make  collections  of  natural  objects 
along   the  various   routes  they  traversed.     To  this  end   the 

1  "Smithsonian  Report,"  1851,  page  25  (reprinted  in  Report  for  1854,  page  227). 
21 


SH  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

influence  of  the  Institution  was  brought  to  bear  on  those 
officials  of  the  government  who  had  the  several  surveys  in 
charge. 

The  extent  and  form  of  participation  by  the  Institution  in 
the  explorations  of  the  government  surveys  varied  in  different 
cases.  In  some  instances  the  Secretary  of  War  was  induced 
to  grant  an  officer  of  the  Army  leave  of  absence  for  the  pur- 
pose of  making  scientific  explorations  in  some  little  known 
part  of  the  country.  Again,  the  Institution  furnished  outfits 
and  directions  for  collecting  to  such  surgeons  and  other  offi- 
cers of  the  surveying  and  exploring  parties  as  manifested  an 
interest  in  natural  history  explorations.  In  some  cases  the 
personnel  of  an  exploring  party  included  a  naturalist  of 
known  abilities  and  experience,  and  the  Institution  furnished 
every  facility  for  collecting. 

On  this  point  Professor  Baird,  referring  to  the  Mexican 
Boundary  and  Pacific  Railroad  surveys,  reported  in  1853  as 
follows  : 

"Without  a  single  exception,  all  these  parties  have  been 
fitted  out  at  the  Smithsonian  Institution  with  all  necessary 
instruments  and  apparatus  for  natural  history  research,  much 
of  it  contrived  with  special  reference  to  the  exigencies  of 
the  particular  service  involved.  Full  instructions  were  also 
supplied,  by  which  persons  without  previous  practice  were 
enabled  to  master  all  the  general  principles  required  for  mak- 
ing observations  and  collections  of  every  kind."^ 

The  participation  of  the  Institution  also  took  the  form  of 
aid  in  the  publication  of  results.  Every  year  one  or  more 
publications  based  on  the  collections  of  the  government 
parties  were  issued. 

Fostered  by   the   Institution,    to   whose  interest  Professor 

1 "  Smithsonian  Report,"  1853,  page  52. 


The   United  States  National  Museum        315 

Baird  lent  enthusiasm  and  untiring  energy,  the  work  of  col- 
lecting yielded  abundant  fruits.  In  1853,  three  years  after 
his  arrival  at  the  Institution,  Professor  Baird,  having  worked 
along  the  lines  laid  down  by  Henry,  in  procuring  such  series 
of  specimens  as  were  calculated  to  open  up  new  fields  of  study 
and  to  increase  knowledge,  was  able  to  report  on  the  wonder- 
ful development  of  the  natural  history  collections  in  the  fol- 
lowing words: 

"  It  may  be  well  to  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  it  has 
been  the  work  of  but  three  years  to  raise  this  collection 
from  nothing  to  the  front  rank  among  American  cabinets, 
exceeding  all  perhaps  in  the  number  of  new  species  first 
brought  to  light  within  its  limits.  Nor  has  effort  been  con- 
fined merely  to  the  acquisition  of  specimens,  but  to  their  con- 
centration in  mass,  so  as  to  supply  all  working  naturalists 
with  the  materials  of  research.  As  already  stated,  applica- 
tions for  such  assistance  are  constantly  being  received,  and 
always  met  with  all  possible  promptness ;  so  that  scarcely  any 
natural  history  monograph  or  memoir  of  any  extent  has  been 
published  in  this  country  within  a  year  or  two  which  has  not 
been  indebted  in  this  way  to  the  Institution.  From  the  care, 
too,  taken  to  keep  separate  all  the  localities,  however  near 
together,  of  any  species,  the  collection  affords  information  in 
reference  to  the  geographical  distribution  of  species  of  the 
very  highest  value."  ^ 

At  the  end  of  a  decade,  in  i860.  Professor  Henry  was  able 
to  say : 

"The  scientific  material  thus  collected  is  very  valuable, 
and,  in  number  and  variety  of  specimens  and  duplicates  to 
illustrate  the  natural  productions  of  the  North  American 
Continent,  far  excels  any  other  collection  ever  made."" 

1 "  Smithsonian  Report,"  1853,  page  54. 
2  "  Smithsonian  Report,"  i860,  page  44. 


3i6  The  S^nithsonian  Institution 

While  the  Institution  was  thus  exerting  itself  to  obtain 
special  collections  to  serve  as  the  basis  of  research,  the  Com- 
missioner of  Patents  was  growing  each  year  more  desirous 
of  having  the  use  of  the  space  occupied  in  the  Patent  Office 
by  the  national  collections,  and  appealed  frequently  to  Con- 
gress and  to  the  Regents  of  the  Institution  to  relieve  him 
of  their  care. 

In  1857,  when  Professor  Henry  brought  the  matter  before 
them  anew,  they  finally  agreed  that  the  transfer  of  the  collec- 
tions to  the  Smithsonian  building  should  take  place,  but 
stipulated  that  an  appropriation  should  be  made  to  cover  the 
expense  of  the  transfer  and  the  construction  of  cases  in  the 
Smithsonian  building,  and  that  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior 
should  undertake  to  obtain  from  Congress,  as  before,  an 
annual  appropriation  for  the  care  of  the  collections.  In  his 
report  for  1856  Secretary  Henry  said: 

"  For  the  present,  it  may  be  well  to  adopt  the  plan  suggested 
in  a  late  report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Patents,  namely,  to 
remove  the  museum  of  the  Exploring  Expedition,  which  now 
fills  a  large  and  valuable  room  in  the  Patent  Office,  wanted 
for  the  exhibition  of  models,  to  the  spacious  hall  of  the  Insti- 
tution, at  present  unoccupied,  and  to  continue,  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  Regents,  the  appropriation  now  annually  made  for 
the  preservation  and  display  of  the  collections. 

"  Although  the  Regents,  a  few  years  ago,  declined  to  accept 
this  museum  as  a  gift,  yet,  since  experience  has  shown  that 
the  building  will  ultimately  be  filled  with  objects  of  natural 
history  belonging  to  the  general  government,  which,  for  the 
good  of  science,  it  will  be  necessary  to  preserve,  it  may  be  a 
question  whether,  in  consideration  of  this  fact,  it  would  not 
be  well  to  offer  the  use  of  the  large  room  immediately  for  a 
national  museum,  of  which  the  Smithsonian  Institution  would 
be  the  mere  curator,  and  the  expense  of  maintaining  which 
should  be  paid  by  the  general  government."^ 

1 "  Smithsonian  Report,"  1856,  page  22. 


The  United  States  National  Musetim        317 

"I  can  find  no  record  in  the  minutes  of  the  Regents," 
writes  Doctor  Goode,  "  but  have  been  informed  by  Mr.  W. 
J.  Rhees,  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  that  an  urgent  re- 
quest for  the  use  of  the  hall  was  made  by  the  Commissioner  of 
Patents  and  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior,  and  that  the  Board 
decided  to  grant  this  request  on  the  condition  that  Congress 
should  appropriate  money  for  the  construction  of  the  cases 
and  the  transfer  of  the  collections,  and  that  the  Secretary  of 
the  Interior  should  provide  for  the  expenses  of  the  care  of 
the  collections  after  their  transfer  in  the  same  manner  as 
before."^ 

The  collections  were  transferred  to  the  Institution  in  1858. 
Professor  Baird  reported  that  year  ^  that  twelve  separate  col- 
lections were  received  from  the  Patent  Office,  of  which  the 
most  considerable  was  the  collection  of  the  exploring  expe- 
dition under  Captain  Wilkes.  He  estimated  that  the  Patent 
Office  collections  together  constituted  about  one-fifth  of  the 
objects  in  the  Smithsonian  museum.  He  pointed  out  also  that 
there  were  then  in  the  museum  twenty-three  other  govern- 
ment collections  which  had  never  been  in  the  Patent  Office. 
These  were  chiefly  assembled  by  the  different  field  parties  of 
the  Pacific  Railroad  Survey,  the  Mexican  Boundary  Survey, 
and  other  government  expeditions  engaged  in  exploring  the 
national  domain. 

The  policy  relating  to  the  treatment  of  the  collections 
adopted  by  the  Institution  was  fully  explained  in  the  report 
of  the  Secretary  for  1861,  though  in  most  of  its  essential 
features  it  was  in  operation  as  early  as  1857.  Secretary 
Henry  remarks:  ^ 

"The  specimens  may  be  divided  into  two  classes  —  first, 
those  which  have  been  described  in  the  reports  of  govern- 

1  Goode.     "  Genesis  of  the  United  States  National  Museum,"  page  342. 
2  "  Smithsonian  Report,"  1858,  page  52.  '^  "  Smithsonian  Report,"  1861,  page  41. 

21* 


3i8  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

ment  expeditions  or  the  transactions  of  the  Smithsonian  and 
other  institutions ;  and  second,  those  which  have  not  been  de- 
scribed, and  which  consequently  are  considered  of  much  value 
by  the  naturalists  who  are  interested  in  extending  the  several 
branches  of  natural  history.  Of  both  classes  the  Institution 
possesses  a  large  number  of  duplicates,  in  the  disposition  of 
which  some  general  principles  should  be  kept  constantly  in 
view.  After  due  consultation  with  naturalists,  the  following 
rules,  which  were  presented  in  the  last  report,  have  been 
adopted  relative  to  the  described  specimens : 

"First.  To  advance  original  science,  the  duplicate  type 
specimens  are  to  be  distributed  as  widely  as  possible  to  scien- 
tific institutions  in  this  country  and  abroad,  in  order  that  they 
may  be  used  in  identifying  the  species  and  genera  which  have 
been  described. 

"  Second.  To  promote  education,  as  full  sets  as  possible  of 
general  duplicates,  properly  labeled,  are  to  be  presented  to 
colleges  and  other  institutions  of  learning  that  profess  to 
teach  the  principal  branches  of  natural  history. 

"  Third.  It  must  be  distinctly  understood  that  due  credit 
is  to  be  given  to  the  Institution  in  the  labeling  of  the  speci- 
mens, and  in  all  accounts  which  may  be  published  of  them, 
since  such  credit  is  not  only  due  to  the  name  of  Smithson, 
but  also  to  the  directors  of  the  Establishment,  as  vouchers  to 
the  world  that  they  are  faithfully  carrying  out  the  intention 
of  the  bequest. 

"Fourth.  It  may  be  proper,  in  the  distribution  to  institu- 
tions abroad,  as  a  general  rule,  to  require,  in  case  type  speci- 
mens to  illustrate  species  which  have  been  described  by 
foreign  authors  may  be  wanted  for  comparison  or  other  uses 
in  this  country,  that  they  be  furnished  at  any  time  they  may 
be  required. 

"Fifth.  In  return  for  specimens  which  may  be  presented 
to  collecres  and  other  educational  establishments,  collections 
from  localities  in  their  vicinity  which  may  be  desirable  shall 
be  furnished  when  required. 

"  In  the  disposition  of  the  undescribed  specimens  of  the 
collection,  it  is  impossible  to  be   governed  by  rules  quite  as 


The   United  States  National  Mtiseiini        319 

definite  as  those  which  relate  to  the  previous  class,  but  the 
following  considerations  have  been  adopted  as  governing- 
principles: 

"  I.  The  original  specimens  ought  not  to  be  intrusted  to 
inexperienced  persons,  or  to  those  who  have  not  given  evi- 
dence of  their  ability  properly  to  accomplish  the  task  they 
have  undertaken. 

"  2.  Preference  should  be  given  to  those  who  are  engaged 
in  the  laborious  and  difficult  task  of  preparing  complete 
monographs. 

"3.  As  it  would  be  illiberal  to  restrict  the  use  of  the  speci- 
mens, and  confine  the  study  of  them  to  persons  who  can  visit 
Washington,  the  investigator  should  be  allowed  to  take  them 
to  his  place  of  residence,  and  to  retain  them  for  a  reasonable 
time. 

"4.  The  investigator  must  give  assurance  that  he  will  pre- 
pare a  set  of  type  specimens  for  the  Smithsonian  museum, 
and  will  return  all  the  duplicates,  if  required. 

"  5.  In  any  publication  which  may  be  made  of  the  results 
of  the  investigation,  full  credit  must  be  accorded  to  the  In- 
stitution for  the  facilities  which  have  been  afforded." 

All  these  provisions  on  the  part  of  the  Institution  were  car- 
ried   out   as   far   as   the   circumstances   would   permit.     The 

money  available  was  insufficient  for  employing  paid  assist- 
ants to  any  considerable  extent,  and  the  Institution  had  the 
benefit  of  the  voluntary  assistance  both  of  many  recognized 
authorities  in  the  several  branches  of  science  and  of  young 
students.  The  extent  and  importance  of  this  aid  cannot  be 
overestimated.  Collections  which  would  have  remained  use- 
less for  years  were  rapidly  classified  by  competent  naturalists 
and  separated  into  series,  some  to  be  reserved  by  the  In- 
stitution, and  others  to  be  distributed  to  kindred  scientific 
establishments  and  to  colleofes  and  schools. 

The  list  of  collaborators  includes  almost  every  name  prom- 
inent in  American  natural  history  in  the  last  half  century.    Nor 


320  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

is  this  a  matter  for  wonderment.  The  collections  made  by  the 
exploring  parties  of  the  government  in  the  twenty-five  or 
thirty  years  following  the  founding  of  the  Institution  contained 
a  great  number  of  highly  interesting  forms  of  animals  and 
plants  previously  unknown  to  science,  and  the  naturalists  in 
whose  hands  the  various  series  were  placed  constantly  en- 
joyed the  delight  of  discovering  these  and  making  them 
known  to  the  world.  The  boundaries  of  American  natural 
history  were  widened  in  every  direction.  As  regards  verte- 
brates, Professor  Baird  remarked  as  early  as  1856: 

"Messrs.  Audubon  and  Bachman  describe  about  150  North 
American  species  of  mammals.  This  Institution  possesses 
about  130  of  these;  and  about  50  additional  species  have 
already  been  detected,  although  the  examination  of  the  entire 
collection  has  not  yet  been  completed. 

"Of  North  American  birds,  the  Institution  possesses  nearly 
all  described  by  Audubon,  and  at  least  150  additional  species. 

"Of  reptiles,  the  North  American  species  in  the  Museum  of 
the  Smithsonian  Institution  amount  to  between  350  and  400. 
Of  the  150  species  described  in  Holbrook's  '  North  American 
Herpetology,'  the  latest  authority  on  the  subject,  it  possesses 
every  genuine  species,  with  one  or  two  exceptions,  and  at 
least  200  additional  ones.  It  has  about  130  species  of  North 
American  serpents  for  the  49  described  by  Holbrook. 

"  Of  the  number  of  species  of  North  American  fishes  it  is 
impossible  to  form  even  an  approximate  estimate,  the  increase 
having  been  so  great.  It  will  not,  however,  be  too  much  to 
say  that  the  Institution  has  between  four  and  five  hundred 
species  either  entirely  new  or  else  described  first  from  its 
shelves."  ^ 

The  scientific  elaboration  of  the  collections  resulted  in  the 
publication  of  a  great  number  of  monographs  and  preliminary 
papers  in  the  "Smithsonian  Contributions  to  Knowledge"  and 

1 "  Smithsonian  Report,"  1856,  page  60. 


The   United  States  National  Museum        321 

"Miscellaneous  Collections,"  in  the  reports  of  the  government 
surveys,  and  in  the  journals  of  learned  societies  at  home  and 
abroad.  Many  of  the  more  comprehensive  of  these  works 
remained  as  standards  for  a  quarter  of  a  century,  and  some 
have  not  been  supplanted  at  the  present  day. 

In  this  work  no  one  labored  with  more  enthusiasm  or  more 
success  than  Professor  Baird,  who,  while  carrying  the  burden 
of  caring  for  the  collections  and  planning  for  the  exploration 
of  new  fields,  prepared  and  published  a  series  of  works  on 
North  American  vertebrates  which  commanded  the  admira- 
tion of  naturalists  throughout  the  world. 

Side  by  side  with  the  activities  resulting  in  the  increase  of 
knowledge,  the  work  of  diffusing  knowledge  by  the  distribu- 
tion of  named  natural  history  specimens  was  carried  forward 
on  an  extensive  scale.  In  the  first  twenty  years  of  its  history  the 
Institution,  according  to  the  estimate  of  Professor  Baird, ^  dis- 
tributed more  than  one  hundred  thousand  specimens,  of  which 
the  larger  part  were  identified  and  labeled. 

In  1861  the  charter  of  the  National  Institute  expired  and 
the  various  objects  belonging  to  that  organization  became  the 
property  of  the  government  and  were  transferred  to  the  care 
of  the  Smithsonian  Institution. 

At  this  date,  therefore,  all  the  scientific  and  art  collections 
belonging  to  the  government  and  the  collections  made  by 
the  Institution  itself  were  assembled  in  the  Smithsonian 
building.  They  comprised  many  thousands  of  objects,  and 
were  administered  by  Professor  Baird  as  Assistant  Secretary 
of  the  Institution. 

From  the  time  the  government  came  into  possession,  in 
1 84 1,  of  the  collection  made  by  the  Wilkes  Exploring  Expe- 
dition Congress  appropriated  each  year  a  small  sum  for  the 
preservation  of  the  objects  accumulated  in  the  Patent  Office, 

1 "  Smithsonian  Report,"  1865,  page  85. 


322  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

which  money  was  disbursed  at  first  by  the  National  In- 
stitute, afterward  by  the  Commissioner  of  Patents  or  the 
Joint  Library  Committee  of  Congress. 

After  these  collections  were  transferred  to  the  Smithsonian 
Institution  in  1858,  the  appropriations  for  maintenance  con- 
tinued year  by  year,  though  small  in  amount.  In  1858  the 
appropriation  was  $3,650;  in  1859,  and  for  eight  years  fol- 
lowing, $4,000.  The  Institution  never  received  any  compen- 
sation for  the  occupancy  of  its  building.  As  early  as  1856,^ 
Professor  Henry  expressed  the  opinion  at  an  early  day  that 
the  government  might  with  propriety  and  advantage  purchase 
the  Smithsonian  building  from  the  Institution  for  housing  the 
government  collections  "of  natural  history  and  the  fine  arts," 
but  no  action  in  that  direction  was  ever  taken. 

When  these  collections  were  transferred  from  the  Patent 
Office  a  series  of  new  cases  designed  by  Thomas  U.  Walter 
were  erected  in  the  main  hall  of  the  Smithsonian  building 
for  their  display.  Great  progress  has  been  made  in  museum 
methods  in  the  last  two  decades,  but  the  cases,  arrangement, 
labeling,  and  taxidermy  in  the  Smithsonian  museum  thirty- 
five  years  ago  were  probably  as  good  as  could  be  found  in 
any  scientific  museum  in  the  world  at  that  time.  The  exhibi- 
tion of  many  examples  of  a  single  species  of  animal  or  min- 
eral, or  of  a  single  kind  of  ethnological  or  geological  object, 
was  not  considered  objectionable,  and  it  was  a  common  prac- 
tice to  mount  and  exhibit  type  specimens  of  animals.  To 
such  matters  as  the  size  of  glass  in  cases,  the  color  of  wood- 
work and  labels,  the  effect  of  different  groupings  of  speci- 
mens, little  attention  was  devoted.  Indeed,  the  amount  of 
money  spent  upon  scientific  museums  was  not  sufficient  for 
great  refinement  in  display.  Collections  were  exhibited  for 
the  satisfaction  of  the  mature  man  of  science,  rather  than  the 

1 "  Smithsonian  Report,"  1856,  page  22. 


The   United  States  National  Museum        323 

youthful  student  and  the  layman.  Yet  these  latter  classes 
were  neither  purposely  neglected  nor  did  they  complain  of 
the  methods  in  vogue. 

It  is  with  interest  that  we  read  the  following  comment  by 
Professor  Henry  on  the  Smithsonian  museum  in  1861  : 

"  During  the  past  year  Washington  has  been  visited  by  a 
greater  number  of  strangers  than  ever  before  since  the  com- 
mencement of  its  history.  The  museum  has  consequently 
been  continually  thronged  with  visitors,  and  has  been  a  never- 
failing  source  of  pleasure  and  instruction  to  the  soldiers  of 
the  Army  of  the  United  States  quartered  in  this  city  or  its 
vicinity.  Encouragement  has  been  given  them  to  visit  it  as 
often  as  their  duties  would  permit  them  to  devote  the  time  for 
the  purpose. 


"  1 


In  1865  an  event  of  much  importance  occurred.  A  fire 
broke  out  in  the  second  floor  of  the  Smithsonian  building  and 
destroyed  the  upper  portions  of  the  edifice.  Many  collections 
were  entirely  destroyed  or  injured  beyond  repair,  among 
which  the  most  important  were  Smithson's  personal  effects 
and  cabinet  of  minerals,  a  large  series  of  portraits  of  Indians 
painted  and  owned  by  J.  M.  Stanley,  and  the  collection  of 
physical  instruments,  including  Hare's  experimental  apparatus 
and  "the  lens  used  by  Priestley  for  the  evolution  of  oxygen 
from  the  oxide  of  mercury,  and  by  means  of  which  the  first  dis- 
tinct recognition  of  this  elementary  substance  was  effected."^ 

This  event  produced  results  affecting  the  museum  in  many 
ways.  It  called  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  library  of  the 
Institution  was  kept  in  rooms  not  fireproof,  and  the  transfer 
of  the  books  to  the  Library  of  Congress  was  hastened,  the 
space  being  subsequently  occupied  by  the  less  valuable  por- 
tions of  the  natural  history  collections.  By  the  destruction 
of  the  Stanley  portraits  of  Indians,  which,  though  really  an 

1  "  Smithsonian  Report,"  1861,  page  44.  2  <«  Smithsonian  Report,"  1865,  page  18. 


324  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

ethnological  collection  and  only  on  deposit  in  the  Institution, 
formed  an  important  part  of  what  (with  frequent  apologies) 
was  called  "the  gallery  of  art,"  the  attempts  to  form  an  art 
collection  of  merit  received  discouragement.  The  reconstruc- 
tion of  the  building,  made  necessary  by  the  fire,  led  to  a  new 
assignment  of  rooms  for  the  ethnological  collections.  Pre- 
vious to  the  fire  the  upper  story  had  been  used  principally  as 
a  lecture-room,  but  the  interest  in  lectures  flagging  for  a 
time,  it  was  determined  after  the  reconstruction  to  place  the 
ethnological  collections  in  that  portion  of  the  building,  but 
the  transfer  was  not  effected  until  several  years  later. 

Though  the  formation  of  an  art  gallery  was  provided  for 
in  the  organization  of  the  Institution  and  a  few  art  objects 
came  into  the  possession  of  the  government  from  time  to 
time.  Professor  Henry  took  the  position  at  an  early  day  that 
with  the  funds  available  the  establishment  of  an  art  collection 
worthy  of  the  name  was  impossible.  When  Mr.  W.  W.  Cor- 
coran first  took  active  steps  toward  the  formation  of  the 
"Corcoran  Art  Gallery"  in  1869,  Henry  recommended  that 
art  objects  belonging  to  the  Institution  should  be  deposited 
therein.  In  1873  the  Board  of  Regents  approved  the  plan, 
and  in  the  following  year  a  few  paintings,  sculptures,  and 
engravings  were  transferred. 

In  the  early  days  of  the  Institution  the  valuable  collection 
of  engravings  made  by  Honorable  George  P.  Marsh  was  pur- 
chased (the  only  large  purchase  by  the  Institution  in  the 
direction  of  art),  and  soon  after  the  fire  in  the  Smithsonian 
building  it  was  transferred  to  the  Library  of  Congress. 

By  1874,  therefore,  the  Institution  had  definitely  aban- 
doned all  efforts  toward  the  establishment  of  an  art  gallery, 
and  though  some  few  objects  connected  with  the  fine  arts 
have  come  under  its  care  in  later  years,  they  have  never 
been  assembled  so  as  to  form  a  proper  "gallery." 


The  United  States  National  Museum        325 

In  1 87 1  Congress  established  the  United  States  Fish  Com- 
mission and  Professor  Baird  was  placed  at  its  head.  The 
organization  of  the  Commission  on  this  basis  had  a  most  im- 
portant effect  upon  the  development  of  the  National  Museum 
in  certain  directions.  The  work  of  the  Commission  had  to 
do  largely  with  the  natural  history  of  fish  and  other  aquatic 
animals,  and  in  the  course  of  a  few  years  very  large  collec- 
tions of  marine  life  were  deposited  in  the  Museum.  Later 
the  work  of  the  Commission  turned  toward  the  investigation 
of  the  phenomena  of  the  deep  sea,  and  in  1882  a  sea-going 
steamer,  the  Albatross,  was  built,  and  extensive  sounding 
and  dredging  operations  in  great  depths  were  carried  on. 

The  collections  made  during  the  progress  of  this  work, 
and  deposited  in  the  Museum,  were  of  the  highest  scientific 
interest,  and  the  results  already  published  by  Goode,  Verrill, 
Bean,  Rathbun,  Smith,  and  other  naturalists  have  attracted 
worldwide  attention.  In  many  other  ways,  which  cannot 
be  detailed  in  the  present  connection,  the  work  of  the  Com- 
mission was  of  direct  and  indirect  benefit  to  the  Museum, 
and  the  cooperation  of  these  two  governmental  organizations 
has  continued  until  the  present. 

Not  many  years  after  the  organization  of  the  Commission 
the  question  of  the  desirability  of  holding  a  great  World's  Fair 
to  commemorate  the  hundredth  anniversary  of  the  Declara- 
tion of  Independence  began  to  be  agitated  in  the  country. 
The  movement  culminated  in  the  organization  of  the  Cen- 
tennial Exhibition  of  1876,  held  in  Philadelphia.  This  event 
was  destined  to  have  a  more  important  effect  upon  the  Na- 
tional Museum  than  any  which  had  occurred  since  the 
founding  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution. 

The  government  determined  that  the  various  departments 
and  bureaus  should  make  extensive  exhibits  indicating  their 
several   functions,   and  on   January   23,    1874,   the   President 


326  The  Smithsonian  histitution 

appointed  a  government  board  to  have  general  charge.  The 
Smithsonian  Institution  was  represented  by  Professor  Baird. 
In  the  first  plans  of  the  board  the  National  Museum  exhibit 
was  included  under  that  of  the  Institution,  and  the  Fish  Com- 
mission apparently  under  the  Interior  Department.  They 
included  also  an  item  of  $200,000  for  an  exhibition  building 
which  should  be  "capable  of  removal  to  Washington  after 
the  close  of  the  Exhibition,  to  be  used  as  a  National  Museum 
at  the  capital  of  the  nation."^  Congress,  however,  saw  fit  to 
modify  these  plans  and  provided  for  the  erection  of  a  general 
government  building,  to  be  paid  for  pro  rata  from  the  ap- 
propriations of  the  several  departments  and  bureaus,  and  to 
be  sold  at  the  close  of  the  Exhibition.  An  appropriation 
of  $67,000  was  made  for  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  and 
of  $5000  for  the  Fish  Commission,  the  provision  for  the 
National  Museum  being  included  in  the  former.  When  the 
several  officers  of  the  Board  began  to  examine  the  situation 
in  detail  it  became  apparent  that  different  bureaus  would 
duplicate  one  another's  exhibits  unless  some  compromise  were 
made.  Accordingly  the  exhibits  of  the  Institution,  the  Na- 
tional Museum,  and  the  Fish  Commission  were  merged  into 
one  comprehensive  exhibit;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
National  Museum  cooperated  with  the  Indian  Bureau  of  the 
Interior  Department  in  an  exhibit  representing  North  Amer- 
ican anthropology.  The  combined  exhibit  was  divided  into 
five  sections  —  Smithsonian  Activities,  "Animal  Resources," 
Fisheries,   Mineral  Resources,   Anthropology. 

In  the  preparation  of  the  exhibits  of  "animal  resources" 
and  fisheries  Professor  Baird  (then  "  Curator  of  the  National 
Museum  ")  had  the  assistance  of  G.  Brown  Goode  ("who  held 
the  position  of  Assistant  Curator  of  the  National  Museum  "), 
Tarleton  H.  Bean,  and  H.  C.  Chester;   in  ethnology,  Charles 

1  "Smithsonian  Report,"  1875,  page  59. 


The  United  States  National  Mtisenni        327 

Rau,  Edward  Foreman,  and  F.  H.  Gushing;   in  mineral  re- 
sources, William  P.  Blake  and  Thomas   Donaldson. 

When  the  idea  of  holding  a  great  exhibition  under  the 
government  was  first  put  forth,  both  Secretary  Henry  and 
Professor  Baird  foresaw  that  the  effect  on  the  National 
Museum  must  be  of  the  greatest  moment.  The  objects 
purchased  and  exhibited  by  the  government  of  the  United 
States  would  find  their  final  resting-place  in  the  Museum, 
and  many  foreign  governments  and  private  exhibitors  would 
doubtless  present  their  exhibits  to  the  United  States,  with 
the  result  that  they  also  would  find  their  way  into  the 
Museum. 

''The  results  of  the  operations  of  the  Institution  in  con- 
nection with  the  Centennial  Exhibition,"  wrote  Professor 
Henry  in  1875,  "will  probably  have  a  much  greater  effect 
on  the  future  of  the  establishment  than  is  at  first  sight  ap- 
parent. The  large  number  of  specimens  which  have  been 
collected  by  the  several  Departments  of  Government  and  by 
the  Institution  itself  in  view  of  this  Exhibition  will  greatly 
increase  the  contents  of  the  National  Museum,  and  if  we  add 
to  these  the  specimens  which  will  be  presented  by  foreign 
powers,  of  which  we  have  already  had  intimations,  the  num- 
ber will  be  swelled  to  an  extent  far  beyond  the  capacity  of 
the  present  building  to  contain  them,  and  an  additional  edifice 
will  be  required  for  their  accommodation, 

"In  the  consideration  of  this  matter,  the  questions  will  arise 
whether  the  building  required  shall  consist  of  an  extension 
of  the  present  Smithsonian  edifice,  or  an  entirely  separate 
building;  and  these  questions  will  involve  another,  viz., 
whether  it  is  advisable  to  continue,  at  least  without  some 
modification,  the  connection  which  now  exists  between  the 
Smithsonian  Institution  and  the  National  Museum. 

"The  Museum  is  destined  to  an  extension  far  beyond  its 
present  magnitude.  It  is  an  object  of  much  interest  to  all 
who  visit  the  National  Gapital,  and  is  of  great  value  as  ex- 


328  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

hibiting  the   natural   resources  of  the  country,  as  well  as  a 
means  of  public  education." 

Professor  Baird,  as  Exhibition  representative  of  the  Institu- 
tion, wrote  in  the  Report  of  the  same  year  as  follows: 

"  It  will,  however,  be  readily  understood  that  the  Smith- 
sonian Building  will  be  entirely  inadequate  to  accommodate 
this  collection  on  its  return  from  Philadelphia,  especially  as 
even  now  it  is  overcrowded  and  packed  from  top  to  bottom 
with  thousands  of  boxes,  for  the  proper  exhibition  of  the  con- 
tents of  which  there  is  no  space  or  opportunity  at  the  present 
time.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  action  at  an  early  day  will  be 
taken  by  Congress  looking  toward  a  proper  provision  for  this 
emergency,  especially  when  it  is  realized  that  the  materials 
are  thus  available  for  a  National  Museum  that  shall  be  equal, 
in  its  extent  and  completeness  and  in  its  educational  advan- 
tages, to  that  of  any  nation  in  the  world. 

"The  collections  made  directly  through  the  Government 
appropriations  will  also  be  very  largely  supplemented  by  the 
donation  of  series  of  American  and  foreign  exhibitors,  a  very 
large  proportion  of  which  will  be  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the 
United  States  Government." 

The  anticipations  of  Henry  and  Baird  were  fully  met.  In 
the  Report  for  the  Centennial  year  Professor  Baird  wrote : 

"  At  no  period  in  the  history  of  the  National  Museum,  from 
the  time  when  it  was  organized  to  the  present,  has  the  in- 
crease been  so  great  as  during  the  year  1876."^ 

After  referring  to  the  accessions  from  the  government  ex- 
hibits, he  remarks : 

"  In  addition,  however,  to  the  sources  of  increase  to  the 
Museum  during  the  years  1875  and  1876,  mentioned  above, 
still   another  presented   itself  of  perhaps   even   greater  pro- 

1  "  Smithsonian  Report,"  1876,  page  38. 


ROGER   BROOKE   TANEY. 

THIRD  CHANCELLOR   OF  THE  S.MITHSOXIAX  IXSTITFTIOX 

1850-1864:. 


328 


iiai! 


cue   t- 


.>rp 


.i.;;i. 


vcporc  of  the  same  year 


itU- 


:iig  wiii  be  eti 

I  on  its  return  from  Phi 

.nd  packed  from 
witii  thousands  of  boxes,  for  the  prope 
te:    'i;  of  whicl 

It  is  to  be  ho: 

'onoress  looking  d  a  proper  pr 


'\  Nntional 


'nrnt' 


nodate 


nnter 


Ivan- 


^^•lent 

'-mentf 

the 

• »    ■ 

.  -1,  »-• » • 

aced  at  the 

!■.-    !•, 


ons  c 


nniai  year 


t  no 


wilt 
vso  ereac  as  dur 


•  al  Museum,  from 


.j-ftei-osHj: 


.  ve, 
greater  pro- 


T/CAHn  QHIHT 


The  United  States  National  Miisetim        329 

ductiveness,  viz.,  acquisitions  from  foreign  exhibits.  With 
scarcely  an  exception,  the  best  and  most  important  of  these 
were  presented  to  the  United  States  at  the  close  of  the  exhi- 
bition, embracing,  as  they  did,  many  complete  series  of  objects, 
illustrating  the  geology,  metallurgy,  the  ethnology,  and  the 
general  resources  of  all  nations.  Of  about  forty  governments 
and  colonies,  the  choicest  of  the  exhibits  of  thirty-four  were 
presented  to  the  Smithsonian  Institution  for  the  National 
Museum,  the  remainder  either  having  nothing  to  give  or 
being  restricted  in  the  disposal  of  their  articles. 

**  It  was,  however,  not  from  foreign  commissions  alone  that 
collections  were  received  by  the  Institution.  Several  entire 
State  exhibits  and  many  belonging  to  private  parties  were 
also  added  to  the  general  increase.  Nevada,  Montana,  and 
Utah  presented  the  whole  of  their  mineral  exhibits,  while  par- 
tial collections  were  received  from  several  other  States  and 
Territories." 

The  Reofcnts  of  the  Institution  submitted  a  memorial  to 
Congress  the  same  year  (1876)  asking  an  appropriation  of 
$250,000  for  a  building  for  the  National  Museum.  A  bill 
was  introduced,  but  failed  of  passage  that  year,  and  it  was 
not  until  1879  that  the  amount  asked  for  was  provided. 

As  soon  as  the  law  was  enacted  a  building  commission  ap- 
pointed by  the  Regents  of  the  Institution  was  organized,  con- 
sistino-  of  the  resident  members  of  the  executive  committee 
of  the  Institution  (Honorable  Peter  Parker  and  General 
William  T.  Sherman)  and  Secretary  Baird.  General  Sher- 
man was  chosen  as  chairman  and  General  M.  C.  Meisfs  was 
invited  to  act  as  consulting  engineer. 

The  commission  selected  the  firm  of  Cluss  &  Schulze, 
whose  design  for  the  building  had  been  approved  by  Con- 
gress, as  superintending  architects,  and  received  the  benefit 
of  the  advice  of  Mr.  Edward  Clarke,  architect  of  the  Capitol. 

The  erection  of  the  building  was  begun  April  17,  1879,  and 
22 


33^  The  SmithsoiiiaJi  Institution 

completed  in  1881.  In  design  the  structure  is  of  the  type 
commonly  employed  for  exhibition  buildings,  being  entirely 
open  above  the  ground  floor.  It  covers  a  space  of  two  and  a 
third  acres.  On  account  of  the  relatively  small  amount  ap- 
propriated for  the  building  and  the  enormous  growth  of  the 
national  collections,  it  was  necessary  to  use  building  materials 
of  low  cost  and  to  cover  in  as  much  space  as  possible.  The 
building  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  cheapest  of  its  size  ever 
erected.  While  admirably  adapted  in  most  respects  for  the 
purpose  for  which  it  was  built,  it  does  not,  of  course,  present, 
either  externally  or  internally,  an  appearance  as  pleasing  or 
diofnified  as  would  have  resulted  from  the  use  of  a  more  ex- 
pensive  system  of  construction  and  more  costly  materials. 

While  the  building  was  under  construction.  Congress  de- 
cided that  the  United  States  Government  should  be  repre- 
sented at  the  Berlin  Fisheries  Exhibition  of  1880  by  the  Fish 
Commission.  Professor  Baird,  then  both  Secretary  of  the  In- 
stitution and  Fish  Commissioner,  appointed  G.  Brown  Goode, 
the  Curator  of  the  National  Museum,  as  his  deputy  at  the 
exhibition.  By  this  fortunate  combination  of  circumstances. 
Doctor  Goode,  the  working  head  of  the  National  Museum, 
was  afforded  an  opportunity  to  study  the  museums  of  Ger- 
many and  other  parts  of  Europe,  and  brought  home  with  him 
a  knowledge  of  the  most  approved  methods  of  installation  of 
collections,  labeling,  and  storage  which  was  invaluable.  Far 
more  fortunate  was  it  that  the  Museum  at  this  critical  time  in 
its  history  had  as  its  curator  a  man  of  such  surpassing  merit 
as  the  lamented  editor  of  this  volume.  Gifted  with  a  philo- 
sophical mind,  a  profound  love  of  nature,  a  marvelously  re- 
tentive memory,  and  untiring  energy,  he  acquired  a  range  of 
knowledge  and  a  grasp  of  affairs  which  astonished  his  asso- 
ciates, while  his  modesty,  gentleness,  and  love  of  fair  play 
attracted  to  him  and  bound  to  his  service  men  of  the  most 


The  United  States  National  Mnseiun       331 

diverse  capacities  and  opinions.  His  genius  was  known  to 
Secretary  Baird,  but  hitherto  he  had  not  found  a  sufficiently 
wide  field  for  the  exercise  of  his  powers.  The  reorganization 
of  the  Museum  afforded  an  opportunity,  and  Baird  gave  him 
free  scope  for  the  development  of  his  plans,  aiding  him  as  no 
one  else  could  have  done,  from  the  stores  of  a  lifetime  of  ex- 
perience along  the  same  lines. 

Out  of  the  heterogeneous  materials  accumulated  by  the 
government,  especially  as  a  result  of  the  Centennial  Exhibi- 
tion, Doctor  Goode  organized,  under  the  approving  guidance 
of  Secretary  Baird,  a  public  museum  of  wide  scope,  attractive, 
instructive,  orderly,  and  full  of  the  elements  of  life.  He  elabo- 
rated with  the  greatest  pains  a  philosophical  and  compre- 
hensive classification  for  the  collections  of  the  Museum,  and 
planned  a  complete  reorganization  of  the  staff  of  curators 
and  assistants.  He  devised  an  entirely  new  series  of  cases 
and  other  fixtures,  for  the  installation  of  both  the  collections 
exhibited  to  the  public  and  those  reserved  for  the  use  of  in- 
vestigators, adopting  the  best  features  then  developed  in 
European  museums,  and  adding  many  of  his  own  invention. 

This  regeneration  of  the  National  Museum  soon  made 
itself  felt  in  similar  ororanizations  throuQfhout  the  United 
States  and  in  other  parts  of  the  world,  and  the  methods  of 
installation  and  labeling  employed  in  Washington  have 
been  widely  copied. 

The  influence  of  the  National  Museum  has  not,  however, 
stopped  here.  Already  at  the  Berlin  Fisheries  Exhibition  of 
1880,  with  the  experience  gained  during  the  Centennial  Exhi- 
bition, Doctor  Goode  was  able  to  secure  for  the  United  States 
Fish  Commission  and  the  National  Museum  the  Emperor's 
prize  for  the  highest  excellence  of  display.  Not  satisfied 
with  this  recognition,  and  always  aiming  to  advance,  he 
endeavored  to  install  the  exhibits  of  the  Institution  and  Mu- 


33^  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

seum  at  later  foreign  and  domestic  exhibitions,  in  accordance 
with  the  best  museum  methods.  As  a  result  the  exhibits  of 
the  Institution  always  won  high  praise,  and  it  is  not  too  much 
to  say  that  the  work  of  the  National  Museum  in  this  direction 
has  had  a  powerful  influence  in  revolutionizing  exhibition 
methods  in  America. 

Since  the  Centennial  Exhibition  of  1876,  few  years  have 
passed  in  which  the  Museum  has  not  been  engaged  in  pre- 
paring for  a  public  exposition  of  greater  or  less  magnitude. 
It  made  displays  at  London  in  1883,  at  Louisville  in  1884,  at 
Minneapolis  in  1887,  at  Cincinnati  and  Marietta  in  1888,  at 
Madrid  in  1892,  at  Chicago  in  1893,  and  at  Atlanta  in  1895. 
The  necessity  of  carrying  on  exhibition  work  outside  of 
Washington  has  affected  the  National  Museum  in  many 
ways.  Probably  no  other  great  permanent  museum  in  the 
world  has  had  constantly  before  it  the  problem  of  guarding  its 
treasures  from  deterioration,  and  at  the  same  time  transport- 
ing no  inconsiderable  portion  of  them  thousands  of  miles  and 
displaying  them  under  the  ordinarily  unfavorable  surround- 
ings of  temporary  exhibitions.  The  advantages  lie  in  the 
direction  of  making  the  work  of  the  Museum  known  to  the 
people  of  the  Republic  and  the  world  at  large,  and  securing 
new  objects  with  which  to  fill  out  the  deficiencies  in  its  vari- 
ous collections.  The  disadvantages  are  found  in  damage 
done  to  objects  in  the  collections  by  breakage  or  otherwise, 
the  interruption  of  the  regular  Museum  work,  and  the  dissi- 
pation of  the  energies  of  the  scientific  officers ;  for  a  mu- 
seum, like  any  other  permanent  institution,  requires  abundant 
time  and  uninterrupted  activity  for  its  best  development,  and 
does  not  flourish  in  the  midst  of  commotion  and  excitement. 

Thus  far  I  have  considered  the  National  Museum  in  its 
historical  aspects.     It  remains  to  explain  briefly  its  function 


The   United  States  National  Miiseitm        zzz 

and  aims,  and  to  mention  the  most  notable  objects  in  its 
collections. 

It  will  be  perceived,  from  the  statements  already  made,  that 
the  Museum  is  essentially  a  natural  development  springing 
from  the  activities  of  the  government,  growing  with  their 
growth,  and  expanding  with  their  expansion.  It  had  its  ori- 
gin in  the  great  naval  exploring  expedition  which  the  gov- 
ernment organized  in  the  early  part  of  the  century,  and  found 
an  important  expansion  in  the  long  series  of  topographical 
surveys  of  the  public  domain,  and  geological  surveys  of  later 
years.  The  scientific  investigation  of  the  primary  indus- 
tries—  agriculture,  fisheries,  and  mining  —  by  the  govern- 
ment has  also  resulted  in  large  additions  to  the  Museum. 
Finally,  the  desire  on  the  part  of  the  government  that  the 
people  should  gain  a  better  understanding  of  its  practical 
workings,  through  representative  displays  of  processes  and 
objects  in  the  great  public  exhibitions,  has  broadened  the 
activities  and  increased  the  wealth  of  the  Museum,  both 
directly  and  indirectly;  —  directly,  because  the  Museum  has 
need  to  bestir  itself  to  bring  together  and  arrange  exhibits 
which  will  be  acceptable  to  the  public ;  indirectly,  because 
the  participation  of  the  government  of  the  United  States  often 
leads  other  governments  to  participate,  and  the  exhibits  of 
these,  in  greater  or  less  proportion,  are  ultimately  presented 
to  the  United  States  for  its  National  Museum. 

The  field  of  activities  of  the  government  has  had  a  strong 
influence  on  the  character  of  the  collections  of  its  National 
Museum.  While  European  governments  have  been  engaged 
in  exploring  new  regions  and  founding  colonies  in  distant 
sections  of  the  globe,  that  of  the  United  States  has  confined 
its  attention  almost  exclusively  to  North  America.  The  col- 
lections of  the  National  Museum,  therefore,  are  predomin- 
antly North   American.      Leaving  out   of  consideration   the 

22* 


334  The  Sjiiithsoriimi  Institution 

important  foreigri  collections  of  a  few  early  expeditions,  and 
those  resulting  from  the  deep-sea  investigations  of  the  United 
States  Fish  Commission,  the  additions  in  this  direction  have 
chiefly  come  from  the  activities  of  private  explorers,  by  gift 
of  foreign  governments  at  expositions,  by  exchange  of  speci- 
mens, and  only  in  a  few  instances  by  purchase. 

In  the  organic  law  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  already 
cited  it  is  provided  that 

"  In  proportion  as  suitable  arrangements  can  be  made  for 
their  reception,  all  objects  of  art  and  of  foreign  and  curious 
research,  and  all  objects  of  natural  history,  plants,  and  geo- 
logical and  mineralogical  specimens  belonging,  or  hereafter 
to  belong  to  the  United  States,  which  may  be  in  the  city  of 
Washington,  in  whosesoever  custody  the  same  may  be,  shall 
be  delivered  to  such  persons  as  may  be  authorized  by  the 
Board  of  Regents  to  receive  them,  and  shall  be  arranged  in 
such  order  and  so  classed  as  best  to  facilitate  the  examina- 
tion and  study  of  them." 

In  the  act  of  June  30,  1880,  making  appropriations  for  the 
sundry  civil  expenses  of  the  government,  it  is  enacted  that 
''all  collections  of  rocks,  minerals,  soils,  fossils,  and  objects 
of  natural  history,  archaeology,  and  ethnology,  made  by  the 
Coast  and  Interior  Survey,  the  Geological  Survey,  or  by  any 
other  parties  for  the  government  of  the  United  States,  when 
no  longer  needed  for  investigations  in  progress,  shall  be 
deposited  in  the  National  Museum."^ 

In  the  same  year,  as  we  have  said.  Congress  appropriated 
money  "  for  a  fire-proof  building,  y^r  tJie  use  of  the  National 
Micsetcm." 

As  may  be  seen  from  the  statutes  cited,  the  National  Mu- 
seum is  the  recognized  depository  for  all  objects  of  scientific 
and  artistic  interest  and  value  which  come  into  the  possession 

1  Statutes  United  States  Forty-fifth  Congress,  third  session,  chapter  182,  page  394. 


The  United  States  National  Miiseiun        335 

of  the  government.  Its  function  is  to  preserve  these  treasures 
perpetually  and  to  administer  the  collections  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  to  render  them  of  the  highest  service  to  research  and 
education.  In  pursuance  of  these  ends  it  exhibits  a  portion 
of  the  collections  for  public  inspection  and  instruction;  an- 
other portion  it  assembles  in  laboratories  for  the  use  of 
investigators.  Out  of  the  surplus  accumulations  it  selects 
series  of  specimens  for  distribution  to  educational  institutions, 
and  it  encourages  publications  which  will  make  its  treasures 
known  to  the  world.  Of  these  latter  activities  it  will  be 
necessary  to  speak  somewhat  more  in  detail  before  closing, 
and  I  will  return  to  them  presently.  It  is  desirable  to 
point  out  here  the  fact,  which  will  become  evident  to  any 
one  upon  reflection,  that  an  institution  such  as  the  National 
Museum,  with  its  facilities  for  investigation  and  its  corps 
of  trained  specialists,  soon  becomes  a  center  of  intellectual 
activity,  attracting  to  itself  students  and  sava7its,  and  being 
called  upon  to  impart  technical  information  and  advice. 
In  these  lines  lies  no  inconsiderable  part  of  its  labor  and 
usefulness. 

It  is  to  be  said  further  that  the  Museum  of  to-day,  owing  in 
part  to  a  natural  development,  and  in  part  to  the  labors  of  a 
few  advanced  leaders,  among  whom  none  have  rendered  more 
important  service  than  the  late  Doctor  Goode,  is  no  longer  con- 
tent with  a  passive  existence,  but  strives,  by  the  arrangement 
of  its  collections,  by  its  labels,  its  hand-books  and  other 
publications,  and  its  lectures,  to  impart  instruction  of  a  def- 
inite character  and  in  definite  lines.  It  assembles  great  col- 
lections of  natural  objects  and  treasures  of  art  not  merely  to 
satisfy  idle  curiosity,  but  to  diffuse  knowledge  among  men. 
Thus  it  allies  itself  to  the  university  and  the  library,  and 
must  be  counted  among  the  chief  agencies  for  the  spread 
of  culture. 


33^  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

To  describe  in  detail  all  the  more  important  objects  in  the 
National  Museum  would  require  more  space  than  can  be  de- 
voted to  such  an  enumeration  in  this  volume,  but  it  will  be  of 
interest  to  point  out  the  chief  excellences  of  the  collections 
and  to  mention  some  of  the  treasures. 

The  collections  are  at  present  divided  among  the  following 
Departments  and  Sections : 

Zoological  Departments :  Mammals,  Birds  (with  a  Section 
of  Birds'  Eggs),  Reptiles  and  Batrachians,  Fishes,  Mollusks, 
Insects,  Marine  Invertebrates  (with  a  Section  of  Parasitic 
Worms),  Comparative  Anatomy. 

A  Botanical  Department. 

Geological  Departments :  Geology,  Mineralogy,  and  Pale- 
ontology. 

Anthropological  Departments:  Prehistoric  Anthropology, 
Ethnology  (with  a  section  of  American  Pueblo  Collections), 
Oriental  Antiquities. 

A  Department  of  "Arts  and  Industries,"  with  the  following 
sections  at  present:  Historical  Relics,  Transportation  and 
Engineering,  Naval  Architecture,  Physical  Apparatus,  Elec- 
trical Collections,  Technological  Collections,  Materia  Medica, 
Forestry,  and  Graphic  Arts. 

The  Department  of  Mammals  comprises  the  collection  of 
the  Wilkes  Exploring  Expedition  and  of  the  numerous  geo- 
graphical and  geological  surveys  of  the  public  domain,  in- 
cluding the  type-specimens  of  species  described  by  Baird  in 
his  great  work  on  North  American  mammals,  and  numerous 
types  of  J.  A.  Allen,  Elliott  Coues,  Harrison  Allen,  and  other 
American  naturalists.  The  collections  from  the  Mexican 
boundary  recently  made  by  Doctor  E.  A.  Mearns,  U.  S.  A., 
are  large  and  of  high  scientific  value.^ 

1  The  very  extensive  series  of  North  Amer-  Hart  Merriam,  the  finest  ever  assembled,  is 
ican  mammals  made  by  the  United  States  deposited  in  the  Museum  building  and  cata- 
Department  of  Agriculture  under  Doctor  C.       logued  in  its  registers. 


The   United  States  National  Museum        zzi 

A  series  of  casts  of  porpoises  and  other  cetaceans,  includ- 
ing a  young  humpback  whale,  forms  a  unique  feature  of  the 
Department. 

The  representation  of  foreign  mammals,  though  deficient  in 
many  directions,  includes  a  considerable  number  of  type-spe- 
cimens, and  some  important  local  collections,  chief  among 
which  are  those  from  German  East  Africa  and  from  Kash- 
mir and  Eastern  Turkestan,  made  and  presented  by  Doctor 
William  L.  Abbott. 

The  collection  of  skulls  of  North  American  mammals  is 
probably  unrivaled  elsewhere  in  extent,  and  the  Department 
also  contains  a  large  alcoholic  series. 

Of  the  Department  of  Birds,  the  Curator,  Mr.  Robert  Ridg- 
way,  writes : 

"Among  the  most  important  collections  and  single  objects 
contained  in  the  Department  of  Birds  are  the  following : 

"  (i)  The  collections  made  by  the  Wilkes  Exploring  Expe- 
dition, the  various  Pacific  Railroad  Surveys,  the  Mexican 
Boundary  Survey,  the  Geological  Exploration  of  the  Fortieth 
Parallel,  the  Geological  Survey  of  the  Territories,  Geo- 
graphical Surveys  West  of  the  One  Hundredth  Meridian, 
the  United  States  Astronomical  Expedition  (Gilliss),  and 
various  other  government  expeditions.-^ 

"  (2)  The  collection  made  by  Colonel  A.  J.  Grayson  in 
Western  Mexico,  including  the  Tres  Marias  and  Revilla- 
Gigedo  Islands ;  collections  made  by  Professor  F.  Sumichrast 
on  the  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec,  and  by  Professor  C.  Sartorius 
in  the  State  of  Vera  Cruz,  Mexico ;  collections  made  by 
F.  A.  Ober  in  the  various  islands  of  the  Lesser  Antilles. 

"  (3)  The  collections  made  by  the  United  States  Fish  Com- 
mission during  a  cruise  of  the  steamer  Albatross  around  Cape 
Horn  and  in  the  Bahamas. 

IThe  valuable  collections  of  birds  made  Merriam  in  the  United  States  and  Mexico 
by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agiicul-  are  deposited  in  the  Museum  building,  as  in 
ture  under  the  direction  of  Doctor  C.  Hart       the  case  of  the  mammals. 


338  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

"  (4)  Specimens  from  Audubon's  collection,  among  them  a 
considerable  number  of  types  of  his  new  species,  that  is,  spe- 
cimens from  which  the  descriptions  and  colored  plates  in  his 
great  work  were  taken.  These  formed  part  of  Professor 
Baird's  private  collection,  to  whom  they  were  given  by  Mr. 
Audubon. 

"  (5)  The  private  collection  of  Professor  Baird,  numbering 
nearly  4000  specimens,  which  formed  the  nucleus,  or  begin- 
ning, of  the  present  national  collection. 

"  (6)  Other  private  collections  donated  to  the  National 
Museum. 

"  (7)  The  collections  made  by  Doctor  William  L.  Abbott  in 
Eastern  Africa,  Madagascar,  etc.,  generously  presented  to 
the  National  Museum  and  embracing  a  very  large  number  of 
species  entirely  new  to  the  Museum  collection,  many  of  them 
being  new  to  science.  These  collections  of  Doctor  Abbott, 
moreover,  represent  practically  all  that  the  Museum  possesses 
from  the  countries  named. 

"  (8)  The  collection  of  several  thousand  specimens  from 
various  parts  of  the  world,  presented  by  Mr.  A.  Boucard,  of 
Spring  Vale,  Isle  of  Wight,  England. 

"  (9)  Extinct  Birds :  Great  Auk  (one  specimen),  Labrador 
Duck  (several),  Guadelupe  Caracara  (good  series,  old  and 
young),  and  Philip  Island  Parrot,  the  latter  purchased  for  the 
Museum  by  Doctor  William  L.  Ralph,  of  Utica,  New  York. 

"(10)  Very  rare  species,  or  those  nearly  extinct,  as  the 
Carolina  Paroquet,  Ivory-billed  Woodpecker,  Black-capped 
and  Jamaican  Petrels,  Hawaiian  Coot,  Cuban  Macaw,  Peale's 
Sandpiper  (several  specimens,  the  only  ones  known  to  exist 
in  collections),  and  numerous  other  species. 

"(11)  Unique  types,  such  as  Fisher's  Petrel,  Townsend's 
Bunting,  Cooper's  Sandpiper,  Cooper's  Hen- Hawk,  Riker's 
Woodhewer. 

"The  National  Museum  collection  of  North  American  birds 
is  by  far  the  most  complete  in  existence,  and  is  the  basis  of 
every  important  work  on  North  American  birds  since  Audu- 
bon's time.  That  of  the  birds  of  the  West  Indies  is  also  the 
most  important,  although  exceeded  greatly  in  number  by  that 


The  United  States  National  Mttseum        339 

of  Mr.  C.  B.  Cory,  now  the  property  of  the  Field  Columbian 
Museum,  in  Chicago,  Illinois.  That  of  Central  American  and 
South  American  birds  is  exceeded  in  extent  and  value  only 
by  the  British  Museum's  series  of  birds  from  the  same  region, 
and  has  been  freely  used  by  Messrs.  Sclater,  Salvin,  God- 
man,  Count  von  Bcrlepsch,  and  others  in  their  various  pub- 
lications on  neotropical  birds,  and  is  also  largely  the  basis  of 
Professor  Baird's  'Review  of  American  Birds.' 

"  Museums  throughout  the  world  have  been  supplied  with 
American  birds  by  the  United  States  National  Museum,  and 
the  existing  specimens  of  several  species,  such  as  the  Roseate 
Gull,  Greenland  Redpoll,  and  several  Alaskan  species,  have 
mainly,  —  in  some  cases  exclusively, — been  distributed  by 
the  National  Museum. 

"  It  can  safely  be  said  that  no  collection  of  birds  in  the 
world  compares  with  that  of  the  United  States  National 
Museum  in  value  or  importance  as  a  basis  for  scientific  inves- 
tigation already  accomplished  or  yet  to  be  done,  since  as 
many  species  as  possible,  with  the  facilities  at  command,  are 
represented  by  large  series  of  specimens  from  all  parts  of 
their  geographical  range,  and  of  all  known  variations  de- 
pendent on  climate,  sex,  age,  or  other  circumstances. 

"The  unparalleled  collection  of  North  American  birds' 
eggs  in  the  United  States  National  Museum  is  the  result  of 
many  years'  growth.  In  the  early  years  of  the  Institution 
Professor  Baird  interested  the  naturalists  of  the  various 
government  surveys  and  members  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Fur 
Company  in  the  subject,  and  from  them  (and  especially 
the  latter)  thousands  of  eggs  were  received.  Mr.  R.  Mc- 
Farlane^  was  particularly  active,  and  with  him  were  associ- 
ated B.  R.  Ross,  James  Lockhart,  John  Reid,  M.  INIcLeod, 
A.  McKenzie,  and  others,  who  sent  not  only  eggs,  but  large 
collections  of  other  kinds.  The  Institution  sent  Robert  Ken- 
nicott  to  Arctic  America  in  1859,  where  he  remained  three 
years,  collecting  the  natural  productions  of  the  region,  and 
with  them  many  eggs  of  Arctic  birds. 

1  See  his  report  in  "Proceedings  of  the  United  States  National  Museum,"  Volume  XIV, 

pages  413-446. 


340  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

"Naturalists  visiting  Alaska  and  Labrador  also  made  large 
contributions  to  the  oological  collections.  The  eggs  of  the 
rare  Northern  water-birds  and  waders  so  difficult  to  obtain 
for  private  collections  were  thus  sent  (often  in  large  series)  to 
the  Institution. 

"In  1884  Major  Bendire  added  to  the  already  large  collec- 
tion his  unrivaled  series  of  eggs  of  Western  birds,  obtained 
during  twenty-five  years  of  duty  in  the  Territories,  This 
collection  numbered  eight  thousand  or  more  beautifully  pre- 
pared specimens.  From  that  time  till  his  death  Major  Ben- 
dire  was  untiring  in  his  efforts  to  obtain  the  desiderata  of  the 
collection.  More  recently  Doctor  William  L.  Ralph,  of  Utica, 
New  York,  has  presented  his  magnificent  collection  of  eggs 
to  the  Institution,  and  is  now  actively  engaged  in  filling  gaps 
in  the  series, 

"To  mention  specifically  all  the  rarities  in  the  North 
American  series  of  the  oological  department  would  be  an 
almost  endless  task;  a  few  of  the  more  important  ones  are 
the  following : 

"Great  Auk,  i  Qgg\  Heermann's  Gull,  2  eggs;  Craveri's 
Murrelet,  2  eggs;  Jabiru,  i  &gg\  Purple,  Aleutian,  Coues's, 
Baird's,  Pectoral,  White-rumped,  and  Curlew  Sandpipers; 
Sanderling,  2  specimens  (McFarlane);  Heath  Hen,  one  speci- 
men ;  Passenger  Pigeon,  about  thirty  eggs  ;  California  Vul- 
ture, I  &gg;  Harlan's,  Krider's,  and  Short-tailed  Hawks; 
Peale's,  Richardson's,  and  Aplomado  falcons ;  Elf,  Flammu- 
lated,  and  Californian  Pigmy  Owls;  Carolina  Paroquet; 
Ivory-billed  Woodpecker;  White-throated  and  Vaux's  Switts; 
Clarke's  Nutcracker,  several  eggs;  Western  Evening-Gros- 
beak; American  and  Mexican  Crossbills;  Pribilof  Snowflake, 
several  eggs.  Among  the  rare  warblers  may  be  mentioned : 
Brewster's,  Virginia's,  Lucy's,  Cape  May,  Olive,  Sennett's, 
Grace's,  Townsend's,  Hermit,  Golden-cheeked,  Gray,  and 
Connecticut  Warblers ;  Rio  Grande  and  Belding's  Yellow. 
throats;   Red-faced   Warblers, 

"Of  foreign  eggs  may  be  mentioned  those  of  the  Kamts- 
chatkan  Sea  Eagle  and  the  Ouesal ;  also  various  series  of  eggs, 
like  those  collected  by  Doctor  Jerome  H.  Kidder  on  Kerguelen 


The  United  States  National  Museum        341 


Island,  Doctor  William  L.  Abbott  in  Africa,  Seychelles  Isl 
ands,  Asia,  etc.     On  some  of  these  reports  have  been  made 


"  1 


Of  the  Department  of  Reptiles  and  Batrachians,  the  Cura- 
tor, Doctor  Leonhard  Stejneger,  remarks : 

"  The  distinctive  characteristic  of  the  reptile  collection  in  the 
Museum  is  in  the  completeness  with  which  it  illustrates  the 
geographical  distribution  and  morphology  of  the  species  in- 
habiting North  America.  In  this  respect  it  stands  unrivaled. 
As  the  depository  of  the  types  of  the  species  described  by 
Baird,  Girard,  Kennicott,  Cope,  and  other  distinguished 
American  herpetologists  it  also  takes  first  rank. 

"  The  importance  of  the  individual  collections  must  there- 
fore be  judged  with  reference  to  their  richness  in  such  types 
and  the  advance  in  our  knowledge  of  the  reptiles  and  batra- 
chians of  this  continent  that  has  ensued.  The  collections 
which  have  undoubtedly  contributed  most  in  these  respects 
are  those  of  the  Pacific  Railroad  Surveys,  the  first  Mexican 
United  States  Boundary  Survey,  and  the  Wilkes  Exploring 
Expedition." 

The  collections  of  fishes  are  almost  exclusively  North  Amer- 
ican, with  one  notable  exception  in  the  case  of  the  deep-sea 
fishes  dredged  by  the  United  States  Fish  Commission 
steamer  Albatross  in  the  North  Atlantic  and  North  Pacific. 
The  latter  collection  is  of  equal  importance  with  that  of  the 
Challenger  expedition,  if  it  does  not  surpass  the  same,  and 
formed  the  basis  of  the  recent  work  of  Doctor  Goode  and 
Doctor  Bean  on  "  Oceanic  Ichthyology." 

The  Department  contains  the  most  extensive  collections  of 
fresh-water  and  littoral  fishes  of  the  United  States  anywhere 

1 "  Contributions  to  the  Natural  History  of  of  Nests  and  Eggs  of  Some  New  Birds,  col- 

Kerguelen  Island,  made  in  connection  with  lected  on  the  Island  of  Aldabra,  Northwest 

the  American  Transit  of  Venus  Expedition,  of  Madagascar,  by  Doctor  W.  L.  Abbott." 

lS74-'75,"    lacing   Bulletin    No.    3,    United  Proceedings  of  the  United  States  National 

States  National  Museum.  Also"  Description  Museum,  Volume  xvii,  1894,  pages  39-41. 


342  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

assembled,  consisting  chiefly  of  the  great  series  formed  by  the 
United  States  Fish  Commission,  supplemented  by  the  collec- 
tions of  many  American  naturalists.  The  collection  of  Alas- 
kan fishes  is  very  large,  and  is  not  extensively  duplicated 
elsewhere. 

The  series  of  fishes  collected  in  connection  with  the  Pacific 
Railroad  Surveys  and  the  first  Mexican  Boundary  Survey 
are  of  special  importance  as  containing  the  types  of  a  large 
proportion  of  the  species  of  the  middle  and  western  United 
States.  They  have  been  supplemented  in  recent  years  by 
important  series  collected  under  the  auspices  of  the  Fish 
Commission  and  by  private  collectors. 

The  Department  contains  also  many  single  specimens  of 
great  value,  which  have  been  made  the  basis  of  new  families 
and  genera. 

Regarding  the  Department  of  Mollusks,  Mr.  William  H. 
Dall,  the  Honorary  Curator,  writes  as  follows : 

"  The  collection  of  mollusks  was  founded  primarily  upon 
the  specimens  gathered  by  the  United  States  Exploring  Ex- 
pedition under  Wilkes  during  1838-42,  which  formed  the 
types  of  the  folio  volume  on  the  mollusks  and  shells  by  Doc- 
tor A.  A.  Gould,  included  in  the  series  of  United  States 
Exploring  Expedition  reports  published  by  Congress.  To 
these  were  added  the  types  of  the  mollusks  of  the  North 
Pacific  Exploring  Expedition  under  Ringgold  and  Rodgers, 
collected  by  Doctor  William  Stimpson,  and  described  by 
Gould.  The  collections  were  very  rich  and  valuable,  for  the 
time,  but  underwent  serious  vicissitudes  before  and  after  be- 
ing received  by  the  Smithsonian  Institution  previous  to  the 
organization  of  the  museum,  so  that  the  series  as  it  now 
exists  is  by  no  means  complete.  Nevertheless  these  shells 
form  an  interesting  and  important  portion  of  the  collection. 

"  Next  in  point  of  number  and  value  comes  the  collection, 


The  United  States  National  Mtisettm        343 

especially  of  Unionidae,  given  by  Doctor  Isaac  Lea,  and 
subsequently  enriched  by  his  son-in-law  and  daughter,  the 
Reverend  and  Mrs.  L.  T.  Chamberlain.  This  collection  is, 
in  its  specialties,  the  freshwater  mussels  of  the  world,  unri- 
valed for  extent  and  value,  comprising  an  enormous  number 
of  types  and  having  full  data  in  relation  to  the  habitat,  etc., 
in  nearly  every  case. 

"Almost  as  important  for  the  mollusks  of  Great  Britain, 
Northern  Europe,  the  Mediterranean,  and  especially  for  the 
various  deep-sea  dredging  expeditions  sent  out  under  British 
auspices  before  the  Challenger  expedition,  is  the  Jeffreys 
collection,  purchased  from  Doctor  J.  Gwyn  Jeffreys,  and 
comprising  the  results  of  nearly  half  a  century  of  active 
collecting,  exchanging,  and  purchase  —  in  all  some  25,000 
lots  of  specimens,  by  far  the  most  important  and  complete 
series  of  British  shells  in  existence,  and  forming  the  basis 
of  some  hundred  publications. 

"  The  fauna  of  West  America,  both  littoral  and  deep- 
sea  mollusks,  is  represented  by  the  combined  collections  of 
Robert  E.  C.  Stearns,  William  H.  Dall,  the  United  States 
steamer  Albatross  of  the  Fish  Commission,  the  Arctic  cruis- 
ers of  the  United  States  Revenue  Marine,  and  many  private 
donations,  in  all  representing  the  most  complete  existing  rep- 
resentation of  the  fauna,  with  full  data  in  nearly  every  case. 

"  The  fauna  of  the  east  coast  of  North  America  is  repre- 
sented by  the  unrivaled  collections  of  the  United  States  Fish 
Commission,  augmented  by  a  series  of  those  of  the  Blake 
and  many  private  collectors  in  the  West  Indies  and  on  our 
southern  coast. 

"The  land  and  freshwater  shells  of  North  America,  apart 
from  the  freshwater  mussels,  are  represented  by  the  best 
existing  collection  derived  from  many  sources,  including 
types  of  Binney  and  Bland,  Lea,  Lewis,  Dall,  Stimpson,  and 
many  others. 

"To  sum  up,  the  collection  of  mollusks  has  the  best  series 
in  the  world,  supplied  with  the  fullest  data,  in  the  modern 
sense,  of  the  land,  freshwater,  shore,  and  deep-sea  mollusks 
of  North  America,  the  Arctic  regions,  the  North  Atlantic  and 


344  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

Pacific  and  the  British  Islands.  In  the  total  number  of  spe- 
cimens, the  collection  is  the  largest  in  the  world,  including 
over  six  hundred  thousand  specimens  of  dry  shells  and  five 
thousand  jars  of  alcoholic  molluscan  material.  The  collection 
of  Cenozoic  fossil  shells  comprises  the  largest  existing  series 
of  the  tertiary  fauna  of  the  United  States  ;  and  probably  the 
largest  series  of  Antillean  tertiary  shells  in  any  museum,  though 
much  remains  to  be  done  in  naming  and  classifying  the  fossil 
material. 

"  It  may  be  said  without  fear  of  contradiction,  that  for  the 
regions  mentioned,  the  Department  of  Mollusks  is  unrivaled, 
not  only  in  the  amount  and  variety  of  material  it  contains, 
but  especially  in  the  full  and  correct  data  recorded  in  respect 
to  the  specimens,  and  which  gives  to  them  a  really  scientific 
value,  which  is  wanting  in  most  of  the  great  collections  of  the 
world,  which  were  mostly  made  at  a  period  when  the  impor- 
tance of  such  data  was  not  fully  recognized.  No  other  col- 
lection contains  nearly  as  many  American  and  British  type 
specimens ;  and  only  the  British  Museum  rivals  ours  in  the 
number  of  species  represented  from  the  whole  world.  No 
other  collection  has  so  large  a  representation  of  deep-sea 
mollusks  and  brachiopods,  for  the  study  of  which  the  National 
collection  is  indispensable." 

Of  the  Department  of  Insects,  Doctor  L.  O.  Howard,  the 
Honorary  Curator,  writes : 

"Taking  the  collection  as  a  whole,  and  aside  from  the  con- 
sideration of  the  individual  collections  of  which  it  is  composed, 
I  should  say  that  its  most  important  features  are,  first,  the 
rapidly  accumulating  number  of  types  in  all  orders,  amounting 
already  to  more  than  thirty-five  hundred  species;  and  second, 
the  biologic  features  of  the  collection,  due  largely  to  the  fact 
that  the  original  deposit  by  Doctor  Riley  was  mainly  biologic  in 
its  character,  and  to  the  further  fact  that  the  biologic  accumu- 
lations of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  for 
seventeen  years,  which  have  been  very  great,  are  now  in  the 
possession  of  the  Museum. 


The   United  States  National  Museum        345 

"The  subjoined  statement  refers  to  the  source  of  the 
different  collections  now  brought  together.  Looking  at  the 
collection  as  a  whole,  however,  the  departments  which  stand 
out  conspicuously  are  {a)  the  collection  of  North  American 
Noctuidae  (probably  the  most  complete  in  existence),  {b)  the 
collection  of  Parasitic  Hymenoptera  (undoubtedly  the  largest 
collection  of  bred  specimens  in  the  world),  {c)  the  Orthop- 
terous  family,  Acrididre,  {d)  the  Homopterous  families  Coc- 
cidae,  AphididcX,  and  Psyllidre  (without  doubt  the  largest 
accumulation  of  North  American  species),  (e)  the  Dipterous 
families  Syrphidse  and  Empidae,  {/)  the  collection  of  Myri- 
opoda. 

"The  Department  is  at  present  in  excellent  working  con- 
dition. It  contains  a  very  great  amount  of  material  in  all 
orders,  and  in  many  unusual  directions  surpasses  any  collec- 
tion in  the  country.  Among  others  the  following  are  of  special 
interest : 

"  I.  The  large  collection,  in  all  orders,  of  Doctor  C.  V. 
Riley. 

"  2.  All  of  the  material  gathered  during  the  past  eighteen 
years  by  correspondents,  field  agents,  and  the  office  staff  of 
the  Division  of  Entomology,  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture. 

"  3.   The  greater  part  of  the  collection  of  Asa  Fitch. 

"4.  The  large  collection,  in  all  orders,  of  G.  W.  Belfrage. 

"  5.  The  collections  in  Lepidoptera  and  Coleoptera  made  by 
Doctor  John  B,  Smith  down  to  1889,  together  with  the  types 
of  the  Noctuidae  since  described  by  Doctor  Smith. 

"6.  The  collection  of  Lepidoptera  of  O.  Meske. 

"  7.   The  collection  of  Lepidoptera  of  G.  Beyer. 

"8.  The  collection  of  Coleoptera  of  M.  L.  Linell. 

"  9.  The  bulk  of  the  collection,  in  all  orders,  of  H.  K.  Mor- 
rison. 

"  10.    The  collection  of  Diptera  of  Edward  Burgess. 

"  II.  The  type  collection  of  Syrphidae  made  by  Doctor  S. 
W.  Willision. 

"  12.  The  collection  of  Lxodidae  of  Doctor  George  Marx. 

23 


346  The  SniitJisoiiian  Institution 

"  13.   The  collection  of  Myriopoda  of  C.  H.  Bollman. 

"  14.  Sects  of  the  neotropical  collections  of  Herbert  H. 
Smith. 

"  15.  The  collection  of  Hymenoptera  of  William  J,  Fox. 

"  16.   The  collection  of  Tineina  of  William  Beutenmiiller. 

"  17.  The  large  Japanese  collection,  in  all  orders,  of  Doctor 
K.  Mitsukuri. 

"  18.  The  African  collections,  in  all  orders,  of  Doctor  W.  L. 
Abbott,  William  Astor  Chanler,  J.  F.  Brady,  the  Eclipse 
expedition  of  1889-90  to  West  Africa,  and  of  several  mis- 
sionaries. 

"  19.  The  large  collection  from  South  California  of  D.  W. 
Coquillett,  in  Coleoptera,  Hymenoptera,  Lepidoptera,  and 
Orthoptera. 

"  20.  The  Townend  Glover  manuscripts  and  plates. 

"  In  addition  to  this  material,  there  are  minor  collections 
which  have  been  the  result  of  the  work  of  government  ex- 
peditions, or  are  gifts  from  United  States  Consuls  and  many 
private  individuals." 

The  most  beautiful,  and  in  many  respects  the  most  im- 
portant, of  the  numerous  series  in  the  Department  of  Marine 
Invertebrates  is  the  collection  of  corals  made  by  the  United 
States  Exploring  Expedition,  and  described  by  Dana.  It 
includes  many  types  of  new  forms.  The  great  deep-sea  col- 
lections from  the  North  Atlantic  and  North  Pacific  made  by 
the  United  States  Fish  Commission  deserves  notice;  as  do  also 
the  exhaustive  collections  from  the  New  England  coast  and 
the  Fishing  Banks,  and  from  the  west  coast  of  Alaska,  re- 
ceived from  the  same  source.  All  the  collections  are  very 
rich  in  the  types  of  new  species  and  higher  groups. 

Among  the  notable  specimens  in  the  Department  of  Com- 
parative Anatomy  should  be  mentioned  the  skulls  and  partial 


The   United  States  National  Mtisenm        347 

skeletons  of  the  great  extinct  Arctic  Seacow  (Rytina)  ;  several 
skeletons  of  huge  Galapagos  Tortoises  ;  and  an  unrivaled 
series  of  bones  of  the  Great  Auk.  The  collection  is  rich  in 
skulls  and  skeletons  of  the  various  species  of  porpoises. 

In  the  Department  of  Geology  the  following  series  and 
separate  objects  are  pointed  out  by  Doctor  George  P.  Merrill 
as  deserving  special  mention  : 

"  I.  The  Leadville  (Colorado)  collections  of  rocks  and  ores, 
comprising  some  three  hundred  and  eighty  specimens,  illus- 
trating the  work  of  S.  F.  Emmons  and  Whitman  Cross.  ^ 

"  2.  The  Washoe  collections,  comprising  one  hundred  and 
ninety-eight  specimens  as  selected  and  studied  by  George  F. 
Becker.  ^ 

"  3.  The  collections  of  the  Fortieth  Parallel  Survey.  These 
comprise  some  three  thousand  specimens  of  eruptive  and  sedi- 
mentary rocks  collected  by  members  of  the  Fortieth  Parallel 
Survey,  under  the  direction  of  Clarence  King,  in  1867-73. 
The  eruptive  rocks  of  the  series  were  described  by  Professor 
Ferdinand  Zirkel.  ^ 

"4.  The  Hawes  collections.  These  comprise  some  three 
hundred  and  fifty  specimens  of  eruptive  altered  rocks,  repre- 
senting in  part  the  work  done  by  Doctor  Hawes  in  connection 
with  the  New  Hampshire  surveys.*  It  also  includes  the 
small  fragments  described  in  his  paper^  on  the  Albany  granites 
and  their  contact  phenomena. 

"  5.  The  Pacific  Slope  Quicksilver  collections.  These 
comprise  several  hundred  small  specimens  (mostly  4x6  cm.), 
rocks  and  ores  from  the  quicksilver  regions  of  the  locality 
above  noted,  as  collected  and  described  by  G.   F,   Becker^ 

1  Emmons,  Samuel  Franklin.      "Geology  States  Geological  Explorations  of  the  For- 

and  Mining  Industry  of  Leadville,  Colorado,  tieth  Parallel,  Volume  vi,  1876. 

with  Atlas."    Monograph  xii  of  the  United  4 "The   Geology   of    New    Hampshire." 

States  Geological  Survey,  1886.  Concord,  1878,  Volume  III,  Part  iv. 

'^"  Geology  of  the  Comstock  Lode  and  the  5  American  Journal  of  Science,  1881,  Vol- 
Washoe   District,  with  Atlas."     Monograph  ume  XXI,  pages  21-32. 
Ill   of  the  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  1S82.  6  Monograph    XIII    of  the    United    States 

3  "  Microscopic    Petrography."       United  Geological  Survey,  1 886. 


348 


The  Smithsonian  Institution 


and  colleagues  in  '  Geology  of  the  Quicksilver  Deposits  of  the 
Pacific  Slope.' 

**  6,  Pigeon  Point  collections.  These  comprise  four  hun- 
dred specimens  illustrating  various  contact  phenomena  as 
occurring  at  Pigeon  Point,  on  the  north  shore  of  Lake 
Superior,  and  as  described  by  Professor  W.  S.  Bailey  in  a 
bulletin  ^  of  the  United  States  Geological  Survey. 

"  7.  Menominee  Valley  and  Marquette  River  collections. 
These  comprise  two  hundred  and  fifty-four  specimens  illus- 
trative of  the  dynamic  metamorphism  of  eruptive  rocks  as 
described  by  Professor  George  H.  Williams.  ^ 

"  8.  The  Eureka  (Nevada)  collection,  comprising  some 
five  hundred  and  six  specimens,  rocks  and  ores,  as  studied 
and  described  by  Arnold,  Hague, ^  Whitman  Cross,  and  J.  S. 
Curtis."* 

"9.  The  Cripple  Creek  (Colorado)  collections.  These 
comprise  some  eight  hundred  specimens  of  rocks  and  ores. 
The  material  studied  by  Whitman  Cross  and  R.  A.  F.  Pen- 
rose and  described  in  their  report  on  the  '  Geology  and 
Mining  Industry  of  the  Cripple  Creek  District.'^ 

"  10.  The  Silver  Cliff  collections,  comprising  three  hundred 
specimens  of  rocks  and  ores.  The  collection  upon  which  is 
based  the  report  by  Whitman  Cross  and  R.  A.  F.  Penrose. 

"  II.  The  Tenth  Census  collection  of  Building  and  Orna- 
mental Stone  comprises  some  three  thousand  specimens, 
mainly  in  the  form  of  four-inch  cubes,  and  two  thousand  thin 
sections.^  These  formed  the  basis  of  the  results  criven  in  '  The 
Collection  of  Building  and  Ornamental  Stones;  a  Handbook 
and  Catalogue.'  '^ 


1"  The  Empire  and  Sedimentary  Rocks  on 
Pigeon  Point,  Minnesota,  and  their  Contact 
Phenomena."     1S93.     Bulletin,  No.  109. 

2  "  The  Greenstone  Schist  Areas  of  the  Me- 
nominee and  Marquette  Regions  of  Michi- 
gan." 1890.  Bulletin  No.  62  of  the  United 
States  Geological  Survey. 

3  Hague,  Arnold.  "  Geology  of  the  Eureka 
District,  Nevada,  with  Atlas."  1892.  Mono- 
graph XX  of  the  United  States  Geological 
Survey. 


4  Curtis,  Joseph  Story.  "  Silver-lead  De- 
posits of  Eureka,  Nevada,  1SS4."  Monograph 
VII  of  the  United  States  Geological  Survey. 

6  Sixteenth  Annual  Report  of  the  United 
States  Geological  Survey,  Part  II,  1894-95. 

6  Merrill,  George  P.  Special  Reports  on 
Petroleum,  Coke,  and  Building  Stones,  Tenth 
Census  of  the  United  States,  1880,  Vol- 
ume X. 

7  Report  United  States  National  Museum, 
1886,  page  277. 


The  United  States  National  Mttsenm       349 

"12.  The  Tenth  Census  collection  of  Iron  Ores,  compris- 
ing" some  two  thousand  two  hundred  hand  specimens  and  five 
hundred  and  six  thin  sections.  This  formed  the  basis  of  Pro- 
fessor Raphael  Pumpelly's  report.^ 

"  13.  The  collection  illustrating  Kirkaldy's  experimental 
inquiry  into  the  mechanical  properties  of  Fagersta  steel. 

"  14.  Collections  from  the  Archaean  Division  of  the  United 
States  Geological  Survey  made  in  Vermont  and  Massachu- 
setts, and  forming  the  basis  of  the  petrographic  work  to  be 
published  in  a  forthcoming  monograph.^ 

"Among  the  materials  of  greatest  historical  importance 
may  be  mentioned : 

"  (^.)  A  mass  of  iron  smelted  by  members  of  the  Frobisher 
expedition  during  their  stay  at  Frobisher  Bay  in  1578. 

**  ibi)  A  piece  of  metallic  tin  smelted  by  Doctor  T.  C.  Jack- 
son in  1840  from  ore  found  at  Jackson,  Carroll  County,  New 
Hampshire,  and  believed  to  have  been  the  first  tin  smelted  in 
America. 

"  (^.)  The  first  steel  car  axle  made  in  America  and  bent 
cold. 

"  id.)  Copper  medal.  Struck  from  the  first  copper  pro- 
duced in  Colorado  in  1866. 

"  (^.)  Placer  gold.  First  gold  discovered  in  California, 
from  tail-race  two  hundred  yards  below  the  mill,  panned 
by  J.  W.  Marshall  on  the  evening  of  the  19th  and  20th  of 
January,  1848.  Marshall's  Claim,  Sutter's  Mill,  Coloma, 
El  Dorado  County,  California. 

"  (yi)  Sample  of  petroleum  from  the  first  flowing  well  in 
the  United  States.  Drilled  in  1829  near  Burkesville,  Ken- 
tucky. 

"Amons:  the  more  strikino^  collections  of  the  exhibition 
series  may  be  mentioned  the  one  illustrating  limestone  cav- 
erns and  associated  phenomena.  This  includes  not  only  a 
large  and  variegated  series  of  stalagmitic  and  stalactitic  min- 

1  Report  on  the   Mining  Industries  of  the   United  States,  with  special  investigations  into 

the  iron  resources  of  the  Republic,  and  into  the  cretaceous  coals  of  the 
Northwest.     Volume  xv.,  Washington,  1886. 

2  See  also  Thirteenth  and  Fourteenth  Annual  Reports  of  the  United  States  Geological  Survey. 

-J 


350  TJie  Smithsonian  Institution 

erals,  but  also  representative  forms  of  animal  life  such  as 
inhabit  caverns.  The  collection  as  a  whole  is  doubtless  the 
most  complete  and  systematic  of  its  kind  in  any  museum  in 
the  world. 

"  In  the  economic  section  are  very  full  and  systematic 
collections  illustrating  the  mineral  resources  of  the  United 
States,  arranged  geographically,  and  also  a  systematic  series 
in  which  minerals  of  the  same  nature  and  from  world-wide 
sources  are  arranged  by  kinds.  This  collection  comprises 
probably  not  fewer  than  ten  thousand  specimens." 

Mr.  F.  V.  Coville,  Honorary  Curator  of  the  Department 
of  Botany,  furnishes  the  following  brief  account  of  the  collec- 
tion of  plants : 

"  With  reference  to  the  collections  in  the  Department  of 
Botany,  it  may  be  said  that  they  constitute  what  is  commonly 
known  as  the  National  Herbarium.  The  nucleus  of  the 
herbarium  consisted  of  the  plants  collected  by  the  Wilkes  Ex- 
ploring Expedition  during  the  years  1838  to  1842.  To  these 
were  added  later  the  material  from  the  North  Pacific  Explor- 
ing Expedition  of  Ringgold  and  Rodgers,  followed  by  those 
of  Fremont,  the  Mexican  Boundary  Commission,  the  Pacific 
Railroad  Surveys,  and  all  the  later  explorations  and  expedi- 
tions of  the  government, 

"In  recent  years  the  largest  amount  of  material  received  has 
come  from  the  Division  of  Botany  in  the  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, material  brought  together  in  the  pursuit  of  the  investi- 
gations of  that  establishment.  Especially  noteworthy  among 
these  is  the  collection  of  grasses  which  Doctor  George  Vasey 
gathered  during  his  studies  of  the  forage  plants  of  the  United 
States  during  a  period  of  about  twenty  years. 

"  To  the  collections  of  the  exploring  expeditions  and  those 
of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  has  been  added  a  large 
amount  of  material  donated  by  American  botanists  or  pur- 
chased from  collectors,  besides  large  consignments  of  plants 
received  from  various  foreign  institutions  or  individuals  prin- 
cipally as  gifts  or  in  exchange. 


The  United  States  National  Museum        351 

"The  collections  of  the  exploring  expeditions  and  the  col- 
lection of  grasses  are  especially  rich  in  type-specimens. 

"  Mention  should  be  made  of  the  collections  of  George 
Joad,  comprising  about  ten  thousand  species  of  representa- 
tive plants  of  the  globe,  more  especially  those  of  Europe  ;  and 
the  collection  of  Professor  Lester  F.  Ward,  comprising  the 
specimens  on  which  his  "  Flora  of  Washington  and  Vicinity  " 
is  based,  in  addition  to  important  collections  made  by  Profes- 
sor Ward  and  his  correspondents  in  other  parts  of  the  United 
States.  Both  the  Ward  and  the  Joad  collections  were  ac- 
quired by  the  museum  in  1885." 

The  important  collections  of  the  Department  of  Minerals 
are  summarized  by  Mr.  Wirt  Tassin,  Assistant  Curator,  as 
follows : 

"  At  the  request  of  Professor  F.  W.  Clarke,  the  Honorary 
Curator,  I  have  prepared,  and  transmit  herewith,  a  list  of  some 
of  the  most  important  collections  and  single  objects  in  the  Min- 
eral Department.     They  are: 

"  The  Isaac  Lea  collections,  including  a  collection  of  min- 
erals, a  collection  of  micas  and  quartzes,  and  a  collection  of 
gems  and  ornamental  stones,  among  which  may  be  noted  as 
of  especial  interest  a  fine  green  tourmaline  of  fifty-seven  car- 
ats, a  red  specimen  of  eighteen  carats  and  a  hair-brown  one 
of  sixteen  carats,  from  Mount  Mica,  Paris,  Maine.  A  doubly 
terminated  emerald  crystal  from  Stony  Point,  Alexander 
County,  North  Carolina,  one  of  the  largest  ever  found,  meas- 
uring three  and  one-tenth  by  two  inches  and  weighing  eight 
ounces  and  three  pennyweights.  A  crystal  ball  cut  from 
North  Carolina  quartz.  A  silver  nugget  weighing  four  hun- 
dred and  forty-eight  ounces,  from  near  Globe,  Arizona.  One 
of  the  largest  known  cut  Ceylon  essonites.  Four  large  Cey- 
lon asteria.  A  fine  suite  of  opals  in  argillaceous  limonite, 
Baracoo  river,  Queensland. 

"  The  Leidy  collection  of  minerals,  received  from  the  United 
States  Geological  Survey. 

"  A  series  illustratingf  the  occurrence  and  associations   of 


352  TJie  Smithsoniaii  Ijistitiition 

the  zinc  and  lead  minerals  of  Southwest  Missouri,  collected 
by  W.  P.  Jenney. 

"  A  series  illustrating  the  mineralogy  of  the  Pikes  Peak 
region  collected  by  Whitman  Cross,  of  the  United  States 
Geological  Survey. 

"A  series  of  original  and  type  zeolites  from  Table  Moun- 
tain, Gunnison  County,  Colorado,  collected  by  Whitman 
Cross,  of  the  United  States  Geological  Survey. 

"  A  series  of  uranium  minerals  used  in  the  work  leading  to 
the  discovery  of  nitrogen  in  uraninite  and  later  of  argon, 
given  by  Doctor  W.  F.  Hillebrand. 

"A  series  of  copper  carbonates  from  Copper  Queen  Mine, 
Arizona,  a  gift  of  the  Copper  Queen  Consolidated  Mining 
Company,  through  James  Douglas,  President. 

"  A  series  of  azurite  crystals  and  associated  minerals  from 
the  copper  regions  of  Arizona,  together  with  a  series  of  van- 
adium minerals  from  New  Mexico,  collected  by  Doctor  W. 
F.  Hillebrand. 

**  A  series  illustrating  the  occurrence  and  association  of  the 
zinc  minerals  of  New  Jersey,  collected  by  Wirt  Tassin. 

"The  type-specimens  of  warrenite. 

"  A  slab  of  sodalite,  size  two  by  two  inches  ;  a  polished  slab 
of  labradorite,  two  by  two  inches ;  a  slab  of  calcite  crystals 
four  by  four  inches  ;  two  large  sections  of  agatized  wood  from 
Arizona,  deposited  by  the  Drake  Company  ;  the  '  Ontona- 
gon'  copper  boulder;  a  series  of  Sicilian  sulphur  crystals; 
the  Shepard  collections  of  meteorites  ;  the  Ring  or  Irwin 
meteorite;  a  suite  of  meteoric  irons  from  Caiion  Diablo,  Ari- 
zona, varying  in  weight  from  964  pounds  to  a  few  ounces. 

"  To  the  list  may  be  added  the  Stroud  collection,  the  Hawes 
collection,  the  Abert  collection,  the  various  accessions  received 
at  different  times  from  the  United  States  Geological  Survey, 
and  other  smaller  collections  containing  valuable  material  of 
scientific  and  other  importance." 

Of  the  Department  of  Paleontology,  Mr.  Charles  Schuchert, 
Assistant  Curator,  writes : 


The  United  States  National  Museum  353 

"  The  feature  of  greatest  importance  is  that  much  of  our 
material  has  served  in  government  reports,  and  is  the  basis 
for  the  geological  and  paleontological  work  treating  of  the 
western  part  of  our  country.  This  fact  is  well  exemplified  in 
the  great  number  of  species  which  have  served  in  description 
and  illustration,  many  of  which  are  the  original  type-speci- 
mens. There  are  of  such  species  five  thousand  seven  hun- 
dred and  forty-one.  These  are  distributed  in  the  sections  of 
this  department  as  follows : 

Paleozoic  Invertebrate  species  1^55 

Mesozoic             "               *'  1024 

Cenozoic  Invertebrate  species  1304 

Vertebrate  species  161 
Paleozoic  plant  species  (Lacoe  collection)        504 

Mesozoic  and  Cenozoic  plant  species  1531 

Insect  species  62 

"The  most  complete  series  is  the  'Lacoe  collection  of 
American  Paleozoic  plants,'  the  labeled  specimens  of  which 
alone  number  upwards  of  eighteen  thousand,  and  of  these 
more  than  five  hundred  species  have  been  described  or  illus- 
trated by  Lesquereux  and  White.  This  magnificent  collec- 
tion is  the  result  of  many  years'  accumulation,  and  cost 
upwards  of  $50,000.  It  was  donated  to  this  museum  in 
1 89 1,  by  Mr.  R.  D.  Lacoe,  of  Pittston,  Pennsylvania. 

"The  collection  of  Cambrian  fossils  is  very  large,  and 
when  Mr.  Walcott  shall  have  completed  his  studies  upon  this 
material,  it  will  be  the  most  complete  and  valuable  series  of 
fossils  of  this  system  extant. 

"  The  Cretaceous  collection  is  also  quite  extensive  and 
represents  much  work  by  F.  B.  Meek,  C.  A.  White,  and 
T.  W.  Stanton. 

"The  Tertiary  collection  of  Mollusca  is  one  of  the  conspic- 
uous features  of  this  department.  This  collection  was  accu- 
mulated chiefly  by  William  H.  Dall. 

"Among  single  objects  the  following  deserve  mention: 

"A  composite  slab  of  Lower  Carboniferous  fossils  measur- 
ing four  by  six  feet,  and  showing  in  high  relief  one  hundred 
and  six  crinoids  (sixteen  species)  and  other  tossils. 


354  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

"A  Lepidodendron  trunk  three  feet  wide  and  thirty  feet 
long  (Lacoe  collection). 

"  A  series  of  six  cycad  trunks  from  the  Lower  Cretaceous 
of  South  Dakota. 

"  Bones  representing  a  nearly  complete  Zeuglodon  cetoides 
from  the  Eocene  of  Alabama,  and  of  which  a  life-sized  restora- 
tion is  exhibited. 

"  Skulls  and  limb  bones  of  the  huge  Cretaceous  Dinosaur, 
Triceraiops,  from  Wyoming. 

"An  excellent  skeleton  of  the  Irish  Elk,  Megaceros  hiber- 
nicus,  Owen." 


The  collections  of  the  Department  of  Prehistoric  Anthro- 
pology are  thus  described  by  the  Curator,  Doctor  Thomas 
Wilson : 

''There  are  three  great  stages  of  culture,  or  civilization, 
represented  in  this  Department,  which  are  separated  and 
installed  according  to  locality. 

"The  first,  and  probably  the  earliest,  is  that  of  Western 
Europe,  of  which  the  museum  possesses  an  extensive  col- 
lection, the  largest  in  the  United  States,  showing  the  culture 
of  prehistoric  man,  from  the  earliest  times  down  to  the 
Bronze  Age  and  the  Etruscans,  where  it  joins  history. 

"The  second  great  division  represents  the  territory  of  the 
United  States  and  British  Columbia.  This  constitutes  the 
bulk  of  the  collection,  and  comprises  the  hatchets,  axes,  im- 
plements, and  other  objects  of  stone.  The  mounds  of  the 
Ohio  and  Mississippi  valleys  have  yielded  large  represen- 
tations of  pottery. 

"The  third  stao-e  of  culture  is  that  belonorinor  to  Mexico 
and  Central  America,  variously  called  Aztec  and  similar 
local  names.  While  it  comprises  many  stone  implements,  it 
extends  further  and  wider  than  either  of  the  foregoing,  hav- 
ing jade,  obsidian,  and  gold  objects  and  ornaments.  Its 
pottery  is  fine  and  beautifully  made  and  decorated;  while 
some  of  the  ruder  pieces,  representing  gods,  especially  from 


The   United  States  National  Museum  355 

Mexico,  are  made  with  a  wealth  of  detail  that  has  increased 
the  difficulty  of  manufacture  almost  beyond  the  belief  of  pos- 
sibility in  savage  life. 

"  The  display  from  South  America  is  important,  resem- 
bling the  culture  of  Central  America  more  than  that  of 
North  America. 

"  The  Department  has  one  of  the  richest  displays  of  pre- 
historic objects  in  the  United  States.  It  contains  more  than 
two  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  objects,  which  it  is  impossible 
to  name.  They,  however,  are  divided  both  technologically 
and  geographically,  and  by  comparison  in  these  two  regards 
the  endeavor  is  made  to  determine  the  stage  of  culture  and 
obtain  some  insight  into  the  history  of  prehistoric  man," 


Regarding  the  Department  of  Ethnology,  the  Curator, 
Professor  Otis  T.  Mason,  writes: 

"The  ethnological  collection  of  the  museum  relates  chiefly 
to  the  North  American  Indians,  but  it  includes  also  valuable 
series  of  objects  from  Polynesia,  obtained  by  the  United 
States  Exploring  Expedition,  such  as  the  old  Tapa  cloths 
and  weapons,  which  are  no  longer  obtainable  at  present. 

"The  Eskimo  collection  is  unrivaled.  The  collections  of 
the  Bureau  of  Ethnology  and  other  government  surveys  on 
the  west  coast  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  in  North  America,  and  in 
the  Pueblo  region  of  the  southwestern  United  States,  are  the 
most  extensive  and  valuable  ever  assembled.  Amone  sinele 
objects  of  high  value  and  rarity  may  be  mentioned  a  large 
jade  knife  from  Alaska,  obtained  by  E.  W.  Nelson  ;  a  fine 
series  of  boats  and  totem  posts  from  the  west  Pacific  coast 
of  America,  by  J.  G.  Swan.  In  the  Powell  collection  there 
are  rare  old  pieces  of  pottery  from  the  ruined  Pueblos.  A 
Hawaiian  feather  cloak,  of  large  size  and  well  preserved,  also 
deserves  mention. 

"  I  present  the  following  list  of  the  most  conspicuous  and 
useful  collections  in  alphabetical  order,  by  collectors: 

"  A  collection  of  great  value  from  Eastern  Africa,  Kashmir, 


35^  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

and  southeastern  Asia,  by  Doctor  William  L.  Abbott,  of 
Philadelphia  ;  a  collection  illustrative  of  the  ethnography  of 
Korea,  by  Lieutenant  J.  B.  Bernadou,  U.  S.  N.  ;  a  collection 
from  the  Department  of  Education  in  Japan  to  illustrate  the 
practical  industries  of  this  country,  in  comparison  with  the 
tools  and  appliances  brought  home  by  Commodore  Perry; 
the  collection  of  Doctor  Franz  Boas,  illustrative  of  the  cere- 
monial usages  of  British  Columbia  and  the  Northwest  coast ; 
of  Captain  John  G.  Bourke,  U.  S.  A.,  gathered  from  Indian 
tribes  in  the  United  States  during  his  long  engagements  on 
the  frontier ;  of  Doctor  J.  F.  Bransford,  U.  S.  N.,  pottery  and 
other  materials  from  the  graves  of  Nicaragua  ;  enormous  col- 
lections from  the  great  Interior  Basin  and  Pueblo  region  to 
illustrate  the  costume  and  arts  of  the  Shoshonean  and  Pueblo 
tribes,  also  materials  gathered  by  James  Mooney  and  others 
of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology  from  the  tribes  in  the  Indian 
Territory;  collection  of  Heli  Chatelain,  from  Angola;  large 
collection  from  the  Chinese  Imperial  Commission  of  the 
Centennial  Exhibition  in  Philadelphia ;  a  rare  old  collection 
from  Liberia  and  vicinity,  made  by  the  Colonization  Society 
of  Washington  ;  collection  illustrative  of  the  games  of  the 
world,  by  Stewart  Culin,  of  Philadelphia ;  collections  espe- 
cially from  South  America  made  by  the  government  agents 
for  the  World's  Columbian  Exposition  in  Chicago  ;  collec- 
tions of  William  H.  Dall,  associated  with  Doctor  Tarleton 
H.  Bean  and  Marcus  Baker,  in  various  parts  of  Alaska;  col- 
lections, well  labeled,  from  the  Tlingit  Indians,  by  Lieuten- 
ant George  T.  Emmons,  U.  S.  N,  ;  a  small  but  extremely 
valuable  collection  from  west  Greenland,  by  Governor  Fenck- 
ner ;  a  precious  collection  of  pottery  and  other  objects  from 
old  ruined  pueblos  in  New  Mexico  and  Arizona,  by  Doctor 
J,  Walter  Fewkes  ;  collection  of  William  J.  Fisher  from  the 
Eskimo  and  Aleuts  on  the  Alaskan  Peninsula,  the  Island  of 
Kadiak  and  vicinity ;  collection  of  William  M.  Gabb  from 
Central  America ;  old  and  precious  collections  from  Oregon 
and  British  Columbia,  by  George  Gibbs ;  a  small  and  rare 
collection  from  the  west  coast  of  South  America,  by  Lieu- 
tenant J.   M.   Gilliss,  U.  S.   N.;   a  small  and  extremely  rare 


The  United  States  National  Museum        357 

collection  from  Fury  and  Hecla  Straits,  by  Captain  Charles 
F.  Hall ;  collections  of  the  Geographical  and  Geological  Sur- 
vey of  the  Territories,  by  Doctor  F.  V.  Hayden  ;  small  col- 
lection from  North  Greenland  and  Grinnell  Land,  by  Doctor 
I.  I.  Hayes;  collection  from  the  Amazon  River,  by  Lieu- 
tenant Herndon,  U.  S.  N.;  collection  from  the  Ainos  and 
northern  Japanese,  by  Romyn  Hitchcock;  collections  from 
the  Indians  of  the  western  Great  Lakes,  by  Doctor  W,  J. 
Hoffman ;  collections  from  the  Swiss  Lake  dwellings,  by  Pro- 
fessor Joseph  Jillson  ;  collections  from  southeastern  Japan,  by 
P.  L.  Jouy ;  collections  from  the  Mackenzie  River  district,  by 
Mr.  Robert  Kennicott ;  royal  gift  from  the  King  of  Siam, 
through  General  J.  A.  Halderman;  collection  from  Cumber- 
land Gulf,  by  Ludwig  Kumlien  ;  a  priceless  collection  of  an- 
tiquities from  Porto  Rico,  by  George  Latimer ;  collection 
from  Bristol  Bay,  by  Charles  L.  McKay;  extremely  valu- 
able collection  from  Mackenzie  River  district,  by  Robert 
MacFarlane,  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Company ;  collection  from 
the  Congo  region,  by  Dorsey  Mohun  ;  collection  from  the 
Sioux  tribes  of  Dakota,  by  Doctor  Washington  Matthews, 
U.  S.  A. ;  an  immense  collection,  covering  many  thousand 
numbers,  from  Alaska,  by  E.  W.  Nelson  ;  collections  from 
the  Southwest  and  Mexico,  by  Doctor  Edward  Palmer;  col- 
lections from  Japan,  by  Commodore  Perry,  U.  S.  N.  ;  collec- 
tions from  the  tribes  of  Utah,  by  Major  J.  \<! .  Powell,  of  the 
United  States  Geological  Survey;  collections  from  northern 
and  central  California,  by  Stephen  Powers ;  collections  from 
Kotzebue  Sound  and  of  the  Hupa  Indians  from  northern 
California,  by  Captain  P.  H.  Ray,  U.  S.  A.;  collection  from 
Thibet,  by  the  Honorable  W.  W.  Rockhill ;  collection  from 
the  Chiikchis  country  and  Alaska,  by  Commodore  John 
Rodgers,  U.  S.  N.;  collection  from  the  Mackenzie  River 
district,  by  B.  R.  Ross,  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Company;  collec- 
tion from  Peru,  by  Lieutenant  W.  E.  Safford,  U.  S.  N.  ;  col- 
lection by  Reverend  George  W.  Samson,  from  the  Holy 
Land ;  collection  by  Paul  Shoemaker  on  the  shell  heaps  of 
the  West  Coast,  especially  Santa  Barbara  Island ;  collection 
of  Lieutenant  G.  M.  Stoney,  U.  S.  N.,  from  Kotzebue  Sound ; 


35^  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

collection  by  James  G.  Swan,  from  the  North  Pacific  Coast 
of  America ;  collection  by  Talcott  Williams,  from  North 
Africa;  collection  by  Lieutenant  E.  H.  Taunt,  U.  S.  N.,  from 
the  Congo  region  ;  collection  of  Doctor  William  M.  Thomson, 
U.  S.  N.,  from  Easter  Island ;  collection  of  Honorable  W.  P. 
Tisdell,  from  the  Congo  region ;  collection  of  Lucien  M. 
Turner,  from  Labrador  and  North  Sound ;  collection  of  Cap- 
tain G.  M.  Wheeler,  U.  S.  A.,  from  Southern  California ;  col- 
lection of  Captain  A.  W.  Whipple,  U.  S.  A.,  from  Southwest ; 
collection  of  Rouncevelle  Wildman,  from  eastern  China  ;  col- 
lection of  the  Wilkes  Exploring  Expedition  from  Polynesia 
to  the  west  coast  of  America. 

"  In  addition  to  those  already  named  should  be  mentioned 
the  various  branches  of  the  United  States  executive  service, 
the  Department  of  State,  the  War  Department,  the  Navy 
Department,  and  the  Department  of  the  Interior." 

Of  the  Section  of  Oriental  Antiquities  and  Religious  Cere- 
monials, Dr.  Cyrus  Adler  writes  : 

"  This  Section  comprises  a  small  collection,  interesting,  not 
so  much  because  of  the  intrinsic  value  of  the  objects  as  be- 
cause of  the  relation  in  which  they  are  shown.  It  may  be 
divided,  according  to  religions  and  nations,  into  nine  sections  : 
I,  Biblico-Judaic ;  2,  Christian;  3,  Mohammedan;  4,  Egyp- 
tian; 5,  Assyro- Babylonian  ;  6,  Hittite;  7,  Graeco- Roman  ;  8, 
Brahman  ;   9,  Buddhist. 

"  Of  the  Biblico-Judaic  section,  the  collection  of  manu- 
scripts and  editions  of  the  Bible  and  its  versions  (forty-one 
in  number)  may  be  considered  as  the  most  important,  having 
both  a  literary  and  paleographic  interest.  Next  to  this  may 
be  mentioned  the  collection  of  objects  of  Jewish  ceremonials, 
which,  besides  being  a  complete  set  of  the  objects  used  by  the 
Jews  in  their  religious  observances,  is  of  much  artistic  and 
historical  value. 

*'  In  the  Egyptian  section  the  mummy  with  its  cases  and  the 
facsimile  of  the  'Book  of  the  Dead'  rank  foremost.  In  the 
Assyro- Babylonian  section  the  most  imposing  objects  are  the 


The  United  States  National  Miisemn        359 

two  colossal  composite  figures  and  the  model  of  a  temple 
tower  of  Babel,  the  latter  being  unique.  For  purposes  of 
the  study  of  the  mythology  and  culture  of  Mesopotamia  the 
collection  of  seals  (upwards  of  three  hundred  in  number)  is 
important. 

"  The  whole  collection  of  Hittite  casts  (thirty-eight)  is 
unique  in  America,  and  affords  a  basis  for  the  study  of  the 
history  and  civilization  of  this  people  who  played  such  an 
important  part  in  the  ancient  history  of  the  Orient. 

"  In  the  Grseco- Roman  division  rank  foremost  the  Serpent 
Column  of  Delphi  and  the  reliefs  of  the  pedestal  of  the  Obe- 
lisk, both  from  the  Hippodrome  in  Constantinople.  These 
casts  are  unique. 

"  In  the  Buddhist  section  there  are  some  fine  images  of 
Buddha  of  carved  wood  and  bronze,  models  of  pagodas  from 
Japan,  and  a  rare  collection  of  musical  instruments  as  well  as 
other  religious  implements  from  China. 

"  A  rare  piece  of  Mosaic  representing  a  lion  attacking  a 
horse,  from  an  ancient  temple  in  Carthage,  also  deserves 
especial  mention." 

The  varied  collections  grouped  together  in  the  department 
of  "Arts  and  Industries"  are  not  readily  summarized,  but  the 
following  statements  of  those  having  the  most  important 
series  in   charge  will  be  of  interest : 

"In  the  Section  of  Historical  Collections,"  writes  Mr.  A. 
Howard  Clark,  Honorary  Curator,  "  are  exhibited  personal 
relics  of  representative  men  and  memorials  of  events  and 
places  of  historic  importance.  The  nucleus  of  the  collection 
was  the  Washington  relics  transferred  from  the  Patent  Office 
in  1883,  and  these  still  comprise  the  choicest  of  the  his- 
torical treasures,  including,  as  they  do,  so  many  objects 
intimately  associated  with  General  Washington  during  his 
home  life  as  well  as  military  campaigns.  Furniture,  porce- 
lain, glassware,  and  ornamental  articles  from  Mount  Ver- 
non,   Royal  Worcester   vases   presented   to   him   by   Samuel 


360  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

Vaughan,  the  Martha  Washington  china,  presented  by  Van 
Braam,  a  beautiful  Niederweiler  bowl,  personally  presented 
in  I  792  by  the  Comte  de  Custine,  and  a  nearly  complete  din- 
ner service  of  Chinese-ware  decorated  with  the  insignia  of 
the  Society  of  the  Cincinnati ;  and  besides  these,  the  tents, 
camp  chest,  field-glass,  and  writing-case  used  by  Wash- 
ington durinor  the  War  of  the  Revolution,  as  also  miniature 
portraits  of  the  General  and  Martha  Washington  painted  on 
wood  by  the  artist  Trumbull, 

"  Next  in  importance  to  the  Washington  relics  are  the 
almost  priceless  memorials  of  General  Grant :  the  saddle, 
sword,  field-glasses,  and  other  objects  used  by  him  during 
his  military  career,  all  his  commissions  in  the  army  from 
Lieutenant  by  brevet  during  the  Mexican  War  up  through 
the  several  grades  to  General,  and  his  certificate  as  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States  ;  handsomely  mounted  swords  ;  and 
the  great  gold  medal  with  which  he  was  honored  by  Con- 
gress for  his  military  services ;  many  elegant  gifts  received 
during  his  tour  of  the  world,  including  the  beautiful  jade  vase 
and  ornamented  bell  standard  given  him  by  Prince  Kung  of 
China. 

"  By  the  side  of  these  treasures  are  valuable  gifts  to  Presi- 
dents of  the  United  States  and  to  statesmen,  soldiers,  and 
other  representative  Americans ;  some  Moorish  guns  highly 
decorated  with  gold  and  coral,  and  a  gold-mounted  sword, 
gifts  to  Thomas  Jefferson  from  the  Emperor  of  Morocco ; 
jeweled  and  gold-scabbard  swords  presented  by  citizens  of 
States  and  cities  for  military  bravery  to  General  Ripley, 
Commodores  Elliott  and  Biddle,  Admiral  Trenchard,  Gen- 
erals Hancock,   Paul,  and  others. 

"  Here,  too,  are  exhibited  the  great  gold  medal  presented 
by  Congress  to  Joseph  Francis  for  his  service  to  the  world 
as  inventor  of  life-saving  appliances ;  the  beautiful  vase  pre- 
sented to  Professor  Baird  by  the  Emperor  of  Germany  as 
the  grand  prize  of  the  Berlin  International  Fishery  Exhibi- 
tion ;  the  silver  urn  from  the  citizens  of  Baltimore  to  Com- 
modore John  Rodgers  for  his  services  in  defense  of  that  city 
during  the  War  of  181 2  ;   the  garrison  flag  of  Fort  Moultrie 


The  United  States  National  Museum        361 

in  December,  1 860,  when  that  fort  was  evacuated  by  Anderson  ; 
the  war  saddle  of  Baron  de  Kalb,  who  gave  his  life  for  Ameri- 
can independence ;  the  uniform  worn  by  General  Jackson  at 
the  battle  of  New  Orleans,  and  many  other  individual  objects 
of  great  historic  value. 

"A  most  instructive  historic  treasure  is  the  Copp  collection 
of  household  objects  and  wearing  apparel,  illustrating  the 
home-life  of  the  New  England  colonists  from  1635  to  the 
period  of  the  War  of  the  Revolution,  the  gift  of  Mr.  John 
Brenton  Copp. 

"  As  a  precious  treasure  in  memory  of  the  immortal  Lin- 
coln, there  is  the  original  plaster  life-mask.  Equally  interest- 
ing are  the  molds  of  the  hands  made  by  the  sculptor  Volk,  in 
i860,  just  prior  to  the  nomination  of  Lincoln  for  President  of 
the  United  States. 

"As  a  most  conspicuous  object,  and  a  treasure  as  well,  may 
be  mentioned  the  original  full-size  plaster  model  of  '  Liberty ' 
by  Crawford,  from  which  was  cast  the  bronze  statue  sur- 
mounting the  United  States  Capitol." 

Of  the  Sections  of  Transportation,  Engineering,  and  Naval 
Architecture  and  Physical  Apparatus,  Mr.  J.  E.  Watkins, 
Curator,  writes  as  follows : 

"  The  collections  in  transportation,  engineering,  and  naval 
architecture,  although  not  great  in  extent,  are  particularly 
valuable  on  account  of  the  historical  interest  of  almost  every 
object  which  has  been  collected  and  is  now  on  exhibition. 
Notable  among  the  objects  is  the  cylinder  of  the  first  steam- 
engine  erected  on  the  Western  Continent,  by  Josiah  Horn- 
blower,  in  1753,  sixteen  years  before  James  Watt  began  his 
investigations  of  the  properties  of  steam.  The  museum  has 
also  been  fortunate  in  obtaining  the  original  machinery  of  the 
Stevens  twin-screw  propeller  steam-boat,  constructed  and 
operated  in  the  year  1804,  three  years  before  Robert  Fulton 
operated  the  '  Clermont'  on  the  Hudson  River.  The  original 
multitubular  boiler  of  the  Stevens  locomotive  of  1825,  which 

ran  in  Hoboken,  New  Jersey,  four  years  before  Stephenson's 
24 


3^2  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

'Rocket,'  also  forms  a  part  of  this  collection.  A  cylinder  and 
other  portions  of  the  locomotive  'Stourbridge  Lion,'  the  first 
locomotive  built  for  traffic  on  the  Western  Continent,  was 
obtained  several  years  ago  through  the  cooperation  of 
Horatio  Allen,  who,  in  August,  1829,  first  ran  this  locomotive 
near  Honesdale,  Pennsylvania.  The  series  showing  the  de- 
velopment of  permanent  way  in  America  is  unique,  as  are  the 
two  collections  of  models  showing  the  development  of  wheel 
vehicles  and  machinery  of  the  steamboats  invented  by  Rumsey, 
Fitch,  Fulton,  and  Ericsson. 

"The  Ramsden  dividing  engine,  used  in  the  last  century  to 
divide  equally  the  circles  of  quadrants  and  other  mathematical 
instruments,  which  is  the  earliest  machine  of  this  kind  extant, 
also  forms  a  part  of  the  collection  of  apparatus.  A  very  im- 
portant and  valuable  recent  addition  to  this  section  is  the 
seismological  apparatus  displayed  at  the  World's  Columbian 
Exposition  in  the  Japanese  exhibit,  and  since  presented  to 
the  museum  by  that  government. 

"The  electrical  collections  contain  objects  of  extreme  im- 
portance and  value.  Among  these  may  be  mentioned  one  of 
the  first  three  large  horseshoe  electric  magnets,  wound  and 
experimented  with  by  Henry,  together  with  the  battery,  first 
motor,  and  other  similar  appliances  constructed  by  Henry 
while  in  Princeton ;  and  the  original  telegraph  apparatus  in- 
vented by  Professor  Morse.  The  original  telegraph  instru- 
ment from  which  was  received  the  historic  message,  '  What 
hath  God  wrought,'  in  Baltimore,  1844,  also  forms  part  of  this 
collection,  together  with  objects  illustrating  the  beginnings 
and  development  of  the  storage  battery  and  electric  incandes- 
cent and  arc  lamps,  and  other  electrical  apparatus. 

"The  telephone  which  Johann  Philipp  Reis,  of  Frankfort, 
invented  in  i860,  is  another  object  of  much  interest  and 
value." 


The  collection  of  Materia  Medica  is  probably  the  most 
complete  and  most  carefully  labeled  collection  of  its  kind  ex- 
hibited in  any  museum.      It  is  very  full  in  many  directions, 


SAT.MON    POETLANI)    CHASE. 

FOURTH    CITANCELLOR   OF  THE  SMITHSOXIAX 

INSTITUTIOX. 
1864-  1873. 


36: 


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The  United  States  National  Museum        363 

and  is  especially  rich  in  specimens  of  cinchona.  Of  the  latter 
series  Doctor  J.  M.  Flint,  U.  S.  N.,  the  Honorary  Curator, 
writes : 

"  I  regard  the  collection  of  cinchona  products  as  the  most 
important  in  the  Materia  Medica  Section.  This  collection 
embraces  specimens  of  nearly  all  the  natural  cinchona  barks 
of  South  America,  every  variety  of  the  cultivated  product 
from  the  government  plantations  in  India,  together  with 
most  of  the  cultivated  sorts  from  Java,  Ceylon,  Jamaica,  and 
Mexico.  The  India  and  Jamaica  collections  comprise  also 
herbarium  specimens  of  the  leaf  and  flower,  and  in  many 
cases  the  fruit  of  each  variety  of  cinchona  tree  from  which 
the  bark  is  taken." 

Of  the  Section  of  Graphic  Arts,  Mr.  S.  R.  Koehler  writes : 

"This  Section  was  definitely  organized  in  January,  1887, 
although  its  beginning  goes  back  to  at  least  the  year  1884. 
From  a  very  few  specimens  then  on  hand  the  collectors  in 
this  section  have  increased  to  the  number  of  five  thousand 
six  hundred  and  twenty  specimens  at  the  present  writing,  but 
as  many  of  the  entries  on  the  catalogue  cover  more  than  one 
specimen,  it  will  be  safe  to  say  that  the  total  number  is  about 
six  thousand. 

"The  aim  of  the  Section  is  to  illustrate  the  various  pro- 
cesses of  making  pictures  by  lines  and  masses,  either  black 
or  in  colors,  by  hand,  or  with  the  aid  of  machinery,  and  the 
application  of  these  processes  in  the  industrial  arts.  To 
reach  this  aim,  all  the  methods  of  making  pictures  that  have 
ever  been  essayed  are  eventually  to  be  illustrated. — and  many 
of  them  are  already  illustrated, — by  the  tools  and  materials 
used,  by  the  product  in  the  various  stages  of  progress,  and 
by  historical  examples  showing  the  development  of  each  pro- 
cess, from  the  invention  to  the  present  time." 

In  addition  to  the  collections  already  noticed,  the  museum 
possesses  a  good   series   of  musical   instruments,    assembled 


3^4  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

under  the  immediate  direction  of  Doctor  Goode ;  a  collection 
of  porcelains,  bronzes,  and  ivory  carvings ;  a  large  and  va- 
ried collection  illustrating  fisheries,  which  was  brought  to- 
gether chiefly  in  connection  with  the  Fisheries  Exhibition  of 
Berlin  and  London  ;  a  small  forestry  collection  ;  a  collection 
of  foods ;  a  collection  representing  the  utilization  of  industrial 
products  derived  from  animals ;  a  collection  of  fibers  and  tex- 
tiles ;  and  a  series  of  objects  illustrating  the  chemical  com- 
position of  the  human  body. 

I  have  already  alluded  to  the  work  done  by  the  Museum 
in  the  direction  of  supplying  from  its  surplus  the  needs  of 
other  scientific  and  educational  establishments. 

This  undertaking  was  inaugurated  at  an  early  date,  as  I 
have  stated  on  a  preceding  page  (page  323),  and  already 
in  1866,  at  the  end  of  the  second  decade  of  the  Institution, 
110,000  specimens  from  the  collections  had  been  distributed. 
At  the  close  of  the  fifth  decade,  in  1896,  the  number  had 
risen  to  521,000  specimens.  These  included  animals  of  every 
class  and  many  geological  and  mineralogical  specimens  and 
plants. 

Every  State  and  Territory  in  the  Union  has  received  a  share 
of  these  collections,  and  numerous  institutions  outside  the 
United  States  have  also  been  beneficiaries  in  the  distribution. 

The  majority  of  these  specimens  were  distributed  without 
demand  for,  or  expectation  of,  a  return ;  but  the  National 
Museum  has  received  from  other  institutions  in  exchange  for 
the  collections  sent  out  a  body  of  specimens  amounting  in  all 
to  perhaps  one-third  the  number  distributed.  Important  ad- 
ditions have  been  made  to  the  Museum  in  this  way,  and, 
indeed,  its  surplus  collections,  owing  to  the  comparatively 
small  amounts  available  for  purchases,  have  constituted  its 
chief  capital.     The   system   of  exchanges,   however,  has   its 


The   United  States  National  Musenm        365 

limitations,  which  are  soon  felt.  Few  institutions  carry  large 
quantities  of  surplus  material,  and  none,  of  course,  dispose 
of  their  most  precious  possessions.  Exchange,  therefore, 
takes  the  place  of  purchase  only  to  a  limited  extent. 

The  Smithsonian  Institution  has  carried  on  the  distribution 
of  surplus  specimens  from  its  own  collections  as  a  part  of  its 
regular  activities,  having  for  their  object  the  diffusion  of 
knowledge.  The  government  has  shown  its  acquiescence  in 
this  policy,  so  far  as  the  national  collections  are  concerned, 
by  several  enactments  making  appropriations  for  the  work, 
and  in  other  ways. 

In  1878  the  Museum  began  the  publication  of  a  scientific 
journal,  which  has  become  well  known  to  the  world  of  science 
under  the  name  of  "  Proceedings  of  the  United  States 
National  Museum."  The  object  of  this  journal,  as  indicated 
in  the  "advertisement"  inserted  in  the  volumes,  is  "the 
prompt  publication  of  freshly  acquired  facts  relating  to 
biology,  anthropology,  and  geology ;  descriptions  of  re- 
stricted groups  of  animals  and  plants;  the  settlement  of  par- 
ticular questions  relative  to  the  synonymy  of  species,  and  the 
diaries  of  minor  expeditions."  Eighteen  volumes  had  been 
published  to  the  close  of  1895,  containing  in  all  no  fewer  than 
1 100  papers,  comprising  12,056  printed  pages.  All  the 
papers  relate  directly  or  indirectly  to  the  collections  of  the 
Museum  and  serve  to  make  them  known  to  specialists.  The 
volumes  include  ^  a  large  share  of  the  scientific  publications 
of  the  curators  of  the  Museum,  whose  investigations  have 
very  naturally  been  based  for  the  most  part  on  the  collections 
under  their  care.  The  "Proceedings"  is  a  great  store- 
house of  facts  relating  to  natural  histor)-,  and  especially  in 

1  With  the  "  Bulletins  "  to  be  mentioned  presently. 
24* 


366  The  SrnitJisonian  Institution 

the  field  of  systematic  zoology,  but  the  work  of  every  depart- 
ment of  the  Museum  is  reflected  in  its  pages. 

A  few  years  before  the  establishment  of  the  "  Proceedings," 
in  1875,  the  Museum  began  the  publication  of  a  series  of 
monographic  works,  under  the  general  title  of  the  "  Bulletin 
of  the  United  States  National  Museum,"  which  in  1895  had 
reached  49  numbers.  This  series  does  not  differ  essentially 
in  character  from  the  "  Proceedings,"  but  comprises  for  the 
most  part  works  too  large  to  be  conveniently  included  in  the 
latter  journal,  and  generally  of  a  more  comprehensive  scope. 

The  regular  series  of  both  "Proceedings  "  and  "Bulletin"  are 
in  octavo,  but  the  Museum  has  also  published  three  numbers 
of  the  latter  series  as  "  Special  Bulletins"  in  quarto.  Two 
of  these  contain  "  Life  Histories  of  North  American  Birds, 
with  special  reference  to  their  breeding  habits  and  eggs,"  by 
Major  Bendire,  and  the  third  a  treatise  on  "Oceanic  Ichthy- 
ology," by  Doctor  Goode  and  Doctor  Tarleton  H.  Bean. 

The  Report  of  the  Board  of  Regents  of  the  Smithsonian 
Institution  until  1884  consisted  each  year  of  a  single  volume 
in  which  was  included  a  statement  of  the  operations  of  the 
National  Museum.  The  Report  of  1884,  however,  and  those 
of  subsequent  years  have  been  published  in  two  volumes, 
of  which  one  is  devoted  exclusively  to  a  statement  of  the 
work  of  the  Museum.  In  connection  with  the  administrative 
reports  contained  in  these  volumes  have  been  published  a 
series  of  illustrated  papers  of  a  non-technical  character  de- 
scriptive of  various  collections  in  the  Museum.  These  papers 
have  the  same  interest  for  non-professional  readers  that  the 
technical  papers  in  the  "  Proceedings"  have  for  investigators, 
and  the  demand  for  them  reveals  a  widespread  interest  in 
zoology,  botany,  anthropology,  and  those  other  subjects  with 
which  the  work  of  the  Museum  has  been  most  closely  con- 
nected. 


BUREAU    OF   AMERICAN    ETHNOLOGY 


By  W  J  McGee 


I^HE  germ  of  the  ethnological  bureau  was  an 
exploration  of  the  canons  of  the  Colorado 
fostered  by  Joseph  Henry,  organizer  of  the 
Smithsonian  Institution.  Begrun  in  amateur 
■^S^  fashion  among  the  Rocky  Mountains  during 
the  summer  of  1867,  by  Major  John  W.  Powell  and  a  few 
associates,  the  exploration  was  gradually  pushed  down  the 
tributaries  to  Grand  River,  then  to  the  Green,  and  later  to 
the  mud-tinted  Colorado;  and  in  1869  the  rugged  gorge 
of  Green  River  and  the  fitly  named  "Grand"  canon  of  the 
Colorado  were  traversed  by  Powell  and  his  intrepid  com- 
panions. This  exploration  was  the  boldest  in  design  and 
the  most  perilous  in  execution  among  the  scientific  expedi- 
tions recorded  in  the  annals  of  the  nation. 

Before,  during,  and  after  the  passage  of  the  canons,  ob- 
servations were  extended  over  the  country  drained  by  the 
rivers,  and  gradually  the  exploration  became  a  survey,  first 
geographical,  then  geological,  and  finally  anthropological. 
At  first  the  plan  was  simple  and  the  work  was  prosecuted 
at  the  cost  of  the  surveyors ;  as  the  difficulties  increased  the 

plan  was   elaborated   that   they  might  be   overcome,   and  a 

367 


368  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

number  of  persons  who  had  become  interested  in  the  work 
contributed  toward  the  means  required  for  carrying  it  on ; 
finally,  in  1871,  the  Congress  made  an  appropriation,  to  be 
expended  under  the  direction  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution, 
for  continuing  the  explorations  and  surveys.  Both  before 
and  after  this  enactment,  Professor  Henry  warmly  encour- 
aged the  work  and  guided  it  by  wise  counsel.  His  aid  is 
commemorated,  and  will  be  so  long  as  our  language  lives, 
in  a  noble  monument — the  Henry  mountains. 

When  the  survey  was  organized  under  Congressional  pro- 
vision it  was  designated  "The  United  States  Geographical 
and  Geological  Survey  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  Region."  The 
work  was  placed  in  Major  Powell's  charge.  In  pursuing  the 
researches,  much  attention  was  given  to  the  aboriginal  in- 
habitants, and  extensive  collections  representing  their  arts, 
languages,  institutions,  and  beliefs  were  made,  and  the  ob- 
jects collected  were  preserved  in  the  Smithsonian  Institution. 
On  July  I,  1874,  the  survey  was  transferred  to  the  Depart- 
ment of  the  Interior,  while  its  plan  was  extended,  though  not 
materially  modified  save  that  the  anthropological  researches 
were  made  more  prominent;  and  in  1876  a  series  of  reports 
on  the  Indians,  entitled  "  Contributions  to  North  American 
Ethnology,"  was  projected,  with  the  concurrence  of  the  Sec- 
retary of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  and  during  the  ensu- 
ing year  two  volumes  of  the  series  were  published.  At  this 
stage  the  work  seemed  to  be  definitely  established  under 
federal  auspices,  and,  in  accordance  with  a  wise  and  liberal 
custom,  the  head  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  withdrew 
from  active  investigation  of  the  Indians  and  freely  transferred 
to  the  survey  the  rich  collection  of  linguistic  manuscripts 
accumulated  during  the  preceding  thirty  years. 

At  the  opening  of  1879  there  were  four  organizations  en- 
gaged in  surveys  and  researches  in  the  Western  Territories, 


Buremt  of  American  Ethnology  369 

including  the  "  Geographical  and  Geological  Survey  of  the 
Rocky  Mountain  Region  ;  "  by  an  act  of  Congress  approved 
in  March  of  that  year  the  work  was  reorganized,  and  the 
four  bureaus  were  united  in  the  United  States  Geological 
Survey,  while  provision  was  made  for  continuing  the  an- 
thropological researches  under  the  direction  of  the  Smithso- 
nian Institution ;  and  Professor  Spencer  F.  Baird,  then 
Secretary  of  the  Institution,  confided  the  direction  of  the 
work  to  Major  Powell.  This  was  the  beginning  of  the 
Bureau  of  American  Ethnology. 

Appropriations  for  continuing  the  researches  concerning 
the  American  Indians  at  the  cost  of  the  federal  government 
and  under  the  direction  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  have 
since  been  made  annually  by  Congressional  action.  The 
new  bureau  at  once  began  and  has  since  continued  the  publi- 
cation of  annual  reports,  and  also  carried  on  the  "Contribu- 
tions to  North  American  Ethnology "  until  the  series  was 
brought  to  an  end  by  the  printing  law  of  1895  !  i"  addition  a 
series  of  bulletins  and  certain  special  publications  have  been 
issued. 

On  April  I,  1880,  Major  Powell  was  made  Director  of  the 
United  States  Geological  Survey,  but  continued  in  charge  of 
the  bureau  of  ethnology,  and  devoted  a  part  of  his  energies 
to  researches  concerning  the  Indians.  In  1893  his  health  was 
precarious,  and  on  July  i  of  that  year  the  writer  was  ap- 
pointed Ethnologist  in  Charge.  A  year  later  Major  Powell 
resigned  the  control  of  the  Geological  Survey,  but  retained 
that  of  the  bureau,  and  has  since  devoted  himself  wholly  to 
the  completion  of  the  researches  begun  on  the  headwaters 
of  Rio  Colorado  in  1867. 

In  the  original  exploration,  in  the  official  survey  of  the 
Rocky  Mountain  region,  and  later  in  the  present  bureau, 
Powell  pursued  a  liberal  policy,  with  great  enthusiasm,  under 


Z7^  The  Smithsojiian  Institution 

which  expert  collaborators  were  enlisted,  and  the  aid  of  men 
of  genius  was  sought ;  and  he,  more  than  all  others,  realizes 
that  whatever  of  value  may  be  found  in  the  results  of  the 
work  is  to  be  credited  in  great  part  to  devoted  collaborators, 
some  of  whom  gained  international  repute  through  researches 
in  the  bureau,  A  few  of  the  workers,  like  the  Mindeleff 
brothers,  Jeremiah  Curtin,  and  Doctor  Walter  J.  Hoffman, 
have  turned  into  other  paths,  while  Professor  William  H. 
Holmes  has  gone  to  a  position  of  honor  for  which  his  bureau 
training  was  a  preparation.  Doctor  Albert  S.  Gatschet  and 
Professor  Cyrus  Thomas  have  grown  old  in  constant  duty, 
but  retain  their  vigor  and  wealth  of  experience ;  Frederick 
Webb  Hodge  and  J.  N.  B.  Hewitt,  James  Mooney,  and 
Mrs.  Matilda  Coxe  Stevenson  have  grown  up  with  the 
bureau,  and  Frank  Hamilton  Gushing  has  spent  half  his 
career  in  its  service ;  while  Doctor  J.  Walter  Fewkes  has 
recently  been  added  to  the  corps.  Henry  W.  Henshaw 
broke  in  his  prime,  and  his  complete  restoration  is  still 
in  the  future ;  Stevenson,  Reynolds,  Mallery,  Dorsey,  and 
Pilling  fell  in  harness,  and  live  only  in  their  works  —  their 
names  are  enrolled  in  the  fane  of  science. 

When  the  bureau  was  instituted,  the  experience  and  the 
tangible  results  of  the  preceding  years  of  research  were  util- 
ized by  Director  Powell  in  shaping  its  plan.  It  was  recog- 
nized that  anthropology  is  a  young  and  imperfectly  organized 
science ;  it  was  also  recognized  that  the  subject  matter  of  an- 
thropology is  more  complex  than  that  of  any  other  science. 
Accordingly  it  was  deemed  important  to  design  and  conduct 
the  researches  in  such  manner  as  both  to  organize  and  diffuse 
anthropological  knowledge.  Moreover,  the  American  natives 
were  regarded  as  offering  a  field  for  research  more  extensive, 
more  clearly  defined,  more  completely  virgin,  and  more  easily 


Bureau  of  Afnerican  Ethnology  3  7 1 

wrought  than  any  other  within  reach  of  students  working 
under  governmental  auspices;  and  from  the  beginning  it  was 
the  aim  to  cuhivate  appreciatively  this  vast  and  fertile  field, 
and  to  join  the  anthropologists  of  the  world  in  harvesting 
improved  and  extended  knowledge.  Such  was  the  primary 
plan  of  the  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology  —  to  found  as 
well  as  to  extend  the  science  of  man. 

When  the  researches  began,  certain  general  methods  were 
adopted.  In  accordance  with  the  best  scientific  usage,  re- 
search began  with  actual  observation  on  the  ground ;  recog- 
nizing the  complexity  and  elusiveness  of  human  phenomena 
and  the  fallibility  of  human  perception,  observations  were 
repeated  and  usually  verified  by  others  before  acceptance ; 
nothing  was  taken  for  granted,  and  even  the  most  widely 
accepted  theories  were  held  in  abeyance  until  tested  by 
trained  observers.  As  observations  multiplied,  they  were 
compared  in  order  that  relations  might  be  discovered,  and 
ultimately  the  facts  were  grouped  by  relation.  In  this  work 
the  several  collaborators  cooperated  with  the  original  stu- 
dent, in  order  that  the  chance  of  erroneous  grouping  might 
be  reduced.  When  the  detailed  observations  were  of  wide- 
spread interest,  they  were  published  in  part  or  in  full  ;  when 
they  were  of  technical  character,  or  for  other  reasons  of  in- 
terest to  few  persons  only  (as  in  linguistics),  only  typical  col- 
lections were  published,  the  mass  being  held  for  comparative 
study.  As  research  progressed  the  relations  themselves  were 
compared  and  grouped,  for  the  purpose  of  educing  laws  of 
relation,  or  principles.  This  work  was  performed  largely  by 
Director  Powell,  who  not  only  originated,  but  constantly  co- 
ordinated the  various  lines  of  research  ;  though  collaborators 
were  always  encouraged  to  seek  relations  and  educe  princi- 
ples, and  to  publish  under  their  own  names  such  results  of 
their  work  as  were  not   inconsistent  with  those  of  other  in- 


372  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

vestigators ;  for  it  was  recognized  that  research  is  best  pro- 
moted by  encouraging  the  investigator.  Such  have  been  the 
general  methods  in  the  bureau  ;  they  are  in  no  way  pecuhar, 
and  are  worthy  of  statement  only  as  the  basis  on  which  the 
researches  of  the  bureau  have  always  rested. 

As  the  researches  progressed  the  plan  matured  in  special 
methods  growing  out  of  special  conditions.  It  was  found 
that  the  native  Americans  are  grouped  in  tribes  bearing  dis- 
tinct names,  possessing  more  or  less  distinctive  attributes, 
and  occupying  more  or  less  definite  areas,  so  that  in  current 
thought  and  in  history  the  tribe  had  come  to  be  regarded  as 
a  primary  ethnic  unit ;  and  the  work  became  accordingly  an 
investigation  of  American  tribes.  The  questions  asked  by 
anthropologists  concerning  the  native  tribes  commonly  run 
in  a  certain  order.  The  first  demand  is  for  definition  or  more 
extended  description  ;  the  second  is  for  the  geographic  posi- 
tion or  distribution  of  the  tribe ;  while  the  third  is  frequently 
connected  with  the  social  and  other  relations  of  the  tribes- 
men ;  somewhat  less  frequently  questions  arise  concerning 
the  history  and  prospects  of  individual  tribes,  and  ethical 
questions  of  such  character  as  to  fall  within  the  legitimate 
domain  of  official  inquiry  occasionally  arise.  To  all  such 
intellieent  and  definite  demands  for  information  it  seemed 
desirable  to  make  answer,  and  thereby  the  special  methods 
of  the  bureau  were  shaped ;  and,  so  far  as  conditions  per- 
mitted, the  tribes  have  been  classified,  their  distribution  has 
been  determined,  their  organization  and  institutions  have 
been  ascertained,  and  their  history  has  been  deciphered  and 
recorded.  Yet  it  was  recognized  throughout  that  each  tribe 
is  but  a  minute  part  of  a  great  assemblage  —  the  American 
people ;  and  it  has  ever  been  sought  to  so  shape  the  re- 
searches as  to  contribute  toward  answering  all  legitimate  in- 
quiries concerning  the  relations  of  this  important  branch  of 


Bureau  of  American  Ethnology  zil 

mankind  among  each  other  as  individuals  and  tribes,  as  well 
as  to  the  other  peoples  of  the  world. 

The  operations  have  varied  from  time  to  time  with  condi- 
tions, including  official  requirements,  administrative  necessi- 
ties, and  the  demands  of  growing  science.  The  most  potent 
of  these  conditions  in  shaping  the  operations  of  the  bureau 
was  an  official  demand  to  which  the  institution  of  the  bureau 
was  a  partial  response.  Statesmen  and  administrative  offi- 
cers concerned  with  placing  the  Indians  on  reservations  felt 
the  need  of  a  practical  classification  of  the  Indian  tribes  under 
which  they  might  be  arranged  in  amicable  groups;  this  need 
was  urged  on  Major  Powell  while  Director  of  the  Rocky 
Mountain  Survey,  and  the  anthropological  researches  of  the 
survey  were  bent  to  meet  it ;  and  when  provision  was  made 
for  continuing  the  work  it  was  understood  that  the  primary 
duty  of  the  new  bureau  should  be  the  classification  of  the 
Indian  tribes  for  practical  as  well  as  for  scientific  purposes. 
One  of  the  effects  of  this  requirement  was  to  give  a  name  to 
the  office,  which  thus  came  to  be  designated  a  bureau  of  eth- 
nology ;  another  effect  was  to  confine  the  early  operations  of 
the  bureau  to  the  United  States,  though  it  was  planned 
by  statesmen  to  extend  operations  over  North  America 
at  the  outset  and  finally  over  the  hemisphere,  and  the  terms 
of  the  law  were  fixed  in  accordance  with  this  purpose.  The 
most  profound  and  far-reaching  effect  of  the  plan  was  the 
rapid  development  and  early  application  of  a  mode  of  classi- 
fication, which  has  guided  the  subsequent  operations  of  the 
bureau.  In  the  infancy  of  anthropology  the  races  of  men 
were  classed  by  color  of  skin,  character  of  hair,  form  of 
cranium,  attitude  of  eyes,  and  other  corporeal  or  physical 
features;  even  before  the  creation  of  the  bureau  certain  an- 
thropologists, notably  Gallatin  in  the  second  quarter  of  the 
century,   realized  that,   while   the   American  aborigines  may 


374  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

perhaps  be  discriminated  collectively  on  the  physical  basis, 
the  tribes,  the  confederacies  into  which  they  are  sometimes 
united,  and  the  clans  and  gentes  of  which  they  are  composed, 
are  defined  by  purely  human  attributes  growing  out  of  the 
preeminently  intellectual  character  of  mankind.  The  studies 
of  the  Rocky  Mountain  Survey  had  shown  that  the  human 
attributes  are  essentially  collective,  at  once  the  product  and 
parent  of  cooperation  among  individuals ;  and  hence  that  the 
classific  unit  among  mankind  is  not  the  individual,  as  among 
lower  animals,  but  the  cooperative  group.  When  the  force 
of  the  official  demand  for  a  practical  classification  of  the 
Indians  was  felt,  and  it  was  recognized  that  a  physical  classi- 
fication was  incompetent,  the  collective  or  demotic  characters 
were  carefully  considered;  and  it  was  soon  perceived  that 
the  tribes  of  identical  belief  are  commonly  harmonious,  and 
might  safely  be  grouped  on  reservations;  it  was  also  found 
that  similarity  in  institutions  usually  accompanies  similarity 
in  belief  and  conduces  to  harmonious  relation;  and  it  was 
found  too  that  similarity  in  arts  prepares  the  way  for  pacific 
association.  Further  study  showed  that  tribes  having  related 
arts  commonly  spoke  related  tongues,  that  tribes  of  related 
institutions  almost  invariably  spoke  cognate  dialects,  and  that 
similarity  in  belief  was  always  accompanied  by  close  similarity 
or  identity  in  speech.  Thus  it  was  ascertained  that  the  tribes 
might  be  classified  roughly  by  arts,  more  definitely  by  insti- 
tutions, and  with  sufficient  refinement  for  all  practical  pur- 
poses by  beliefs ;  and  at  the  same  time  that  language  is 
equally  useful  with  belief  as  a  basis  for  classification,  while 
its  data  are  more  easily  obtained.  Accordingly  the  linguistic 
classification  was  adopted ;  and  through  the  aid  of  collabo- 
rators and  correspondents  material  pertaining  to  the  native 
languages  was  rapidly  collected. 

Through  administrative  necessities  each   collaborator  has 


Buremi  of  American  Ethnology  375 

been  compelled  to  distribute  his  energies  among"  different 
tribes,  often  among  different  stocks;  for  it  has  never  been 
deemed  wise  by  statesmen  interested  in  the  work  to  maintain 
a  force  sufficiently  large  to  permit  the  assignment  of  a  col- 
laborator to  each  tribe,  confederacy,  or  stock.  In  consequence 
the  collaborators  became  specialists  in  departments  of  re- 
search concerning  matters  common  to  many  or  all  tribes, 
some  in  linguistics,  others  in  arts,  still  others  in  institutions 
and  beliefs.  It  was  soon  noted  that  this  differentiation  in 
labor  on  the  part  of  the  anthropologists  reflected  a  differen- 
tiation in  activity  among  the  aborigines;  and  it  was  found 
convenient  to  recognize  formally  this  original  differentiation 
and  classify  the  work  of  the  bureau  thereby.  Foremost  among 
these,  not  only  as  the  basis  of  all  the  others  but  in  immediate 
importance,  is  language,  including  speech  and  the  germ  of 
writing;  second  in  order  of  development  and  importance 
come  the  arts,  esthetic  and  industrial;  next  in  order  are  insti- 
tutions; and  perhaps  youngest  in  origin  and  most  interesting 
to  thoughtful  investigators  are  beliefs.  These  categories 
of  activities  are  characteristic  of  all  mankind,  and  have  been 
called  the  humanities  by  Major  Powell  and  some  other  stu- 
dents; they  correspond  with  the  chief  lines  of  research  in  the 
bureau  of  ethnology. 

At  the  outset  it  was  the  intention  to  devote  energy  largely 
or  exclusively  to  researches  among  living  tribes  and  tribal 
remnants  in  order  that  rapidly  passing  facts  might  be  seized, 
and  little  attention  was  given  to  the  more  permanent  relics 
of  prehistoric  art.  In  1881  the  Congress  was  petitioned  to 
so  enlarge  the  scope  of  the  bureau  as  to  include  a  study  of 
the  archaeology  of  the  United  States ;  and  without  the  know- 
ledge of  the  Secretary  of  the  Institution,  or  the  Director  of 
the  Bureau,  an  item  making  the  requisite  provision  was 
added  to  the  law.      Under  this   specific  official  requirement. 


Z1^  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

researches  concerning  the  prehistoric  works  of  the  country 
were  undertaken. 

Much  efifort  has  been  devoted  to  investigation  of  the  rela- 
tions of  the  Indians  among  each  other  and  to  different  peo- 
ples, partly  with  the  view  of  facilitating  collateral  researches. 
Various  methods  and  criteria  of  classification  have  been 
tested  in  the  different  departments  of  ethnology,  and  new 
methods  and  new  criteria  have  been  devised.  These  com- 
parisons and  studies  have  resulted  in  the  adoption  of  a  gen- 
eral classific  method  in  which  the  phenomena  are  grouped 
first  by  origin  or  genetic  relation,  and  second  by  conditions 
of  development.  Always  at  the  beginning  and  sometimes  at 
the  end  of  an  investigation  important  relations  are  unknown, 
when  it  is  necessary  to  adopt  arbitrary  classific  systems  based 
on  any  convenient  criteria;  but  it  is  the  aim  to  replace 
the  arbitrary  systems  by  natural  arrangements  whenever  the 
state  of  knowledge  permits.  On  this  basis  the  object-matter 
(the  Indians)  and  the  subject-matter  (the  knowledge)  of  the 
bureau's  researches  are  classified. 

The  first  demand  for  a  practical  classification  of  the  Indian 
tribes  was  met  by  grouping  the  Indians  north  of  Mexico  and 
a  part  of  those  occupying  the  territory  of  that  republic  in 
fifty-nine  linguistic  stocks  (or  families),  each  usually  compris- 
ing a  number  of  tribes.  These  stocks,  with  the  approximate 
number  of  tribes  in  each,  are  shown  in  the  accompany- 
ing table.  This  classification  of  the  American  Indians  was 
originally  published  in  the  seventh  annual  report  of  the  bu- 
reau, and  has  been  generally  adopted  in  encyclopedias,  text- 
books, and  other  standard  works  relating  to  the  American 
aborio^ines  in  this  and  other  countries. 


Bureau  of  Americmt  Ethnology 


Z11 


INDIAN  STOCKS  OF  NORTH  AMERICA,  NORTH  OF  CENTRAL  MEXICO. 


Algonquian 36 

Athapascan 53 

Attacapan 2 

Beothukan i 

Caddoan     9 

Chimakuan     ........  2 

Chimarikan 2 

Chimmesyan 8 

Chinookan 11 

Chitimachan i 

Chumashan 6 

Coahuiltecan 22 

Copehan 22 

Costanoan 5 

Eskimauan 70 

Esselenian i 

Iroquoian 13 

Kalapooian 8 

Karankawan i 

Keresan 17 

Kiovvan i 

Kitunahan 4 

Koluschan 12 

Kulanapan 30 

Kusan 4 

Lutuamian 4 

Mariposan 24 

Moquelumnan 35 

Muskhogean 9 

Nahuatlan ? 


Natchesan 2 

Palaihnihan 8 

Piman 7 

Pujunan 26 

Quoratcan 3 

Salinan 2 

Salishan 64 

Sastean i 

Serian 3 

Shahaptian 7 

Shoshonean 12 

Sioiian 68 

Skittagetan 17 

Takilman i 

Tanoan 14 

Timuquanan 60 

Tonikan 3 

Tonkawan i 

Uchean i 

Waiilatpuan 2 

Wakashan 37 

Washoan i 

Weitspekan 6 

Wishoskan 3 

Yakonan     4 

Yanan i 

Yukian 5 

Yuman 9 

Zunian i 


While  this  classification  of  the  tribes  is  immediately  and 
ostensibly  based  on  linguistic  characters,  it  has  a  much 
deeper  significance  than  might  appear  at  first  glance.  In 
the  first  place,  the  linguistic  characters  have  been  found  to 
be  interrelated  with  other  characters,  including  those  ex- 
pressed in  arts,  industries,  institutions,  and  beliefs,  and  were 
used  in  the  classification  only  because,  of  the  essentially 
collective  or  demotic  features  of  the  Indians,  they  were  most 
easily  ascertained.      In    the   second   place,   the   several   cate- 

25 


37^  The  Smithsoitian  Institution 

gories  of  characters  represented  by  language  have  been 
found,  through  study  of  traditions  and  direct  survivals,  to 
express  the  actual  phylogenic  development  of  the  tribes  and 
stocks.  Accordingly  each  linguistic  character  is  treated  not 
merely  as  an  external  adventive  feature,  but  as  a  product 
of  evolution,  a  record  of  the  past,  and  a  precursor  of  the 
future.  The  classification  of  American  Indians  devised  and 
applied  by  the  bureau  is  accordingly  a  condensed  expres- 
sion of  the  sum  of  present  knowledge  concerning  the  origin 
and  development  of  the  native  American  people. 

It  has  been  ascertained  that  certain  words  in  American 
languages  are  related  in  meaning  to  words  of  similar  sound 
in  transoceanic  tongues ;  that  the  arrow  of  America  is  like 
that  of  the  Orient  and  other  parts  of  the  world,  not  only  in 
general  form  and  function,  but  even  in  symbolic  markings; 
that  certain  hieroglyphics  of  the  Occident  are  similar  to  those 
of  Egypt  and  the  East  in  form  and  significance  ;  that  the 
calendar  of  Mexico  duplicates  in  essential  features  the  cal- 
endars of  India  and  Arabia ;  that  some  social  customs  of 
America  resemble  those  of  Africa  and  Australia;  and  that  the 
beliefs  and  ceremonials  of  the  American  aborigines  simulate 
and  sometimes  exactly  repeat  those  of  India,  China,  and  other 
countries.  These  parallelisms  in  the  intellectual  products  of 
mankind  have  carefully  been  considered  and  weighed  in  the 
effort  to  trace  general  ethnic  relation,  and  it  has  been  found 
that  in  the  vast  majority  of  cases  they  cannot  be  regarded  as 
indicating  connection  among  peoples,  and  seem  rather  to  in- 
dicate a  law  of  mental  action  —  the  law  that  different  minds 
of  equal  capacity  respond  similarly  to  like  stimuli.  This  con- 
clusion is  expressed  in  different  publications,  notably  a  chap- 
ter by  Powell  entitled  "On  Activital  Similarities"  in  the 
third  annual  report,  and  appears  to  be  generally  accepted 
among  American  anthropologists. 


Bureau  of  Americaji  Ethnology  379 

The  linguistic  researches  and  the  classification  of  the  native 
tribes  by  the  bureau  may  be  considered  the  continuation  of 
the  admirable  work  of  Gallatin,  who  in  1836  published  a 
"  Synopsis  of  the  Indian  Tribes  ...  in  North  America,"  ^  in 
which  eighty-one  tribes  belonging  to  twenty-eight  families 
were  enumerated.  Even  more  closely  were  the  researches 
connected  with  the  plan  communicated  to  the  Smithsonian 
Institution  in  1851  by  Professor  William  W.  Turner;  for  it 
was  in  accordance  with  this  plan  that  the  earlier  linguistic 
collections  were  made  under  the  auspices  of  the  Institution, 
while  these  collections  formed  the  nucleus  of  the  material 
conveyed  to  the  Rocky  Mountain  Survey  and  inherited  by 
the  bureau.  Time  has  shown  the  wisdom  of  Professor  Tur- 
ner's plan,  a  part  of  which  is  worthy  of  repetition  : 

"  Let  the  writer  .  .  .  describe  the  particular  language  un- 
der consideration ;  let  all  fanciful  comparisons  with  Hebrew, 
Greek,  etc.,  be  excluded.  Each  grammar  should  note  the 
dialectical  peculiarities  of  the  language  of  which  it  treats,  and 
also  the  changes  that  may  be  taking  place  in  it — that  is  to  say, 
such  as  have  been  observed  by  the  whites  since  they  have 
been  familiar  with  it,  and  especially  such  as  are  indicated  by 
differences  in  the  speech  of  old  and  young  persons.  To  each 
grammar  should  be  appended  one  or  more  specimens  of  com- 
position in  the  language,  with  an  interlinear  English  transla- 
tion. For  the  purpose  of  comparison,  the  parable  of  the 
Prodigal  Son  is  superior  on  many  accounts  to  the  Lord's 
Prayer,  although  it  would  be  well  to  give  both.  But  it  is 
very  desirable  that  to  these  should  be  added  some  origi- 
nal production  of  the  native  mind,  —  some  speech,  fable, 
legend,  or  song, — that  it  may  afford  samples  of  aboriginal 
modes  of  thought  as  well  as  of  expression.  It  seems  strange 
that  so  apparently  obvious  and  easy  a  means  of  obtaining  an 
insight  into  the  workings  of  the  mind  of  rude  nations,  which 

1 "  Archajologia  Americana,"  Transactions  and  Collections  of  the  American  Antiquarian 
Society,  Worcester,  1836,  Volume  11,  pages  1-422. 


380  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

would  prove  of  the  highest  interest  to  the  philosophical 
inquirer,  should  have  been  hitherto  almost  entirely  over- 
looked." ^ 


So  far  as  native  speech  is  concerned,  the  methods  and  pur- 
poses thus  set  forth  have  been  pursued,  and  the  linguistic 
material  has  been  collected  not  only  for  linguistic  purposes, 
but  as  a  means  for  the  interpretation  of  the  primitive  mind ; 
indeed  the  plan  has  been  modified  only  by  extending  it  to 
sign-language,  pictography,  hieroglyphics,  decoration,  paint- 
ing, and  tattooing. 

The  material  in  possession  of  the  bureau  representing  the 
speech  of  the  American  aborigines  is  vast.  During  the 
seventeen  years  of  its  existence  a  considerable  part  of  its 
energies  has  been  devoted  to  the  collection  of  such  material; 
five  quarto  volumes  of  "  Contributions "  and  two  octavo 
volumes  of"  Bulletins"  relating  exclusively  to  Indian  vocabu- 
laries, grammars,  and  texts  have  been  published,  besides  nine 
volumes  of  a  "Bibliography  of  the  Indian  Languages,"  and 
various  special  papers  and  chapters  have  been  devoted  to  the 
same  subject;  yet  the  greater  part  of  the  linguistic  collections 
remain  unpublished,  though  in  constant  use.  The  catalogue 
of  linguistic  manuscripts,  some  of  which  are  extensive,  reaches 
1533  titles,  including  332  transferred  by  the  Smithsonian 
Institution  in  1876.  The  greater  part  of  the  material  used 
in  classifying  the  fifty-nine  stocks  and  over  eight  hundred 
tribes  above  enumerated  was  collected  by  collaborators  of 
the  bureau.  No  other  linguistic  collection  of  comparable 
extent  and  variety  is  known  to  exist ;  and  since  the  ma- 
terial was  recorded  in  large  part  by  trained  linguists,  and 
since  all  the  languages  and  stocks  represent  a  widely  dis- 
tributed people  in  the  simpler  stages  of  intellectual  develop- 

1  "  Smithsonian  Report,"  1852,  Appendix,  page  100. 


Btireait  of  American  Ethnology  381 

ment,  the  bureau  collection  is  invaluable  to  students  of  the 
origin  and  growth  of  language.  The  special  treatises  by 
J.  Owen  Dorsey,  Doctor  Gatschet,  and  other  collaborators 
are  well  known  to  the  students  of  all  countries ;  the  more 
comprehensive  results  are  set  forth  in  preliminary  form  only 
in  Powell's  "Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Indian  Languages" 
and  in  the  earlier  reports;  yet  these  studies  indicate  many  of 
the  laws  and  conditions  of  linguistic  development  from  early 
savagery  well  into  barbarism. 

The  subject  of  sign-language  was  taken  up  soon  after  the 
institution  of  the  bureau,  and  was  vigorously  pursued  for 
some  years,  especially  by  Colonel  Garrick  Mallery.  It  was 
ascertained  that  this  is  a  veritable  art  of  expression,  logically 
coordinate  with  lingual  utterance,  and  perhaps  of  equal  im- 
portance in  the  formative  stage  of  language.  The  signs  were 
originally  demonstrative  or  mimetic,  though  many  of  them 
were  developed  into  partially  denotive  symbols.  By  the  use 
of  these  symbols  the  Indians  were  able  not  only  to  exchange 
intelligence  at  distances,  but  also  to  communicate  with  each 
other  despite  differences  in  dialects,  and  indeed,  since  the 
signs  were  less  completely  differentiated  than  the  phonetic 
symbols,  even  when  the  speakers  belonged  to  distinct  stocks. 

As  the  Indian  spanned  space  by  signals,  so  also  he  sought 
to  bridge  time  by  means  of  symbols  painted  or  carved  or 
embossed  on  the  faces  of  cliffs  or  other  suitable  surfaces ;  and 
thus,  long  before  the  advent  of  white  men,  the  aborigines 
entered  the  stage  of  graphic  expression.  This  subject  also 
was  studied  by  Director  Powell,  Colonel  Mallery,  Doctor 
Hoffman,  and  others.  Some  indications  were  found  that 
pictographic  and  decorative  art  sprang  from  the  same  ill- 
defined  stem,  but  early  became  differentiated ;  and  many  in- 
dications were  found  that,  while  originally  demonstrative  and 
mimetic,  the  rude  symbols  of  pictography  soon  began  to 
25* 


3^2  The  Smithsonian  Instihition 

acquire  a  denotive  meaning,  and  some  of  them  became 
almost  arbitrary.  Colonel  Mallery's  memoir  on  this  subject, 
forming  the  body  of  the  tenth  annual  report,  has  been  favor- 
ably received  in  this  and  other  countries.  The  researches 
in  pictography  illustrate  the  mode  of  origin  of  graphic  art, 
both  linguistic  and  decorative ;  and  the  laws  and  stages  of 
development  exemplified  by  both  signals  and  pictographs 
are  in  harmony  with  those  illustrated  in  the  development  of 
speech. 

The  development  of  decorative  art,  which  has  been  investi- 
gated by  Professor  Holmes  and  others,  has  been  found  mea- 
surably coincident  with  that  of  pictography  on  the  one  hand 
and  that  of  hieroglyphics  on  the  other,  though  the  designs, 
always  more  or  less  definitely  symbolic  at  the  outset,  were 
modified  to  fit  the  conditions  residing  in  the  medium  or  sur- 
face by  which  they  were  displayed.  For  this  reason  symbols 
carved  on  arrow-shafts  became  elongated,  and  symbols  repre- 
sented by  patterns  in  woven  fabrics  became  angular,  while 
one  of  the  consequences  of  the  use  of  symbols  in  decoration 
was  the  development  of  arbitrary  forms  and  the  strengthen- 
ing of  the  denotive  tendency.  Of  the  score  of  reports  re- 
lating to  this  subject,  that  prepared  by  Professor  Holmes  in 
1885  is,  perhaps,  the  most  noteworthy.^  The  influence  of 
decorative  art  on  the  development  of  writing  cannot  be  neg- 
lected, and  the  results  of  the  researches  concerning  decoration 
are  in  accord  with  those  flowing  from  the  study  of  phonetic 
symbolism. 

In  certain  groups,  notably  the  Nahuatlan  and  Mayan,  pic- 
tography was  so  well  advanced  at  the  time  of  the  discovery 
that  the  symbols  were  conventionalized,  sometimes  into  ideo- 
grams and  phonograms,  though  some  retained  the  original 

1  "A  Study  of  the  Textile  Art  in  its  Relation  to  the  Development  of  Form  and  Orna- 
ment," in  Sixth  Annual  Report  of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  1888,  pages  189-252. 


Bureau  of  American  Ethnology  383 

pictorial  character,  so  that  an  inchoate  hieroglyphic  system 
existed  among  the  Indians.  As  the  investigation  of  speech, 
sign-language,  and  pictography  progressed,  it  was  found  de- 
sirable to  extend  observation  to  the  more  highly  developed 
native  autographic  records  in  the  form  of  codices  and  carvings 
and  paintings.  The  studies  were  conducted  chiefly  by  Doctor 
Thomas  ;  and  several  memoirs,  relating  in  large  part  to  the 
native  calendar  system,  have  been  published.  In  three  of 
these  a  system  of  interpreting  hieroglyphics  was  set  forth  and 
applied ;  ^  another  showed  conclusively,  for  the  first  time,  that 
the  Maya  year  includes  a  bissextile ;  ^  while  a  memoir  now  in 
press  elucidates  the  calendar  more  fully,  and  indicates  the 
derivation  and  significance  of  the  day  symbols.  The  Ameri- 
can hieroglyphics  are  especially  important  as  marking  the 
beginning  of  a  definite  art  of  graphic  expression,  thus  throw- 
ing light  on  the  critical  stage  in  the  development  of  writing. 
The  laws  of  linguistic  development  discovered  in  the  hiero- 
glyphics are  in  accord  with  those  educed  from  the  study  of 
speech,  sign-language,  pictography,  and  decoration. 

The  researches  concerning  the  development  of  speech  and 
the  beginning  of  graphic  art  have  served  to  define  an  im- 
portant transitional  stage  in  the  growth  of  culture.  Among 
enlightened  peoples  thought  is  crystallized  and  perpetuated 
by  means  of  arbitrary  characters  which  are  combined  in 
words,  sentences,  sums,  and  formulas,  in  such  manner  as  to 
express  ideas  clearly  and  simply ;  while  among  primitive 
peoples  thought  is  crystallized  and  perpetuated  largely  by 
means  of  arbitrary  and  often  incongruous  associations.  The 
researches    have    shown    that    the    prescriptorial    mode    of 

1  "  Notes  on  Certain  Maya  and  Mexican  of    the   Manuscript    Troano,"  in    Contribu- 

Manuscripts,"  in  Third  Annual  Report  of  the  lions  to  North  American  Ethnolog)^  Volume 

Bureau    of   Ethnology,  1884,   pages    3-65;  v,  part  3,  1882. 

"  Aids  to  the  Study  of  the  Maya  Codices,"  in  2  Thomas,  Cyrus.     "  The  Maya  Year,"  in 

Sixth    Annual    Report    of    the     Bureau    of  Bulletin  No.  18  of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology 

Ethnology,  1888,  pages  253-371  ;  "A  Study  issued  in  1894. 


3^4  The  Smithsonian  Institntion 

thought  ^  is  essentially  distinct  from  that  characteristic  of  the 
stage  of  writing;  that  few  civilized  men  have  learned  to  grasp 
primitive  thought ;  and  that  no  primitive  man  grasps  civilized 
thought  save  at  the  end  of  a  civilizing  process.  Indeed  it 
would  appear  that  it  is  this  diversity  in  mode  of  thought 
rather  than  differences  in  arts,  industries,  institutions,  and 
beliefs,  more  indeed  than  all  other  things  combined,  that 
separates  primitive  man  from  civilized. 

Practically  all  the  American  tribes  were  in  the  domiciliary 
stage  when  the  continent  was  discovered  ;  and,  while  most 
of  them  occupied  temporary  or  portable  habitations,  some 
resided  in  permanent  villages,  sometimes  dominated  by 
temples,  council-houses,  and  barbaric  palaces.  The  vari- 
ous types  of  structure  have  been  investigated  ;  the  Iroquois 
long-house  and  the  Siouan  camp  circle  —  products  and  ex- 
ponents of  social  law — have  been  studied  in  detail ;  Casa 
Grande,  the  stateliest  and  best  preserved  prehistoric  house  in 
the  United  States,  has  been  described  and  illustrated,^  and 
means  have  been  adopted  for  its  preservation ;  the  skin 
lodges  of  the  plains,  the  bark-thatched  wigwams  of  the  east- 
ern forests,  the  snow  houses  of  the  Arctic,  the  earth  lodges 
of  the  northern  interior,  the  brush  tipis  of  the  Cordilleran 
valleys,  the  cactus-protected  grass  houses  of  the  Southwest, 
have  been  examined ;  the  cliff  houses  of  the  western  canons, 
the  cavate  dwellings  of  the  mesas,  and  the  stone-walled  or 
adobe  villages  of  the  arid  region,  have  been  made  known  and 
classified  as  to  type  and  function  ;  while  the  great  mounds  and 
extensive  earthworks  of  the  Mississippi  valley  and  other 
portions  of  the  continent  have  been  subjected  to  survey  in 
the  field  and  comparative  study  in  the  office.  A  noteworthy 
report  of  the  bureau  is  the  memoir  on  American  houses  and 

1  Defined  in  the  Thirteenth  Annual  Re-  2  «  Casa  Grande  Ruin,"  in  Thirteenth  An- 

port  of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  1896,  pages  nual  Report  of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology, 
22-24.  1896,  pages  289-319. 


Bureau  of  American  Ethnology  385 

house-life^  by  Lewis  H.  Morgan,  whose  epoch-making  re- 
searches concerning  the  social  organization  of  primitive  peo- 
ples marked  him  as  a  founder  of  demotic  science;  and  the 
monograph  on  mounds  and  earthworks^  by  Doctor  Thomas 
was  the  first  complete  demonstration  of  the  relations  of  the 
long  mysterious  "  mound-builders."  The  Mindeleff  brothers 
and  the  Stevensons,  as  well  as  Professor  Holmes  and  Mr. 
Cushine,  also  contributed  much  to  knowledcre  of  the  native 
architecture  of  the  Southwest  through  a  dozen  memoirs 
published  in  the  reports. 

One  of  the  earliest  lines  of  study  related  to  aboriginal  cos- 
tumery ;  and  it  has  been  ascertained  that  the  material,  form, 
and  construction  of  dress  interacted  constantly  with  artistic 
and  other  concepts.  The  relation  between  dress  and  deco- 
ration was  pointed  out  by  Holmes,  who  in  a  recent  publi- 
cation showed  also  that  the  prehistoric  fabrics  from  caves 
and  mounds  were  essentially  similar  to  the  fabrics  found  in 
use  by  the  white  discoverers.^  The  researches  indicate  that 
the  construction  of  articles  of  dress  depends  primarily  on  ma- 
terial, yet  at  the  same  time  reflects  the  culture-status  of  the 
dressmakers,  thus  expressing  the  intimacy  of  connection 
between  local  culture-grade  and  local  environment. 

When  the  Colorado  was  explored,  and  afterward  when  the 
bureau  was  instituted,  much  time  and  energy  were  devoted  to 
the  study  of  aboriginal  handicraft  through  direct  observation 
followed  by  comparison ;  it  was  soon  found  that  the  infer- 
ences of  civilized  students  concerning  the  manufacture  and 
use  of  primitive  implements  are  frequently  erroneous,  since 
primitive  thought  is  unlike  cultured  thought;  and  accordingly 

1"  Houses  and  House-Life  of  the  Amer-  nual    Report  of  the   Bureau  of  Ethnology, 

ican  Aborigines,"  in  Contributions  to  North  1894,  pages  3-730- 

American   Ethnology,  Volume   iv,   1881    (a  3  «  Prehistoric  Textile  Art  of  the  Eastern 

compleuient  to  his  "Ancient  Society").  United  States,"  in  Thirteenth  Annual   Re- 
s'' Report  on  the  Mound  Explorations  of  port  of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  1896,  pages 

the  Bureau  of  Ethnology,"  in  Twelfth  An-  3-49- 


386  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

it  was  found  desirable  to  transfer  that  branch  of  technology 
relating  to  primitive  implements  and  weapons  from  a  specu- 
lative to  an  observational  basis.  The  work  in  this  direction 
shaped  the  later  operations  of  the  bureau,  and  laid  the  foun- 
dation for  most  of  the  researches  in  archaeology.  Notable 
contributions  to  the  scientific  study  of  native  American  tech- 
nology have  been  made  by  Professor  Holmes,  Doctor  Thomas, 
and  Mr.  Gushing.  Through  the  researches  of  these  and  other 
investigators  it  has  been  shown  that  native  American  art  is 
essentially  a  unit,  and  that  while  more  or  less  distinct  phases 
sometimes  overlap,  the  chronologic  differences  are  no  greater 
than  the  geographic  differences  found  in  passing  from  one 
portion  of  the  continent  to  another.  In  brief,  the  researches 
indicate  that  at  the  time  of  the  discovery  the  American  peo- 
ple were  in  the  stone  age,  though  approaching  the  non-smelt- 
ing age  of  metal ;  and  that  this  age  was  indivisible,  each  of 
the  known  tribes  making  and  using  both  crude  and  finished 
stone  tools. 

Incidentally  it  has  been  shown  that  study  of  the  handicraft 
of  primitive  people  affords  the  only  key  to  prehistoric  art, 
and  that  foreign  inferences  as  to  culture  stages  are  inappli- 
cable to  the  western  hemisphere. 

The  native  domestic  wares  have  received  much  attention. 
The  Stevensons,  the  Mindeleff  brothers,  and  other  collabo- 
rators made  extensive  collections  of  pottery,  particularly  in 
the  Southwest,  and  these  have  been  supplemented  by  the  un- 
precedentedly  rich  collections  of  prehistoric  ware  made  by 
Doctor  Fewkes ;  and  the  collections  have  been  successfully 
studied  by  Professor  Holmes,^  who  has  thereby  traced  the 
development  of  decoration,  and  by  Doctor  Fewkes,  who  has 
traced    the   growth  of  the    mythic    symbolism    of  the    pue- 

1  Professor  Holmes'  investigations  are  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  pages  3-152,  and  on 
summarized  in  memoirs  on  aboriginal  stone  aboriginal  pottery,  accomjianying  the  Six- 
art,  in  the  Fifteenth  Annual  Report  of  the       teenlh  Annual  Report  (in  press). 


Bureau  of  American  Ethnology  z'^1 

bios  ;  ^  while  Gushing  has  worked  out  several  important  stages 
in  the  development  of  the  potter's  art  and  of  the  associated 
symbolism.^  The  art  of  basketry  is  in  many  ways  allied  to 
that  of  pottery,  and  the  decorative  designs  are  alike  signifi- 
cant. Much  information  has  been  gathered  also  concerning 
wooden-ware  and  gourd-ware.  The  researches  show  that 
the  domestic  arts  of  America  are  indigenous  and  essentially 
a  unit,  and  that  the  art  products  cover  the  entire  range  from 
middle  or  lower  savagery  up  to  the  borderland  of  feudal- 
ism. Fully  a  score  of  memoirs  published  in  the  reports  deal 
with  this  subject. 

In  connection  with  the  researches  relating  to  native  imple- 
ments, weapons,  and  utensils,  inquiry  was  made  concerning 
the  sources  of  the  materials  employed  in  the  arts.  As  these 
inquiries  were  pushed,  it  was  found  that  extensive  quarrying 
and  mining  operations  were  conducted  by  the  Indians  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  country.  Several  collaborators  were  en- 
gaged in  the  work,  notably  Professor  Holmes,  who  explored 
extensive  aboriginal  quarries  on  the  Atlantic  slope  and  in  the 
interior,  and  examined  the  remarkable  mines  for  copper  on 
Lake  Superior  and  for  gold  and  mica  in  the  Appalachians. 

Researches  concerning  prehistoric  works  have  recently 
been  extended  into  Florida,  chiefly  by  Mr.  Gushing,  and  have 
been  rewarded  by  the  most  remarkable  discoveries  in  the 
history  of  American  archaeology ;  evidence  has  been  found 
that  the  keys  and  coastal  lowlands  skirting  the  Gulf  below 
the  twenty-seventh  parallel  have  been  occupied,  raised  by 
ramparts  of  shells,  indeed  artificialized,  by  a  powerful  and 
well-organized  sea-faring  people;  and  the  abundant  imple- 
ments, weapons,  fabrics,  and  ceremonial  objects  found  in  the 

1  Doctor  Fewkes'  results  are  incorporated  2  "A  Study  of  Pueblo  Pottery  as  Illustra- 

in  the   Seventeenth  Annual  Report   of   the  tive  of  Zuni  Culture  Growth,"  in  Fourth  An- 

Bureau  of  Ethnology  (in  press),  and  general  nual  Report  of  the    Bureau   of  Ethnology, 

papers  in  the  Smithsonian  Reports.  1886,  pages  473-521. 


388  The  Smithsonian  Instihition 

rampart-protected  bogs  afford  a  striking  record  of  the  char- 
acteristics of  the  people. 

The  games  of  the  Indians  have  been  carefully  studied  by 
several  collaborators,  and  have  been  found  to  illustrate  the 
natural  history  of  amusement,  and  thus  to  form  a  basis  for 
the  science  of  esthetology.  The  simpler  games  have  been 
found  to  be  mimetic  ;  commonly  the  diversion  mimics  the  in- 
dustry, whether  it  be  the  care  of  children  or  house  on  the  part 
of  the  girl,  or  hunting,  fighting,  and  racing  on  the  part  of  the 
boy ;  while  other  games  imitate  social  and  religious  obser- 
vances. Some  of  the  simplest  amusements  remain  purely 
diversional ;  others  develop  into  elaborate  games  and  arts  of 
pleasure.  An  important  factor  in  modifying  native  games 
grows  out  of  the  mythologic  tendency  of  the  Indian  mind  ; 
objects  and  forces  which  are  not  understood  are  deemed 
"  mysterious  "  (transcendental  or  supernatural,  so  far  as  civil- 
ized language  can  express  primitive  concept),  and  thus  the 
result  of  a  throw,  a  race,  or  a  shot  is  ascribed  to  fate,  and 
througrh  association  effort  comes  to  be  reg^arded  as  an  invo- 
cation.  In  this  way  the  organized  games  become  divinatory. 
This  curious  relation  is  well  brought  out  in  different  publica- 
tions by  Mr.  Gushing,  Mr.  Mooney,  and  Mrs.  Stevenson,  and 
in  a  recent  memoir  by  Doctor  Hoffman  which  deals  with 
Indian  jugglery.^  Other  lines  of  esthetic  development  lead 
toward  graphic  expression,  and  thus  blend  with  decoration 
and  eventually  with  pictorial  and  conventional  symbolism,  in 
which  there  is  always  a  mythologic  or  divinatory  element,  as 
shown  by  Doctor  Fewkes. 

Major  Powell's  researches  among  the  Indians  of  the  Rocky 
Mountain  region  led  to  the  discrimination  of  certain  stages  in 
the  development  of  social  organization.     The  most  fundamen- 

1  "The  Menomini  Indians," in  Fourteenth  Annual  Report  of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology, 
1896,  pages  3-328.     See  also  ibid.,  pages  li-liv. 


Bureau  of  American  Ethnology  389 

tal  distinction  brought  to  light  was  that  between  tribal  society, 
which  is  organized  on  the  basis  of  actual  or  assumed  kinship, 
and  national  society,  which  springs  from  altruism  and  is  com- 
monly organized  on  a  territorial  basis.  As  the  researches 
progressed  it  was  ascertained  that  tribal  society,  as  exempli- 
fied by  the  American  Indians  and  other  primitive  peoples, 
comprises  two  stages :  in  the  earlier  stage,  commonly  styled 
savagery,  kinship  is  reckoned  in  the  female  line,  and  the 
kindred  are  grouped  in  clans ;  in  the  second  stage,  which 
corresponds  with  barbarism  as  properly  defined,  kinship  is 
reckoned  in  the  male  line,  and  the  customary  group  of  kindred 
is  a  gens.  Both  clans  and  gentes  are  grouped  in  tribes,  and 
these  groups  may  be  combined  in  confederacies.-^ 

Nearly  all  of  the  American  Indians  belong  to  the  tribal 
stage  of  society,  though  it  would  appear  that  the  germ  of 
feudal  organization  existed  among  some  Mexican  and  Cen- 
tral American  peoples,  and  was  fairly  matured  in  Peru  at  the 
time  of  discovery.  Circumstances  have  thus  far  prevented 
detailed  study  of  the  most  advanced  social  organizations,  but 
the  lower  types  have  received  much  attention.  Most  of  the 
tribes  of  the  United  States  have  been  found  to  follow  the  clan 
system,  though  many  are  gentile ;  it  has  been  ascertained 
that  the  chieftaincy  is  usually  hereditary,  in  clans  or  gens, 
and  elective  or  selective  among  the  individuals  of  the  group 
on  the  basis  of  actual  or  assumed  seniority.  The  greater 
part  of  the  material  accumulated  and  used  in  these  studies 
is  incorporated  in  a  manuscript  "Cyclopedia  of  Indian 
Tribes,"  now  in  preparation  for  the  press  chiefly  by  Mr. 
Hodge,  though  memoirs  bearing  on  the  subject  have  been 
published   in   several   reports. 

Soon  after  the  researches  among  the  Rocky  Mountain  In- 

1  The  earlier  results  of  this  work  are  summarized  in  the  Third  Annual  Report  of  the 
Bureau  of  Ethnology,  1SS4,  pages  xxxv-lxii. 


390  The  SiJiithsonian  Institution 

dians  began,  Morgan's  classic  work  on  "Systems  of  Consan- 
guinity and  Affinity  of  the  Human  Family  "  ^  was  published, 
and  the  principles  enumerated  therein  were  carefully  sub- 
mitted to  the  test  of  field  observation  during  several  succes 
sive  seasons ;  and  when  the  bureau  was  instituted  a  part  of 
the  researches  followed  the  lines  indicated  in  Morgan's  trea- 
tise. In  this  way  a  large  body  of  material  relating  to  abo- 
riginal kinship  systems  was  accumulated  and  was  utilized  in 
the  definition  of  stages  in  social  development.  It  was  ascer- 
tained that,  while  primarily  real,  the  recognized  kinship 
among  primitive  peoples  is  in  part  assumed,  and  that  this 
assumption  of  kinship  has  far-reaching  consequences,  too 
numerous  and  complex  for  summary  statement. 

During  the  progress  of  the  anthropological  researches  of 
the  Rocky  Mountain  Survey,  Major  Powell  ascertained  that 
the  Indians  have  a  system  of  tribal  laws  which  are  notably 
fair,  comprehensive,  and  efficient.  In  the  absence  of  writing 
there  are  no  statutes,  yet  through  the  intricate  system  of  pre- 
scriptorial  association  the  laws  are  perpetuated  almost  as 
completely  as,  and  inculcated  much  more  generally  than,  the 
statutes  of  civilized  peoples ;  in  nearly  all  tribes  the  code  was 
crystallized  in  the  tribal  organization,  in  the  names  of  indi- 
viduals and  groups,  in  kinship  and  marital  relations,  in  form 
of  salutation,  in  the  position  of  individuals  about  the  camp- 
fire  and  of  camps  in  the  group,  in  the  points  of  the  compass, 
in  colors,  in  symbols  on  arrow-shaft  or  garment  or  habita- 
tion, and  in  many  other  ways.  When  the  bureau  was  insti- 
tuted, aboriginal  law  was  found  to  form  a  fruitful  field  for  re- 
search, and  much  information  was  collected.  On  comparing 
the  facts  discovered  among  many  tribes,  it  was  ascertained 
that  the  legal  system  of  the  Indians,  while  varying  from  place 
to  place  and  from  stage  to  stage  in  degree  of  development* 

1  "Smithsonian  Contributions  to  Knowledge,"  1871,  Volume  xvii. 


Bureau  of  American  Ethnology  391 

and  while  often  singularly  elaborate  in  plan  and  execution, 
rests  on  a  simple  and  definite  basis;  the  primary  purpose  of 
all  Indian  law  is  to  prevent  or  settle  dispute,  and  thus  to 
promote  peace  and  the  welfare  of  the  group. ^ 

When  the  bureau  was  instituted  Director  Powell  gave 
careful  attention  to  the  subject  of  marriage,  and  ascertained 
that  in  America  the  forms  known  as  endogamy  and  exogamy 
are  simply  two  aspects  of  the  same  custom.  In  most  tribes 
the  laws  relating  to  marriage  are  strict,  and  are  regulated 
and  enforced  with  prohibitions ;  and,  while  the  regulations 
vary,  it  is  a  generally  observed  law  that  a  man  may  not 
marry  in  his  own  clan,  but  must  marry  in  his  own  tribe,  when 
the  marriage  is  commonly  arranged  by  the  council ;  so  that 
the  clan  is  exogamous,  while  the  tribe  is  endogamous.  Ac- 
cordingly, so  far  as  the  American  Indians  are  concerned, 
endogamy  and  exogamy  are  correlative  terms,  useful  in  de- 
scription, but  not  expressing  distinct  stages  in  development. 
It  was  found  that  the  regulations  concerning  marriage  in  the 
different  tribes  tend  toward  complexity,  and  that  various  de- 
vices are  adopted  to  prevent  them  from  becoming  unduly 
onerous  and  inimical  to  tribal  welfare :  thus  a  prohibited  mar- 
riage may  be  effected  through  elopement  when,  if  the  elopers 
are  able  to  avoid  vengeance  for  some  period,  the  offense  is 
condoned,  and  the  couple  eventually  join  the  proper  clan  or 
gens ;  in  some  cases  provision  is  made  for  settling  rival 
claims  to  the  hand  of  a  woman  by  wager  of  battle ;  and  in 
some  cases  there  are  regulations  relating  to  marriage  by  cap- 
ture, in  which  the  ordinary  prohibition  is  suspended.  A  result 
of  the  researches  relatinof  to  marriao-e  amonof  the  Indians  is 
the  discovery  that  the  blending  of  clans,  the  union  of  gentes, 
the  confederation  of  tribes,  and  in  general  the  combination 

1" Wyandot  Government,"  in  First  Aiimial  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  1S84,  page  Ivii.  "On 
Report  of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  1881,  Regimentation,"  Fifteenth  Annual  Report  of 
pages  S7~69-      Third  Annual  Report  of  the       the  Bureauof  Ethnology,  i897,pagesciv-cxxi. 


392  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

and  demotic  development  of  the  people  were  brought  about 
through  intermarriage,  partly  spontaneous,  partly  regulated 
by  common  law,  and  sometimes  adopted  by  leaders  to  termi- 
nate intertribal  strife.  ^ 

The  idea  of  property  right  was  inchoate  among  the 
American  aborigines,  though  moderately  developed  among 
the  cultured  people  of  the  tropics  and  still  clearer  among 
some  of  the  tribes  in  the  Arctic,  the  natural  home  of  thrift ; 
and  the  many  stages  in  development  exemplified  among  the 
tribes  have  offered  opportunity  for  making  much  progress 
toward  elucidating  the  natural  history  of  property  right. 
The  subject  was  extensively  treated  by  Director  Powell,  with 
primitive  law  and  marriage  customs,  in  several  early  reports. 

The  initial  researches  showed  that  the  distinction  between 
opinions  and  beliefs  among  the  Indians  is  vague,  and  does 
not  agree  with  that  found  among  cultured  peoples.  As  the 
work  progressed  it  was  ascertained  that  the  Indian  philoso- 
phy and  belief  are  fundamentally  mystical.  Among  many 
tribes  objects  are  vaguely  supposed  to  have  mysterious 
doubles  in  a  vague  ideal  counterpart  of  the  actual  world,  and 
the  unknown  is  invested  with  shadowy  and  illimitable  po- 
tency; and  all  of  the  Indians  so  far  investigated  carefully 
have  been  found  to  be  mystics.  The  all-pervading  "mys- 
tery" of  Indian  belief  is  hardly  susceptible  of  definite  trans- 
lation into  civilized  language,  since  the  concept  pertains  to 
the  prescriptorial  stage  of  thought.  Several  stages  in  the 
development  of  the  primitive  belief  have  been  discovered 
and  subjected  to  comparative  study,  chiefly  by  Powell,  and 
thereby  light  has  been  thrown  on  the  natural  history  of  so- 
phiology.  The  earliest  clearly  defined  stage  is  that  in  which 
mysterious   potencies   are  imputed   to   all  objects,   inanimate 

1  "Tribal  Marriage   Law,"  in  Third   Annual    Report  of  the   Bureau  of   Ethnology,    1884, 

pages  Ivi-lxii. 


Bureau  of  American  Ethnology  393 

and  animate;  this  has  been  called  hecastotheism.  In  the 
second  definite  stage  the  mysterious  potency  is  limited  gen- 
erally to  animate  forms,  though  sometimes  extending  to  plants 
and  rarely  to  inorganic  things  ;  this  has  been  called  zoothe- 
ism.  Most  of  the  tribes  were  in  the  higher  of  these  stacjes, 
and  their  belief  was  bound  up  with  every-day  conduct  and 
social  organization  in  curious  fashion.  One  expression  of 
the  belief  was  found  in  the  clan  nomenclature:  nearly  every 
clan  or  gens  bore  the  name  of  an  animal  tutelary,  and  a  picture 
of,  or  conventional  symbol  representing  this  animal  was  used 
as  a  clan  totem.  Some  of  the  tribes  were  found  to  have 
advanced  partly  into  the  third  stage  of  belief,  in  which  the 
forces  of  nature  are  personified  or  deified;  this  is  physithe- 
ism.  Contrary  to  a  popular  notion  originating  in  the  se- 
cretiveness  and  shrewdness  of  the  Indians  with  respect  to 
matters  of  belief,  it  was  ascertained  that  none  of  the  native 
peoples  thus  far  studied  with  care  have  advanced  to  the  stage 
of  spiritual  concepts,  or  of  psychotheism.  With  the  qualifi- 
cations and  limitations  thus  implied,  all  of  the  American 
tribes  have  been  found  to  be  polytheistic.  Numerous  publi- 
cations relating  to  this  line  of  work,  in  which  several  collabo- 
rators aided,  have  been  issued ;  notably  Powell's  "  Sketch  of 
the  Mythology  of  the  North  American  Indians,"^  the  basis  of 
the  later  work. 

The  beliefs  of  the  Indians  are  crystallized  in  symbols  and 
ceremonials,  which  are  often  highly  elaborate.  The  simpler 
symbols,  or  fetiches,  usually  represent  zoic  deities ;  these  are 
adored  through  the  symbols  which,  although  held  to  be 
sacred,  are  not  in  themselves  objects  of  worship.  Commonly 
the  fetiches  are  crude,  vaguely  suggesting,  through  pre- 
scriptorial  association,  the  characteristics  ascribed  to  the 
deities;  among  some   tribes  the  beast-gods   are  more   defi- 

1  First  Annual  Report  of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  i88l,  pages  19-56. 
26 


394  TJie  Smithso7iia7t  Institution 

nitely  represented  by  carvings  and  paintings,  often  in  the 
form  of  masks ;  among  the  Pueblo  people  and  the  advanced 
tribes  of  Mexico  and  Peru  the  deities  were  considered  an- 
thropomorphic or  zoomorphic  at  will,  and  were  sometimes 
represented  by  idols  of  human  form,  either  normal  or  mon- 
strous, symbolizing  the  personages  of  the  barbaric  pantheon. 
The  more  important  symbols  are  intrusted  to  shamans  or 
priests,  who  become  sacred  through  association,  and  are 
kept  in  sacred  places,  sometimes  developed  into  temples ; 
among  many  tribes  the  priesthood  is  an  important  and  even 
dominant  class.  The  simpler  rights  appear  in  every-day 
conduct;  higher  ceremonials  are  oblations  in  the  presence  of 
the  fetiches,  and  these  culminate  in  sacrifice  of  property,  or 
of  animal  and  even  human  life.  The  ordinary  ceremonial  is 
individual,  but  among  the  tribes  investigated  there  are  elab- 
orate collective  ceremonials  usually  extending  over  several 
days,  and  occurring  several  times  annually.  In  general,  the 
Indians  are  profoundly  devout  believers,  whose  faith  controls 
action  in  greater  degree  than  is  realized  in  higher  culture. 

Under  the  terms  of  law  the  collections  made  by  the  bureau 
are  transferred  to  the  United  States  National  Museum ;  and 
it  has  been  found  convenient  and  profitable  to  maintain  inti- 
mate relations  with  that  branch  of  the  Institution  and  con- 
stantly to  base  the  laboratory  researches  on  the  anthropologi- 
cal material  from  all  sources  stored  in  the  museum.  Exten- 
sive collections  have  been  made  directly  for  the  enrichment 
of  the  museum  as  an  assemblage  of  objective  material  re- 
lating to  the  American  Indians.  The  collections  made  by 
Director  Powell  while  in  charge  of  the  Rocky  Mountain 
Survey  are  particularly  noteworthy ;  they  comprise  imple- 
ments and  weapons,  costumery,  gaming  devices,  symbolic 
and  ceremonial  objects,  and  are  especially  rich  in  native  veg- 
etal food-substances ;    they  may  be   considered   to  form  the 


Bureau  of  Atfierican  Ethnology  395 

nucleus  of  the  ethnologic  department  of  the  museum.  Ample 
collections  were  made  also  by  the  Stevensons,  by  Professor 
Holmes  and  Mr.  Mooney,  and  by  other  collaborators ;  re- 
cently Doctor  Fewkes  has  gathered  unprecedentedly  abun- 
dant stores  of  decorated  pottery  from  the  Pueblo  country ; 
and  the  writer  has  added  some  unique  material  from  the 
Papago  country,  as  well  as  from  the  interior  of  Seriland, 
never  before  visited  by  white  men. 

The  publications  issued  to  date  comprise  fourteen  annual 
reports  embracing  fifty-nine  appended  memoirs  (three  addi- 
tional reports,  embracing  twelve  memoirs,  are  in  press)  ; 
twenty-four  bulletins,  each  containing  a  special  paper  or 
memoir;  eight  volumes  of  "  Contributions  to  North  Ameri- 
can Ethnology";  four  "Introductions"  issued  for  the  use  of 
correspondents  and  collaborators ;  and  a  few  miscellaneous 
documents. 

The  manuscript  collections  are  voluminous.  Under  the 
plan  of  limiting  publication  to  important  descriptive  matter 
and  to  thoroughly  digested  scientific  results,  the  major  part 
of  the  observations  remain  unpublished,  though  in  constant 
use.  The  unique  manuscripts  and  most  of  the  original 
records  are  kept  in  fire-proof  vaults  under  more  than  two 
thousand  titles;  the  material  for  the  "Cyclopedia  of  Indian 
Tribes  "  is  recorded  on  a  hundred  thousand  cards ;  and  there 
are  several  hundred  manuscripts  prepared  by  the  Director, 
the  different  collaborators,  and  many  correspondents  which 
are  not  catalogued.  Advantage  has  been  taken  of  every 
opportunity  to  make  or  acquire  photographs  of  Indians  and 
their  works;  and  the  files  now  include  about  twenty-five 
hundred  portraits,  with  some  twenty-five  hundred  groups, 
houses,  ceremonials,  and  other  subjects.  During  the  last 
three  years  publication  has  been  pushed  forward  more  rapidly 
than  hitherto,  for  it  is  realized  that  the  material  pertaining  to 


39^  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

most  lines  of  research  is  now  sufficiently  voluminous  to  war- 
rant thorough  study  and  final  issue. 

These  paragraphs  do  no  more  than  touch  lightly  on  salient 
points  in  the  history,  policy,  and  work  of  the  Bureau  of  Ameri- 
can Ethnology.  The  field  is  vast,  and  the  lines  of  research 
are  many;  and  it  has  ever  been  the  aim  of  Director  Powell 
and  his  collaborators  so  to  select  and  pursue  lines  of  work  as 
to  aid  in  creating  and  diffusing  among  men  definite  knowledge 
concerning  the  American  aborigines  as  one  of  the  great 
branches  of  mankind.  Accordingly  the  small  library  of  re- 
ports published  and  the  small  assemblage  of  objects  collected 
through  the  work  of  the  bureau  contribute  toward  the  me- 
morial to  Smithson,  the  founder,  and  Henry,  the  organizer, 
of  the  parent  institution  of  American  science.  At  the  same 
time  the  work  of  the  bureau  is  a  tribute  to  the  foresight, 
liberality,  and  wisdom  of  the  statesmen  who  have  endowed 
and  sustained  the  "  researches  concerning  the  American 
Indians." 


THE  INTERNATIONAL  EXCHANGE 

SYSTEM 

By  William  Crawford  Winlock 


^1)HE  "diffusion  of  knowledg-e,"  which,  next  to 
its  "  increase,"  was  so  prominently  in  the 
mind  of  the  founder  of  the  Smithsonian  In- 
stitution, was  provided  for  in  the  program  of 
organization,  submitted  by  Professor  Henry 
to  the  Board  of  Regents  in  1847,  by  a  system  of  pubHca- 
tions  and  their  exchange  ^  and  distribution  throughout  the 
world. 

In  his  report  for  1851  Professor  Henry  describes  the  ex- 
change system,  organized  for  the  purpose  of  distributing  the 
first  volume  of  the  Institution's  publications,  as  an  extension 
of  a  system  which  had  then  been  in  operation,  on  a  small 
scale,  for  nearly  half  a  century  between  the  American  Philo- 
sophical Society  and  the  American  Academy  of  Arts  and 
Sciences  on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic,  and  several  scientific 
societies  abroad.  While  the  Smithsonian  Institution  ex- 
changes  had    no    direct   connection    with    those    established 

1  Reference  should  be  made  to  a  "History  history  of  the  exchange  service  with  copies 

of  the  Smithsonian  Exchanges,"  by  George  of  official  documents  relating  to  ils  develop- 

H.  Boehmer,  printed  in  tlie"  Smithsonian  Re-  ment.     This  manuscript  has  been  consulted 

port"  for  1881.     Mr.  Boehmer  had  also  pre-  in  the  preparation  of  the  following  brief  ac- 

pared  the  manuscript  for  a  more  complete  count  of  the  exchanges. 

26*  397 


398 


The  Smithsonian  ItistiUition 


between  national  governments  by  Vattemare,^  it  soon  super- 
seded all  other  plans  for  international  exchanges. 

It  is  not  without  interest  to  briefly  allude  to  the  earlier 
efforts  of  this  kind.  In  1694  the  Royal  Library  of  France 
exchanged  its  duplicate  volumes  for  new  books  printed  in 
foreign  countries,  and  about  the  beginning  of  the  present 
century  the  American  Philosophical  Society  and  the  Ameri- 
can Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences  instituted  the  exchange  to 
which  Professor  Henry  refers. 

Monsieur  Vattemare  about  1832  made  an  effort  to  estab- 
lish an  exchange  of  duplicates  between  some  of  the  principal 
libraries  of  Europe,  and  succeeded  in  interesting  many  of 
the  governments  in  the  work,  though  his  efforts  do  not  seem 
to  have  been  rewarded  with  the  success  they  merited. 

He  visited  the  United  States  in  1839,  and  secured  the 
interest  and  cooperation  of  many  prominent  men  in  official 
life.  On  his  second  visit  to  the  United  States  in  1848  he 
was  designated  as  the  agent  for  the  Library  of  Congress  to 
conduct  the  exchange  between  France  and  the  United  States. 

Another  effort  to  establish  a  system  of  exchanges,  chiefly 
of  natural  history  specimens,  was  made  by  the  National  Insti- 
tute in  May,  1840,  which  resulted  in  securing  many  valuable 
additions  to  the  national  collection. 

The  United  States  government,  in  addition  to  assisting 
Monsieur  Vattemare,  had  on  several  occasions  indicated  its 
desire  of  effecting  exchanges  with  foreign  governments.      By 


1  Alexandre  Vattemare  was  born  in  Paris 
November  8,  1796,  and  died  there  April  7, 
1864.  He  was  educated  as  a  surgeon,  but 
became  a  professional  ventriloquist,  lieing 
well  known  both  in  Europe  and  America. 
Subsequently  he  gave  up  this  occupation  to 
urge  the  adoption  of  a  system  of  exchange  of 
duplicate  books  between  libraries,  especially 
of  government  publications,  but  afterward 
extended  the  system  to  include  art  objects, 


maps,  specimens  of  natural  history,  and  other 
siniilar  articles.  He  came  to  the  United 
States  in  1839,  and  again  in  1847.  He  is 
credited  with  being  the  means  of  adding 
300,000  volumes  to  the  liljraries  of  this  coun- 
try. The  correspondence  of  M.  Vattemare 
with  the  National  Institute,  in  which  he  has 
set  forth  at  some  length  the  progress  of 
his  i^lan  for  international  exchanges,  will 
be  found  of  much  interest. 


;«fe« 


m 


MORRISON   REMICK  WAITE. 


FIFTH  CHANCELLOR  OF  THE  SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION, 

1S74-1888. 


398 

-    emare/  it  soon  ^' 
..ciLi^nal  exchange? 
:st  to  briefly  al'  .rlier 

In   1694  the  Royal  Library  of 

for   new  books  printed  in 
'^•"nnino-  of  thp  present 

Arts  arici  bcicnces  instituted  the  e:  o 

V  i-^rotessor  Hei  "ers. 

Monsieur  mare  about  1832  made  an  ef! 

li^h  an  pvrhnnae  of  duplicates  between  some  of  ...^  ^.....^.^^. 

"oe,  and  succeeded  in  interestr  -  of 

his  efforts 

^Q,   and   secured   the 

ac^  in    184^    ^- 

ijrary  of  ress  to 

c  t  the  nd  the  United  s. 

:t  to  estab.  stem  of  exchanges, 

of  natural  history  specimens,  was  made  by  the  Natio'^        ,.,Ji- 
tute  in  May,  1840,  which  rjssulted  in  securing  man  ^  ' 

ction. 

ii   addition   to   assisting 


I  He  is 

becan  ng 

v,l1  .1- 

re 
ion  of  a  system  c  :»e  has 

''-•■'  -f 

■11 

,KOITTJTITa>Ii   /.AlKOaHTIi/.ci  'ART  'dO  i-JOJJ30^AH0  HT^dra 

.8SSt-kTSl 


The  International  Exchange  System         399 

the  Act  of  July  20,  1840,  the  Librarian  of  Congress  was  author- 
ized to  exchange  duplicates  in  the  library  for  other  books  or 
works.  By  the  act  of  March  4,  1846,  he  was  directed  "to 
procure  a  complete  series  of  reports  of  the  United  States 
Congress  and  of  the  laws  of  the  United  States,  and  trans- 
mit them  to  the  Minister  of  Justice  of  France,  in  exchange 
for  works  of  French  law  presented  to  the  United  States 
Supreme  Court."  "By  a  resolution  of  June  30,  1848,  it  was 
ordered  that  the  joint  committee  on  the  library  be  furnished 
with  twenty-five  copies  of  the  Revolutionary  archives,  twenty- 
five  copies  of  Little  and  Brown's  edition  of  the  "Laws  of  the 
United  States,"  and  seven  copies  of  the  exploring  expedition, 
then  published,  and  an  equal  number  of  subsequent  publica- 
tions on  the  same  subject,  for  the  purpose  of  international 
exchange."^ 

The  first  volume  of  Smithsonian  publications  issued  was 
a  memoir  on  the  ancient  monuments  of  the  Mississippi  Valley 
by  Squier  and  Davis,  published  in  1848  and  distributed  in  the 
following  year.  It  was  found  that  after  agencies  were  estab- 
lished in  different  parts  of  the  world  for  the  exchange  of  the 
Institution's  own  publications,  other  exchanges  could  be  car- 
ried on  through  them  at  slight  additional  expense,  and  the 
Smithsonian  Institution  accordingly  offered  to  other  institu- 
tions of  learning,  and  in  some  cases  to  individuals,  the 
privilege  of  sending  and  receiving  small  packages  through 
these  agencies. 

The  plan  of  conducting  the  foreign  exchange  was  to  issue 
at  stated  periods  a  circular  to  the  effect  that  the  Smithsonian 
Institution  was  then  making  preparations  to  send  copies  of 
its  publications  to  the  different  libraries  and  societies  in  Europe 
and  other   parts  of  the  world,  and  that  it  would  undertake 

1 ''  Public  Libraries  in  the  United  States  of  America,   their    History,  Condition,  and 
Management."     Special  Report,  Bureau  of  Education,  1876,  part  i,  page  284. 


400  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

the  transmission  and  safe  delivery  of  the  pubHcations  of 
other  American  institutions,  in  accordance  with  certain  rules, 
providing,  in  effect,  that  the  packages  should  be  properly- 
wrapped,  addressed,  and  delivered  to  the  Institution  in  Wash- 
ington accompanied  by  a  detailed  invoice. 

No  charge  was  made  for  the  expense  of  sending  from 
Washington  if  the  parcels  were  of  moderate  bulk,  though 
the  right  to  make  a  charge  proportional  to  the  actual  ex- 
pense incurred  by  the  Institution  was  reserved  in  some 
instances. 

These  facilities  soon  proved  of  such  value  that  the  ex- 
change service  assumed  a  much  wider  importance  than  could 
have  well  been  anticipated,  though,  as  far  as  the  exchange 
of  the  Smithsonian  publications  proper  was  concerned,  the 
principal  object  was  not  so  much  to  procure  a  large  library 
for  the  Institution  as  to  diffuse  among  men  a  knowledge  of 
the  new  truths  discovered  by  the  agency  of  the  Smithsonian 
fund. 

Professor  Henry  said  in  1852  :^ 

"  The  worth  and  importance  of  the  Institution  are  not  to  be 
estimated  by  what  it  accumulates  within  the  walls  of  its  build- 
ing, but  by  what  it  sends  forth  to  the  world.  Its  great  mis- 
sion is  to  facilitate  the  use  of  all  the  implements  of  research, 
and  to  diffuse  the  knowledge  which  this  use  may  develop. 
The  Smithsonian  publications  are  sent  to  some  institutions 
abroad,  and  to  the  great  majority  of  those  at  home,  without 
any  return  except,  in  some  cases,  that  of  cooperation  in 
meteorological   and   other  observations. 

"In  carrying  out  this  plan,  the  Institution  is  much  indebted 
to  the  liberal  course  adopted  by  the  government  of  Great 
Britain,  and  to  the  ready  cooperation  of  the  Royal  Society 
of  London.  All  packages  intended  for  Great  Britain,  for 
some  parts  of  the  continent,  and  the  East  Indies,  are  directed 

1 "  Smithsonian  Report,"  1852,  pages  20  and  21. 


The  International  Exchange  System         401 

to  the  care  of  the  Royal  Society,  and,  on  the  certificate  of  its 
President,  are,  by  a  special  order  of  the  government,  admitted 
duty  free,  and  without  the  delay  and  risk  of  inspection." 

And  in  1854:  ^ 

"There  is,  therefore,  no  port  to  which  the  Smithsonian 
parcels  are  shipped  where  duties  are  charged  on  them  —  a 
certified  invoice  of  contents  by  the  Secretary  being  sufficient 
to  pass  them  through  the  custom-house  free  of  duty.  On  the 
other  hand,  all  packages  addressed  to  the  Institution,  arriving 
at  the  ports  of  the  United  States,  are  admitted,  without  deten- 
tion, duty  free.  This  system  of  exchange  is,  therefore,  the 
most  extensive  and  efficient  which  has  ever  been  established 
in  any  country." 

An  essential  feature  of  the  orLjanizatlon  of  the  Smithsonian 
exchange  service  was  to  secure  the  cooperation  of  an  im- 
portant scientific  society  or  permanent  library  in  the  principal 
foreicjn  countries  willingf  to  undertake  the  distribution  of  the 
publications  it  might  receive  for  institutions  in  its  neigh- 
borhood. In  many  instances,  also,  members  of  the  diplo- 
matic and  consular  service  of  the  United  States  rendered 
efficient  aid,  and  several  prominent  publishing  houses  like- 
wise acted  as  local  agents. 

The  following  communication"  from  Sir  Edward  Sabine, 
who  later  became  President  of  the  Royal  Society,  shows  the 
deep  interest  manifested  in  this  movement : 

"Royal  Society's  Apartments, 
"Somerset  House,  London,  March  19,  1852. 

"My  Dear  Sir: 

"I  duly  communicated  to  the  Earl  of  Rosse,  President  of  the 
Royal  Society,  your  letter  to  me  on  the  subject  of  the  inter- 

1  "Smithsonian  Report,"  1854,  page  21.  Reports    of    Committees,    Statistics,"    etc. 

2  Rliees,  William  J.    "The  Smithsonian  In-       Washington,  1S79,  page  82.     Also  Boehmer, 
stitution:  Journals  of  the  Board  of  Regents,       George  H.,"  History  of  Exchanges,"  page  1 1. 


402  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

change  of  scientific  publications  between  the  United  States 
and  this  country,  and  the  admission  into  England,  duty  free, 
of  scientific  books  and  memoirs  presented  to  institutions  or  to 
individuals  here,  either  by  or  through  the  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tution. I  accompanied  this  communication  by  a  letter  ad- 
dressed to  the  President,  which  you  will  read  in  the  enclosed 
printed  minutes  of  the  Council  of  the  Royal  Society  of  January 
15,  1852,  The  subject  has  since  been  brought  by  the  Earl 
of  Rosse  under  the  consideration  of  Her  Majesty's  govern- 
ment, who  have  shown,  as  might  be  expected,  much  readiness 
to  meet,  in  the  same  spirit,  the  liberal  example  which  has 
been  set  by  the  United  States,  in  exempting  from  duty  scien- 
tific books  sent  as  presents  from  this  country  to  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution,  and  through  that  Institution  to  other  insti- 
tutions, and  to  individuals,  cultivating  science  in  the  United 
States.  The  mode  which  has  been  suggested  by  our  Board 
of  Customs,  for  admitting  duty  free  scientific  publications  de- 
signed for  this  country,  and  which,  we  hope,  will  receive  the 
approval  of  the  Treasury,  is,  that  a  list  should  be  furnished  by 
the  Royal  Society  of  the  names  of  all  institutions  and  indi- 
viduals to  whom  such  works  may  be  expected  to  be  addressed, 
when  the  custom-house  officers  will  have  directions  to  pass 
without  duty  all  such  publications  having  the  names  of  such 
institutions  or  persons  inscribed  either  on  the  cover  or  on  the 
title-page,  which  are  sent  to  this  country  in  packages  directed 
to  the  Royal  Society  —  the  list  to  be  amended  or  extended 
from  time  to  time.  The  Royal  Society  will  gladly  take  charge 
of  and  distribute  under  these  regulations  the  books  which  the 
Smithsonian  Institution  may  send  for  institutions  and  indi- 
viduals in  this  country,  receiving  them  from  the  agent  in 
London  appointed  by  the  Smithsonian  Institution  ;  and  I 
shall  be  obliged  by  your  furnishing  me,  at  your  earliest  con- 
venience, with  a  list,  as  complete  as  you  may  be  able  to  make 
it,  of  the  names  of  the  institutions  and  persons  to  whom  books 
or  memoirs  are  likely  to  be  sent. 

"The  Royal  Society  will  also  gladly  receive  and  forward  to 
their  ultimate  destination  (where  such  assistance  may  be  use- 
ful) packages  containing  publications  of  a  similar  description, 


The  International  Exchange  System         403 

designed  for  institutions  and  individuals  on  the  continent  of 
Europe ;  such  packages  being  directed  to  the  Royal  Society, 
and  stated  on  the  outside  of  the  case  or  package  to  be  from 
the  Smithsonian  Institutio7i.  The  customs'  duties  will,  in 
such  cases,  be  either  altogether  remitted  or  returned  on  re- 
exportation. 

"If  it  be  a  convenience  to  the  cultivators  of  science  in  the 
United  States,  that  publications  presented  to  them  by  insti- 
tutions or  individuals  on  the  continent  of  Europe,  or  else- 
where, should  be  addressed  to  the  Royal  Society  as  a  channel 
of  communication,  the  same  faciUties  will  be  given  by  the 
Board  of  Customs,  and  the  Royal  Society  will,  with  pleasure, 
make  the  required  arrangements.  It  will  be  necessary,  in 
such  cases,  that  packages  arriving  from  the  continent  of 
Europe  or  elsewhere  should  be  marked  on  the  outside,  y^r///^ 
SmitJisonian  Institution,  and  the  foreign  Secretary  of  the 
Royal  Society  should  be  apprised  of  their  being  sent.  Ex- 
penses of  freight  would  of  course  be  defrayed  by  the  agent 
of  the  Smithsonian  Institution. 

"I  remain,  my  dear  sir,  with  great  respect  and  regard, 
"Very  sincerely  yours, 

"Edward  Sabine, 

"  Vice-President  and  Treasurer  of  the  Boyal  Society." 


An  interesting  special  use  of  the  exchange  system  took 
place  in  1867,  when,  at  the  suggestion  of  the  Honorable 
John  Bigelow,  a  former  Minister  to  France,  a  request  was 
made  by  the  Institution  that  some  of  the  principal  publishers 
of  school-books  in  this  country  should  furnish  copies  of  their 
elementary  text-books,  in  order  that  they  might  be  presented 
to  Professor  Laboulaye,  of  the  College  of  France,  for  exami- 
nation, with  a  view  to  the  application  of  some  of  their  pe- 
culiar features  to  the  purposes  of  instruction  in  his  own 
country.  In  response  to  this  request,  nearly  two  hundred 
volumes  of  school  text-books  were  furnished  by  the  princi- 


404  The  Smithsonimi  Institution 

pal  publishers  In  the  United  States,  and  received  with  warm 
thanks  by  Professor  Laboulaye. 

In  recognition  of  the  disinterested  work  of  the  Institution, 
many  of  the  principal  steamship  companies  granted  to  it  im- 
portant concessions  in  free  freight,  and  without  this  friendly 
aid  the  system  could  scarcely  have  grown  to  the  proportion 
it  has  now  attained.  Among  others  the  Secretary  made 
special  acknowledgment  in  earlier  years  of  obligations  to  the 
United  States  Mail  Steamship  Company,  the  Panama  Rail- 
road Company,  and  the  Pacific  Mail  Steamship  Company ; 
to  the  North  German  Lloyd,  to  the  Cunard  Steamship  Com- 
pany, and  to  many  of  the  principal  publishing  houses  in  this 
country. 

The  Royal  Society,  after  acting  as  the  agent  of  the  Insti- 
tution for  several  years,  found  in  1862  the  constantly  increas- 
ing duties  of  distributing  exchanges  somewhat  burdensome. 
It  was,  therefore,  deemed  necessary  to  establish  a  salaried 
agency  at  the  expense  of  the  Institution,  to  be  located  in 
London,  for  Great  Britain  and  its  colonies.  Messrs.  William 
Wesley  &  Son,  booksellers,  at  28  Essex  Street,  Strand, 
were  appointed  the   London  agents. 

For  the  same  reason  that  made  a  change  necessary  in  the 
administration  of  the  affairs  of  the  Institution  in  Great  Brit- 
ain, Doctor  Felix  Fliigel,  of  Leipsic,  was  appointed  to  at- 
tend to  exchange  matters  between  Germany  and  the  United 
States,  and  subsequently  exchanges  between  the  United 
States  and  Austria-Hungary  and  also  Switzerland,  were  con- 
ducted through  the  Leipsic  agency. 

With  the  exception  of  the  agencies  of  the  Institution  in 
Great  Britain  and  Germany,  there  are  at  present  no  salaried 
officers  of  the  Institution  in  foreign  countries,  all  transactions 
being  conducted  gratuitously,  either  by  foreign  official  ex- 
change bureaus  or  by  libraries  or  scientific  institutions  which 


The  International  Exchange  Systein         405 

have   willingly   assumed  the   task   for   the   benefit   that  may 
accrue  from  the  service. 

So  useful  had  this  exchange  system  become  within  the  first 
ten  years  of  its  existence  that  in  1855  ^^  following  commu- 
nication ^  was  forwarded  by  Professor  Asa  Gray,  the  Secre- 
tary of  the  American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  to  Pro- 
fessor Henry : 

"American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences, 
"  Boston  and  Cambridge,  Massachusetts, 

"August,  1855. 
"  My  Dear  Sir  : 

"The  following  extract  from  the  record  of  the  annual 
meeting  in  May  last  has  just  been  furnished  me  by  the  re- 
cording secretary : 

"  '  Professor  Agassiz  referred  to  the  allusion  in  the  libra- 
rian's report  to  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  and  expressed  in 
strong  language  his  sense  of  indebtedness  of  the  scientific 
world  to  that  Institution,  for  its  enlightened  efforts  to  diffuse 
knowledge,  particularly  as  a  medium  of  exchange  of  publica- 
tions. In  conclusion,  he  moved  that  the  thanks  of  the  acad- 
emy be  p7^esented  to  the  Smithsonian  Institution  for  its 
efficient  agcjicy  in  effecting  for  the  acade7ny  its  exchanges 
with  societies  and  individuals,  which  was  unanimously 
adopted.' 

"I  have  great  pleasure  in  forwarding  to  you  the  vote  of 
the  academy,  in  obedience  to  its  instructions. 

"  And  I  remain,  very  respectfully, 

"  Your  obedient,  faithful  servant, 

"  Asa  Gray, 

"  Corresponding  Secretary" 

The  Smithsonian  exchange  service  was  early  taken  ad- 
vantage of  by  the  bureaus  of  the  United  States  government 
to  effect  the   distribution  of  their   technical    publications   to 

1  "  Smithsonian  Report,"  1855,  page  79. 


4o6  The  Smithsonian  Instihttion 

foreign  libraries  and  the  collection  of  similar  reports  in  return, 
and  between  the  years  1851  and  1867  it  is  estimated  that 
over  twenty  thousand  packages  of  such  government  publica- 
tions were  carried  by  the  exchange  service,  at  an  approximate 
cost  to  the  private  fund  of  the  Institution  of  over  eight  thou- 
sand dollars. 

The  government  exchanges,  however,  were  in  a  chaotic 
condition  until  the  enactment  of  a  joint  resolution,  approved 
March  2,  1867,  that  fifty  copies  of  all  documents  printed  by 
order  of  either  House  of  Congress,  or  by  order  of  any  de- 
partment or  bureau  of  the  government,  should  be  placed  at 
the  disposal  of  the  joint  committee  on  library,  who  should 
exchange  the  same,  through  the  agency  of  the  Smithsonian 
Institution,  for  similar  works  published  in  foreign  countries; 
these  works  to  be  deposited  in  the  Library  of  Congress. 

Respecting  this  system  Professor  Henry  said  ^  in  1870,  in 
his  testimony  concerning  the  expenditure  of  the  Smithson 
fund,  before  an  English  government  scientific  commission, 
of  which  the  Duke  of  Devonshire  was  chairman  and  Sir 
John  Lubbock  and  Professor  Huxley  members : 

"  There  is  one  part  of  the  operations  which  I  have  not 
sufficiently  dwelt  upon,  and  that  is  the  system  of  international 
exchansfes.  In  order  to  send  the  volumes  of  Smithsonian 
Contributions  over  the  world,  the  Institution  has  agents; 
an  agent  in  this  city,  an  agent  in  Paris,  an  agent  in  Leip- 
sic,  an  agent  in  Amsterdam,  and  another  in  Norway ;  and 
every  year  the  volumes  of  the  Institution  are  sent  to  these 
aofents  for  distribution,  and  with  them  the  transactions  and 
proceedings  of  all  the  societies  of  the  United  States,  and 
also  of  Canada,  and  of  South  America.  For  example,  all  the 
Canadian  institutions  send  copies  of  their  publications  to  the 
Institution,  and  then  the  Institution  distributes  them  over  the 
world,  and  receives  in  return  for  the  several  donors  the  pro- 

1  Rhees,  William  J,  "Journals  of  the  Uoard  of  Regents,"  etc.,  page  782. 


The  International  Exchange  System         407 

ceedings  and  transactions  of  foreign  societies.  This  part  of 
the  operations  costs  about  ^1,000  sterHng  a  year,  but  it  is 
considered  of  great  importance  in  the  way  of  making  science 
one  in  all  countries.  This  is  considered  a  very  important 
part  of  the  plan  of  operations.  Not  only  are  books  dis- 
tributed, but  the  Institution  has  commenced  the  practice  of 
distributing  specimens  of  natural  history  over  the  world  and 
getting  others  in  exchange.  As  an  interesting  fact  in  con- 
nection with  this  system,  I  may  mention  that  all  the  lines  of 
steamers,  the  Cunard  line  of  steamers,  the  German  Lloyds' 
steamers,  and  the  lines  from  San  Francisco,  all  convey  the 
Smithsonian  packages  free  of  cost,  and  also  that  they  are 
admitted  through  all  custom-houses  without  being  opened, 
and  free  from  all  duties  in  all  countries. 

"  Doctor  Sharpey  :  Do  you  receive  for  the  societies  in 
America,  for  example,  from  the  societies  in  London,  and  dis- 
tribute those  exchanges  to  the  societies  in  America?  —  Yes, 
for  all  the  societies.  The  great  object  is  to  facilitate  in 
every  possible  way  the  promotion  of  science,  and  especially 
the  fostering  of  original  research,  and  enlarging  the  bounds 
of  human  thought.  It  is  a  matter  of  surprise  that  the  idea  is 
not  more  generally  understood  by  statesmen  and  legislators, 
that  modern  civilization  depends  upon  science,  including  the 
knowledge  of  the  forces  of  nature,  and  the  modes  in  which 
they  become  the  agents  of  man.  Every  discovery  is  con- 
nected with  good.  Even  the  human  body  cannot  be  properly 
understood  without  a  knowledo-e  of  that  of  all  other  ororan- 
ized  beings." 

The  resolution  of  Congress  carried  no  appropriation,  so 
that  it  was  not  until  1873  that  the  exchange  actually  began, 
and  its  operation  was  necessarily  restricted,  owing  to  the 
large  drain  made  upon  the  funds  of  the  Institution.  Never- 
theless, Mr.  Ainsworth  R.  Spofford  was  enabled  to  say  of 
this   work   in    1876^   that   "the   Smithsonian    Institution   has 

1 "  Public  Libraries  in  the  United  States   of  America,  their   History,  Condition,   and 
Management."     Special  Report,  Bureau  of  Education,  1S76,  part  I,  page  684. 


4o8  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

rendered  incalculable  service  to  the  scientific  development 
of  this  country  through  its  broad  and  liberal  system  of  ex- 
chanpfes  with  learned  societies  throug-hout  the  world."  And 
in  1881  ^  Professor  Baird  stated  that 


"  No  one  of  the  various  operations  carried  on  by  the 
Smithsonian  Institution  is  of  more  importance  in  the  advance- 
ment of  science  than  that  of  the  international  exchange  of 
publications  between  the  governments  and  their  bureaus,  de- 
partments, the  learned  institutions,  and  scientific  men  of  the 
two  worlds.  Notwithstanding  the  increase  of  the  govern- 
mental international  system,  in  which  quite  a  number  of 
nations  have  joined,  the  work  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution 
still  continues  to  be  of  preeminent  magnitude  and  impor- 
tance. Originally  initiated  for  the  purpose  of  distributing  the 
publications  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  to  libraries,  socie- 
ties, and  learned  men  abroad,  and  to  receive  returns  for  the 
same,  it  was  gradually  extended  so  as  to  take  within  its 
sphere  all  the  establishments  in  the  New  World  requiring 
a  similar  service.  Indeed,  by  its  system  of  agencies  in  vari- 
ous portions  of  the  world  to  which  packages  were  sent  for 
transmission  to  destination,  and  where  returns  were  gathered 
and  forwarded  to  Washington,  it  maintained  an  arrangement 
of  its  own,  entirely  independent  of  any  other  organization." 

Congress  had,  as  already  mentioned,  even  as  early  as 
1840,  taken  into  consideration  the  exchange  of  its  documents 
for  similar  works  of  foreign  governments,  and,  as  the  result  of 
Monsieur  Vattemare's  efforts,  in  1846  provision  was  made  for 
exchanging  a  complete  set  of  the  laws  of  the  United  States 
with  the  French  government,  while  in  1848  the  joint  com- 
mittee on  the  library  was  authorized  to  appoint  exchange 
agents  for  the  exchange  of  books  and  public  documents  for 
the  use  of  the  United  States,  for  any  single  State,  or  for  the 

1  "Smithsonian  Report,"  i88l,  page  30. 


The  International  Exchange  System         409 

Academy  in  West  Point,  or  for  the  National  Institute  —  all 
these  to  be  admitted  free  of  duty. 

Special  acts  for  the  exchange  of  specific  volumes  were 
passed  in  1848,  1849,  and  1856,  but  the  first  general  law  for 
the  exchano^e  of  United  States  documents  was  that  enacted 
in  1867,  a  joint  resolution  being  approved  on  March  2  of  that 
year  to  the  effect : 

"That  fifty  copies  of  all  documents  hereafter  printed  by 
order  of  either  House  of  Congress,  and  fifty  copies  additional 
of  all  documents  printed  in  excess  of  the  usual  number,  to- 
gether with  fifty  copies  of  each  publication  issued  by  any 
department  or  bureau  of  the  government,  be  placed  at  the 
disposal  of  the  Joint  Committee  on  the  Library,  who  shall 
exchange  the  same,  through  the  agency  of  the  Smithsonian 
Institution,  for  such  works  published  in  foreign  countries,  and 
especially  by  foreign  governments,  as  may  be  deemed  by 
said  committee  an  equivalent ;  said  works  to  be  deposited  in 
the  Library  of  Congress." 

While  this  resolution  carried  with  it  no  appropriation, 
Professor  Henry  at  once  undertook  the  preliminary  corre- 
spondence necessary  to  carry  it  into  effect  by  addressing  a 
circular  letter,  through  the  Department  of  State,  to  the  dip- 
lomatic representatives  of  the  United  States  and  foreign 
countries  and  to  the  foreign  ministers  accredited  to  this  gov- 
ernment, stating  the  object  of  the  resolution,  and  asking  the 
cooperation  of  foreign  governments  in  carrying  it  out.  To 
this  circular  letter  very  general  and  satisfactory  replies  were 
received,  each  government  responding  offering  to  send  com- 
plete series  of  its  publications  in  return  for  those  of  the 
United  States.  It  was  not  until  1873,  however,  that  the  first 
transmission  of  documents  abroad  was  made  by  the  Insti- 
tution. 

In  1875  ^i^  International  Geographical  Congress  was  held 
27 


4IO  The  S^nithsonian  Institution 

in  Paris,  at  which  was  discussed,  as  a  matter  closely  allied 
to  the  main  objects  of  the  Congress,  a  uniform  system  for 
exchanging  the  scientific  and  literary  publications  of  all  coun- 
tries. The  commission,  under  the  presidency  of  Baron  de 
Vatteville,  submitted  to  the  different  governments  repre- 
sented, a  detailed  plan  for  international  exchanges,  and  in 
1878,  as  the  result  of  correspondence  between  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution  and  the  Department  of  State,  the  Institu- 
tion was  recognized  by  the  Secretary  of  State  as  the  special 
agent  for  the  United  States  government  to  carry  out  the 
suggestion  of  the  convention,  which  involved  not  only  the 
exchange  of  official  documents,  but  of  the  publications  of 
learned  societies  as  well,  the  exchange  of  official  documents 
with  the  governments  represented  being,  in  the  case  of  the 
United  States,  for  the  benefit  of  the  Library  of  Congress. 

Further  conferences  upon  the  subject  were  held  in  Brus- 
sels in  1877  and  1880,  and  again,  after  six  years'  experience 
of  the  working  of  the  plan  proposed  in  Paris,  a  general  con- 
ference was  called  by  the  Belgian  government  in  1883.  The 
United  States  government  was  represented  at  this  latter 
conference  by  its  resident  minister,  Honorable  Nicholas  Fish, 
and  later  by  his  successor.  Honorable  Lambert  Tree,  and  the 
draft  of  articles  of  agreement  for  the  international  exchange 
system  proposed  was  in  due  time  communicated  by  the  De- 
partment of  State  to  the  Smithsonian  Institution  for  criti- 
cism. These  articles  of  agreement  having  been  submitted 
to  the  contracting  powers,  a  conference  was  called  in  Brus- 
sels on  March  15,  1886,  at  which  they  were  signed  by  duly 
accredited  diplomatic  representatives,  and  the  convention  was 
laid  before  Congress  and  ratified  by  the  President  July  19, 
1888.  Ratifications  were  finally  exchanged,  and  the  conven- 
tion was  proclaimed  by  the  President  on  January  15,  1889. 
There  were,  in  fact,  two  conventions  adopted,  the  first  for  the 


The  Interyiational  Exchange  System         4 1 1 

"  International  Exchange  of  Official  Documents,  Scientific 
and  Literary  Publications,"  and  the  second  for  the  "Imme- 
diate Exchange  of  the  Official  Journals,  Parliamentary 
Annals    and    Documents "    of  the    States    interested. 

The  first  convention  was  entered  into  by  Belgium,  Brazil, 
Italy,  Portugal,  Servia,  Spain,  Switzerland,  and  the  United 
States.  Its  essential  provisions  were  that  each  State  should 
establish  an  Exchange  Bureau,  and  should  provide  for  the 
interchange  of  the  respective  official  documents,  parliamen- 
tary and  administrative,  and  other  works  executed  at  govern- 
ment expense,  each  State  assuming  the  cost  of  packing  and 
transportation  to  the  place  of  destination,  except  that  where 
the  transmissions  were  to  be  made  by  sea  special  arrange- 
ments might  regulate  the  share  of  expense  to  be  borne. 

It  was  also  provided  that  the  official  exchange  bureaus 
should  act  as  intermediaries  between  the  learned  bodies  and 
literary  and  scientific  societies  of  the  contracting  States, 
for  the  reception  and  free  transmission  of  their  publications. 

The  second  convention,  which  was  adopted  by  the  same 
countries,  with  the  exception  of  Switzerland,  provided  for  the 
transmission  to  the  leg^islative  chambers  of  each  contracting 
State  immediately  upon  publication  of  copies  of  the  respec- 
tive official  journals  and  the  parliamentary  annals  and  docu- 
ments that  are  made  public. 

To  these  conventions  Uruguay  and  Peru  subsequently 
gave  their  adherence,  so  that  there  are  now  ten  States,  in- 
cluding the  United  States,  under  treaty  obligations  to  main- 
tain exchange  relations.  The  carrying  out  of  this  obligation 
on  the  part  of  the  United  States,  as  far  as  the  first  treaty  was 
concerned,  did  not  change  the  prevailing  conduct  of  the  ex- 
change service  carried  on  by  the  Smithsonian  Institution. 
To  the  second  treaty,  the  immediate  exchange  of  official 
journals,    effect  has   not  been   given   by   the   United   States 


412  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

through  lack  of  legislation  placing  the  necessary  documents 
at  the  disposal  of  the  Exchange  Bureau  and  making  an  ap- 
propriation for  the  clerical  assistance  and  postage ;  nor  has 
this  treaty  apparently  been  fully  carried  out,  as  yet,  by  any 
of  the  contracting  nations. 

The  absence  of  several  of  the  principal  nations  —  England, 
France,  Germany,  and  Russia — from  the  treaty  will  be 
noted ;  but  with  these  countries,  as  the  result  of  the  informal 
agreement  reached  with  the  Institution  under  the  act  of  Con- 
gress of  1867,  special  exchange  relations  have  been  main- 
tained by  the  United  States,  and  in  France  and  Russia  the 
governments  support  official  exchange  bureaus  as  part  of 
their  administrative  service,  while  between  England  and  Ger- 
many and  the  United  States  special  arrangements  have  been 
made  for  the  exchange  of  official  documents,  though  with 
none  of  these  countries,  with  perhaps  the  exception  of  Eng- 
land, is  there  any  approach  to  an  official  exchange  at  all 
equitable  to  the  United  States  —  a  condition,  in  part,  due  to 
the  fact  that  no  country  publishes  on  so  liberal  a  scale  as  our 
own.  That  this  may,  perhaps,  be  remedied  by  personal  rep- 
resentation to  the  many  and  scattered  publishing  offices  of 
foreign  governments  seems  probable  from  the  results  secured 
in  1885,  when  Mr.  George  H.  Boehmer,  as  representative  of 
the  Library  of  Congress  and  of  the  International  Exchange 
Office,  visited  many  of  the  principal  countries  of  Europe,  and 
secured  a  large  number  of  documents  for  the  Library  of 
Congress. 

The  Institution  now  receives  fifty  sets  of  all  documents 
issued  by  the  Government  Printing  Office,  and  despatches  to 
foreign  countries  forty-three  sets.  Each  country  receives  in 
four  instalments  an  average,  annually,  of  about  two  hundred 
and  thirty-one  volumes,  and  three  hundred  and  seven  pamph- 
lets, the  transmissions  being  made   to  the  designated   gov- 


The  International  Exchange  System         413 

ernment  library  corresponding  to  our  own  Library  of 
Congress. 

The  entire  cost  of  the  exchange  service  was  borne  at  first 
by  the  Smithsonian  fund,  although  from  the  very  first  the 
facilities  of  the  service  were  placed  at  the  disposal  of  govern- 
ment bureaus  engaged  in  scientific  work.  An  idea  of  the 
increase  in  the  cost  may  be  had  from  a  glance  at  the  accounts 
of  expenditures  for  this  purpose,  which  shows  that  from  1846 
to  1850  the  cost  of  exchanges  was  $1,603.  For  the  year 
i860  alone  it  was  $2,348.04.  In  1870  it  had  grown  to 
$4,165.62.  In  1876  the  distribution  of  government  docu- 
ments was  first  made  extensively,  and  the  cost  increased  to 
$10,199.10,  while  in  1885  it  was  $13,307.59,  and  in  1895, 
$16,997.99. 

The  Institution  continued  to  maintain  the  exchange  service 
at  its  own  expense  until  1881,  when  the  first  appropriation  of 
$3,000  was  granted  by  Congress ;  and  without  reference  to 
aid  given  by  the  Institution  to  government  bureaus  for  their 
exchange  service  between  1851  and  1867,  during  which 
period  it  is  estimated  that  over  twenty  thousand  packages  of 
publications  were  transported  for  the  national  government, 
at  a  cost  of  about  $8,000,  from  January  i,  1868,  to  June  30, 
1886,  the  Institution  advanced  for  the  support  of  the  Inter- 
national exchange  system  in  the  interest  and  by  the  authority 
of  the  national  government,  $38,141.01  in  excess  of  the 
appropriations  for  the  exchange  of  official  government  docu- 
ments and  $7,034.81  in  excess  of  appropriations  from  July  i, 
1886,  to  June  30,  1889,  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  out  the 
convention  entered  into  by  the  United  States — an  aggregate 
advance  of  $45, 1 75.82. 

As  now  conducted,  the  rules  for  the  control  of  the  exchange 
service  provide,  in  addition  to  the  distribution  of  the  United 
States  government  publications  to  foreign  libraries,  for  the 
27* 


4H  The  Smithsonian  Instihition 

distribution  to  certain  accessible  points  abroad  of  books, 
pamphlets,  charts,  and  other  printed  matter  sent  as  donations 
or  exchanges  from  literary  and  scientific  societies  or  individ- 
uals to  correspondents  abroad,  and  involve  no  expense  to  the 
sender  beyond  that  of  delivery  to  the  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion in  Washington.  No  charge  is  made  to  the  receiver, 
except  in  some  instances  the  small  cost  of  delivery  from  the 
Smithsonian  agent  or  correspondent  nearest  him.  Similar 
material  sent  from  abroad  to  this  country  is  forwarded  to  the 
recipient  without  expense  to  him,  the  packages  having  been 
delivered  free  of  freight  charges  to  the  foreign  agent  or  cor- 
respondent of  the  Institution.  The  Institution  is,  by  special 
act  of  Congress,  enabled  to  transmit  packages  in  this  country 
under  frank. 

To  describe  somewhat  more  in  detail  the  methods  now 
employed  in  the  Exchange  Office,  I  would  say  that  a  scien- 
tific society  or  individual  in  the  United  States  desiring  to 
send  publications  abroad  as  donations  or  exchanges  should 
have  each  package  transmitted  strongly  wrapped  and  sepa- 
rately and  legibly  addressed,  being  careful  to  give  the  full 
local  address,  and  should  send  them  in  bulk,  carriage  pre- 
paid, to  the  Smithsonian  Institution  in  Washington.  The 
separate  packages  should  not  exceed  one-half  of  one  cubic 
foot  in  bulk,  and  they  should  not  contain  letters  or  written 
matter. 

Before  transmission,  a  list  of  packages,  with  the  address 
on  each  package,  is  to  be  mailed  by  the  sender  to  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution  when  sent  from  the  United  States,  or  to 
the  foreign  agent  of  the  Institution  when  sent  from  abroad. 
The  Institution  must  be  informed  by  mail  of  each  sending  on 
the  day  of  transmission. 

Upon  the  receipt  of  the  consignment  at  the  Institution  each 
package  is  assigned  an  "  invoice  number,"  the  same  number 


The  Internatiojial  Exchange  System         415 

applying-  to  all  packages  of  that  consignment,  and  a  record  is 
made  of  the  entire  list  of  packages  under  the  sender's  name. 
The  separate  packages  are  also  entered  under  the  name  of 
the  person  or  office  addressed.  An  account  is  thus  estab- 
lished with  every  correspondent  of  the  Institution,  which 
shows  readily  what  packages  each  one  has  sent  or  received 
through  the  Exchange  Bureau.  The  books  are  then  packed 
with  invoices  from  other  senders,  and  are  forwarded  by 
freight  to  the  bureau  or  agency  abroad  which  has  under- 
taken to  distribute  exchanges  in  that  country.  To  Great 
Britain  and  Germany,  where  paid  agencies  of  the  Institution 
are  maintained,  shipments  are  made  about  three  times  a 
month  ;    to  other  countries  at  greater  intervals. 

Each  package  sent  out  contains  a  receipt  card  bearing  an 
"invoice  number"  identical  with  that  upon  the  package. 
This  invoice  number  should  be  carefully  noted,  as  it  is  the 
only  means  of  identifying  the  package,  and  it  is  of  the 
greatest  importance  that  the  recipient  should  sign  and  re- 
turn the  acknowledgment  without  delay.  The  receipt  having 
been  filed  in  the  Exchange  Office  the  record  of  that  particu- 
lar package  is  made  complete,  while  failure  to  return  the 
receipt  card  gives  rise  to  a  doubt  as  to  the  correctness  of 
the  address,  and  future  packages  for  that  address  may  be 
returned  to  the  sender. 

Transmissions  from  abroad  are  received  by  freight  in  large 
boxes  and  are  distributed  in  the  United  States  under  frank 
by  registered  mail,  a  record  first  having  been  made  of  the 
name  of  the  sender  and  of  the  address  of  each  package.  A 
receipt  card,  returnable  by  mail  without  postage,  is  sent  with 
each  of  these  packages,  and  should  be  forwarded  at  once  by 
the  recipient  in  acknowledgment  of  the  package. 

The  Institution  and  its  agents  will  not  knowingly  receive 
for  any  address  purchased  books,  nor  apparatus  and  instru- 


41 6  The  Smithsonian  Instittttion 

ments,  philosophical,  medical,  etc.  (including  microscopes), 
whether  purchased  or  presented ;  nor  specimens  of  natural 
history,  except  where  special  permission  from  the  Institution 
has  been  obtained. 

The  first  volume  of  "  Smithsonian  Contributions  to  Know- 
ledge "  was  distributed  in  1849  to  173  foreign  institutions, 
virtually  representing  the  Institution's  foreign  exchange  work 
at  its  inception. 

In  1852,  the  first  year  for  which  any  detailed  report  of  the 
exchange  operations  is  given,  572  packages  were  sent  out  by 
the  Institution  and  637  packages  were  received,  though  each 
of  the  packages  sent  and  received  may  embrace  several  "  arti- 
cles." In  i860  a  total  of  4822  packages  passed  through  the 
Exchange  Office;  in  1870,  5510;  in  1880,  20,845;  in  1890, 
82,572;  in  1895,  107,118  —  the  entire  weight  in  1895  being 
326,955  pounds,  or  about  164  tons. 

It  is  difficult,  without  the  actual  presentation  of  statistical 
tables,  to  give  an  adequate  idea  of  the  result  of  this  exchange 
system.  Moreover,  prior  to  1885,  when  the  government 
exchange  may  be  fairly  said  to  have  been  begun,  and  when 
Congressional  appropriations  enabled  the  Institution  to  em- 
ploy a  force  which  allowed  of  the  collection  of  proper  statis- 
tics, 390,488  titles  were  received  from  all  sources  abroad  for 
the  libraries  of  the  United  States;  of  which  217,140  came 
to  the  Library  of  Congress,  the  library  of  the  Smithsonian, 
and  the  libraries  of  the  various  departments  and  bureaus  of 
the  government,  136,810  to  various  institutions  throughout 
the  country,  and  36,538  to  individuals. 

During  the  past  decade  accurate  statistics  have  been 
kept  not  only  for  the  entire  country,  but  for  the  various 
States  in  the  Union.  If  I  had  space  to  discuss  them, 
the  figures  would  present  some  most  interesting  features. 
Roughly,  it  may  be  said  that  the  number  of  titles  received 


The  International  Exchange  System         417 

from  foreitrn  countries  and  distributed  to  institutions  and 
individuals  in  the  United  States  from  1886  to  1895  bor- 
dered upon  344,078,  being-  almost  equivalent  to  the  activity 
of  the  previous  forty  years,  and  fully  justifying  the  treaties 
made  by  the  United  States  and  the  expenditure  incurred. 
It  should  be  noted,  however,  that  the  return  to  this  coun- 
try from  foreign  countries  is  by  no  means  equivalent 
to  the  quantity  sent  abroad,  since  during  the  same  period 
601,637  titles  were  sent  by  the  government,  by  institutions, 
and  by  individuals  of  the  United  States  for  foreign  distribu- 
tion. The  list  by  States  is  most  instructive.  In  the  ship- 
ment abroad  the  District  of  Columbia  naturally  leads,  the 
older  States  with  many  institutions  heading  the  list.  Massa- 
chusetts stands  first.  New  York  second,  Pennsylvania  third, 
and  Connecticut  fourth.  It  is  a  matter  to  be  noted,  and  one 
in  every  way  commendable  to  the  scientific  activity  of  the 
great  State  on  the  Pacific  Coast,  that  California  stands  fifth 
in  this  list,  being  closely  followed  by  Illinois;  Missouri  fol- 
lows, Maryland  stands  next,  being  followed  successively  by 
Ohio  and  Wisconsin.  The  returns  are  even  more  instruct- 
ive ;  and,  strangely  enough,  the  order  in  returns  does  not 
agree  with  the  order  in  the  amount  of  sending.  In  this 
second  list  the  District  of  Columbia,  as  before,  leads,  Penn- 
sylvania following,  succeeded  by  New  York,  Massachusetts, 
California,  Missouri,  Minnesota,  Maryland,  Wisconsin,  and 
Connecticut. 

Without  entering  into  the  detail  of  the  clerical  work  of  the 
office,  it  will  be  sufficient  to  say  that  a  ledger  account  is  kept 
with  each  individual  or  institution  from  which  a  package  is 
received  in  the  Exchange  Office,  or  to  which  a  package  is 
sent,  the  record  identifying  the  sender  as  well  as  the  receiver. 
To  facilitate  this  work  and  abbreviate  the  records,  there  was 
compiled  and  published  in  1862  a  list  of  foreign  addresses, 


41 B  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

arranged  geographically,  and  including  the  principal  libra- 
ries, societies,  and  government  offices  and  journals  with  which 
the  Institution  was  in  correspondence.  To  each  of  these 
titles  an  arbitrary  number  was  given  for  the  sake  of  con- 
venience of  reference.  A  revision  of  this  "  List  of  Foreign 
Correspondents  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  "  was  made  in 
1895  by  Mr.  George  H.  Boehmer,  and  it  now  embraces 
10,765  libraries  and  12,643  individuals  —  a  total  of  23,408 
addresses,  distributed  in  3771  different  cities  or  places. 

The  courtesy  of  many  of  the  great  transportation  compa- 
nies in  extending  to  the  exchange  service  the  privilege  of 
free  freight  has  been  continued  even  to  the  present  day,  and 
the  assistance  that  has  thereby  been  rendered  to  the  Institu- 
tion, and  indirectly  to  libraries  and  scientific  institutions 
throughout  the  world,  cannot  be  overestimated. 

The  influence  that  the  Smithsonian  Institution  has  exerted 
through  its  international  exchange  service  upon  other  in- 
stitutions of  learning  at  home  and  abroad,  and  how  far  its 
aim  in  the  diffusion  of  knowledge  has  been  accomplished  by 
the  methods  whose  history  for  half  a  century  has  here  been 
sketched,  are  touched  upon  elsewhere.  The  enrichment  of 
its  own  library  has  been  but  incidental.  It  can  safely  be  said 
that  no  large  library  in  the  world  has  not  experienced  its 
benefits,  while  individual  workers  in  science  have  been 
reached  upon  the  very  outskirts  of  civilization,  and  have  been 
afforded  encouragement  and  aid,  and  the  means  of  communi- 
cating with  their  fellow-workers  for  half  a  century. 


THE  ASTROPHYSICAL   OBSERVATORY 


By  Samuel  Pierpont  Langley 


N  the  view  of  one  of  those  who  did  much  to 
shape  the  early  history  of  the  Smithsonian  In- 
stitution,— President  John  Quincy  Adams, — no 
more  prominent  object  could  be  designed  for 
the  expenditure  of  the  Smithson  bequest  than 
the  erection  and  maintenance  of  an  observatory  —  an  institu- 
tion which  would  be  local  in  its  site  only,  and  devoted  to 
objects   in  which   all  men  were    interested. 

In  the  bilP  introduced  at  his  instance  to  provide  for  the 
disposal  and  management  of  the  Smithson  fund,  it  is  enacted 
that  part  of  the  accruing  interest  be  appropriated  toward 
the  erection  and  establishment  in  the  city  of  Washington  of 
an  astronomical  observatory  adapted  to  the  most  effective  and 
continual  observations  of  the  phenomena  of  the  heavens,  to 
be  provided  with  the  necessary,  best,  and  most  perfect  instru- 
ments and  books,  for  the  periodical  publication  of  the  said 
observations,  and  for  the  annual  composition  and  publication 
of  a  nautical  almanac. 

A  like  clause   appears   in   a  subsequent  bill,-  and  though 

1  House  of  Representatives,  No.  386,  Twenty-seventh  Congress. 

2  House  of  Representatives,  No.  418,  Twenty-eighth  Congress. 

419 


420  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

neither  of  these  bills  became  law,  it  is  well  to  remember  how 
strenuously  the  application  of  the  Smithson  fund  to  this  pur- 
pose was  urged  at  the  time  when  the  Institution  was  taking 
the  shape  it  now  bears. 

At  the  time  that  President  Adams  submitted  these  bills 
astronomy  had  departed  little  from  the  beaten  track  in  which 
it  had  moved  for  centuries,  and  in  which  its  main  object  had 
been  to  fix  with  precision  the  places  of  the  heavenly  bodies, 
without  determining  their  nature.  As  the  writer  has  else- 
where said : 

"  The  prime  object  of  astronomy  until  lately  has  been  to 
say  zuhere  any  heavenly  body  is,  rather  than  ivkat  it  is,  but 
within  the  present  generation  a  new  branch  of  astronomy  has 
arisen,  which  studies  the  heavenly  bodies  for  what  they  are 
in  themselves  and  in  relation  to  ourselves.  Its  study  of  the 
sun,  for  instance,  beginning  with  its  external  features,  led  to 
the  inquiry  as  to  what  it  was  made  of,  and  then  to  the  finding 
of  the  unexpected  relations  which  it  bore  to  the  earth  and  to 
our  daily  lives  on  it,  the  conclusion  being  that  in  a  physical 
sense  it  made  us  and  recreates  us,  as  it  were,  daily,  and  that 
the  knowledge  of  the  intimate  ties  which  unite  man  with  it 
brings  results  of  a  practical  and  important  kind  which  a  gen- 
eration ago  were  hardly  guessed  at." 

As  the  aims  of  this  new  astronomy  are  different  from  the 
old,  so  are  its  methods,  in  which  it  bears  but  an  imperfect 
resemblance  to  those  of  the  older  or  classic  astronomy ;  and 
this  diversity  of  method  influences  even  the  external  struc- 
ture. In  place  of  an  imposing  edifice,  crowned  by  a  dome 
which  shelters  a  great  telescope,  we  are  more  likely  to  find 
a  modest  installation  in  which  the  telescope,  though  present, 
is  not  necessarily  the  important  feature;  in  which  there  are 
no  great  meridian  instruments,  but  instead  a  room  shel- 
tering  spectroscopes,  photographic  objectives,  and  the  like; 


The  Astrophysical  Observatory  421 

while  in  place  of  the  equatorial  and  of  the  meridian  instru- 
ments which  are  elsewhere  used  in  the  same  way,  night  after 
night  during  perhaps  a  large  part  of  the  lifetime  of  the  ob- 
server, the  apparatus  of  the  new  astronomy  is  frequently 
modified,  and,  in  an  active  observatory  for  solar  research,  will 
probably  be  found  to  be  undergoing  repeated  change,  the 
work  being  more  or  less  of  the  nature  of  discovery,  and  each 
discovery  leading  probably  to  some  alteration  and  improve- 
ment of  the  means  by  which  the  last  was  attained. 

In  the  half  century  which  has  elapsed  from  the  time  when 
President  Adams  manifested  so  strong-  an  interest  in  astron- 
omy,  and  after  the  government  had  erected  and  provided  for 
an  observatory, —  the  United  States  Naval  Observatory,  at 
the  capital,  necessarily  devoted  to  the  pursuit  of  the  old 
astronomy,  since  at  that  time  there  was  none  other, —  the 
conception  of  another  form  of  astronomy  arose  in  the  minds 
of  men  of  science  ;  and  in  1861,  when  Kirchhoff  and  Bunsen 
published  their  researches  on  spectrum  analysis,  the  "new 
astronomy "  may  be  said  to  have  been  born. 

It  has  been  modified  since  in  many  directions,  and  as  its 
public  importance  became  recognized,  it  has  at  the  hands  of 
various  European  governments  had  special  establishments 
consecrated  to  it.  Thus,  in  France,  in  the  Observatory  of 
Meudon,  near  Paris,  constant  observations  have  been  carried 
on  upon  the  solar  surface  by  Monsieur  J.  Janssen,  by  means 
of  photographic  processes,  which  have  greatly  surpassed  in 
accuracy  any  preceding  ones,  while  parallel  researches  have 
gone  on  there  upon  the  nature  of  the  absorption  which  pro- 
duces the  various  lines  of  the  spectrum,  and  other  matters  of 
interest  in  connection  with  solar  studies. 

The  French  government  for  two  hundred  years  has  had 
an  observatory,  within  the  city  of  Paris,  devoted  to  the 
classical  astronomy ;    and  this  new  installation,  at  the  Pare 


42  2  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

de  Meudon,  overlooking  the  city,  is  a  recognition  both  of 
the  public  importance  of  the  work  and  of  its  distinct  charac- 
ter from  that  prosecuted  at  the  older  establishments. 

In  Germany,  the  Prussian  government,  in  addition  to  its 
observatory  in  the  city  of  Berlin,  for  the  old  astronomy  of 
precision,  has  erected  and  most  liberally  endowed  an  astro- 
physical  observatory  in  the  park  in  Potsdam,  not  very  far 
from  the  capital.  In  Italy  various  establishments  of  the 
same  character  exist,  and  in  other  continental  countries,  and 
in  England,  there  are  several  such  observatories,  due  chiefly 
to  private  beneficence. 

In  the  United  States  there  are  fewer;  one  of  those  most 
definitely  devoted  to  the  new  class  of  investigation  being  that 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Pittsburg,  which  was  maintained 
largely  through  the  munificence  of  a  private  citizen,  the  late 
William  Thaw,  of  that  city. 

Owing  to  the  nature  of  the  investigations  carried  on,  the 
astrophysical  observatory  should  be  situated,  as  a  rule,  in 
the  open  country  :  not  in  the  precincts  of  a  city  ;  for  in  many 
cases  it  is  even  more  important  than  in  an  ordinary  observa- 
tory that  it  should  be  remote  from  the  tremor  and  disturb- 
ance of  such  a  neighborhood. 

When  the  writer — whose  professional  life  has  been  largely 
given  to  these  researches — was  invited  by  Secretary  Baird, 
of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  to  come  to  Washington,  it 
was  with  the  understanding  that  the  government  should  be 
asked  for,  and  might  be  expected  to  furnish,  the  means  and 
the  site  for  such  an  observatory ;  but  the  death  of  Mr.  Baird 
prevented  the  matter  having  the  aid  of  his  weighty  recom- 
mendation before  Congress.^ 

1  Concerning  this  it    is  remarked  in  the  sions,  the  biological  and  the  physical,  and 

Report  of  the  Secretary  of  the   Institution  since  it  has  been  the  case  that  of  late  years 

for  the  year  1888 :  the  first  of  these  has  been  almost  exclusively 

"  Natural  science  falls  into  two  great  divi-  encouraged  by  the  Smithsonian,  it  was  the 


The  Astrophysical  Observatory 


423 


When  the  writer  accepted  the  position  as  Secretary  of  this 
Institution,  in  November,  1887,  nothing  had  been  done;  but 
Doctor  Jerome  H.  Kidder,  a  friend  of  the  Institution  and  of 
the  proposed  observatory,  had  designed  to  interest  wealthy 
private  citizens  of  Washington  in  the  plan,  and  to  obtain 
from  this  source  a  fund  which  would  be  put  at  the  disposal 
of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  for  this  purpose/ 

The  lamented  death  of  Doctor  Kidder  put  an  end  to  this 
plan  also,  but  through   the  generosity  of  Doctor  Alexander 


desire  of  the  late  Secretary,  Professor  Baird, 
to  do  something  to  restore  the  balance,  and 
with  this  end  in  view  he  had  made  prepara- 
tions to  secure  an  astrophysical  observatory 
and  laboratory,  and  though  these  prepara- 
tions were  interrupted  by  his  death,  it  is  un- 
derstood lliat  through  his  action  some  friends 
of  the  Institution  have  already  offered  to  give 
the  means  for  the  erection  of  the  modest 
structure  needed  for  the  accommodation  of 
such  a  special  observatory.  The  site  would 
necessarily  be  suburban,  on  account  of  the 
especial  need  of  seclusion  and  the  absence  of 
tremor  in  the  soil,  such  as  is  felt  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  streets  of  a  city. 

"  No  steps  have  yet  been  taken  to  secure 
a  site,  but  in  view  of  the  promise  of  means 
for  the  building,  and  the  fact  that  the  con- 
struction of  the  necessary  apparatus  will  oc- 
cupy a  long  time,  I  have  ordered  such  of  the 
essential  pieces  as  are  not  likely  to  be  ready, 
even  under  these  conditions,  till  the  building 
is  prepared  to  receive  it."  —  Smithsonian 
Report,  18S8,  page  19, 

1  This  is  referred  to  in  the  Report  of  the 
Secretary  for  the  year  ending  June  30,  1889, 
(page  7)  as  follows: 

"  In  my  last  Report  I  spoke  of  the  prep- 
arations made  by  the  late  Secretary  for  se- 
curing an  astrophysical  observatory  and 
laboratory  of  research,  and  I  mentioned  that 
through  his  action  some  friends  of  the  Insti- 
tution had  already  offered  to  give  the  means 
for  the  erection  of  the  simple  structure  needed 
for  the  accommodation  of  such  a  special  ob- 
servatory. I  added  that  the  site  would  nec- 
essarily be  suburban  on  account  of  the  special 
need  of  seclusion  and  the  absence  of  tremor 
in  the  soil. 


"  I  have  elsewhere  referred  to  the  collec- 
tions of  the  Institution  in  connection  with  the 
purchase  by  Congress  of  a  zoological  park, 
which  it  would  appear  tohave  been  the  first  in- 
tent of  Congress  to  place  under  the  care  of  the 
Regents.  It  had  been  my  hope  in  that  case 
to  place  this  observatory  somewhere  in  the 
park,  but  in  view  of  the  long  delay  which  has 
already  arisen,  and  of  the  indefinite  further  de- 
lay which  may  occur,  I  have  thought  it  better 
to  put  a  wooden  structure  of  the  simplest 
and  most  temporary  character  in  grounds 
immediately  south  of  the  Institution,  al- 
though this  site  is  quite  unsuitable  for  a  per- 
manent building.  Such  a  shelter  will  proba- 
bly be  erected  before  the  coming  winter,  and 
will,  while  serving  as  a  store-house  for  the 
apparatus,  enable  observations  to  be  com- 
menced. 

"  The  promotion  of  original  research  has 
always  in  the  history  of  the  Institution  been 
regarded  as  one  of  its  most  important  func- 
tions, and  the  proper  object  of  the  personal 
attention  of  the  Secretary ;  and  I  shall  be 
very  glad  to  do  something  in  this  direction 
on  the  most  modest  scale,  rather  than  incur 
the  chance  of  indefinite  further  delay." 

And  also  in  the  Secretary's  Report  ending 
June  30,  1890  (page  10) : 

"  I  take  pleasure  in  reporting  that  the  In- 
stitution has  been  able  to  do  rather  more  for 
the  encouragement  of  original  research  than 
it  has  done  for  several  years  past. 

"  Referring  to  my  two  previous  Reports  in 
regard  to  the  project  of  Professor  Baird  for 
securing  an  astrophysical  observatory  and 
laboratory,  I  am  able  to  say  that  this  object 
has  assumed  definite  shape  in  the  construc- 
tion of  the  temporary  shed  which  has  just 


424 


The  Smithsonian  Institution 


Graham  Bell,  a  sum  of  $5000  was  at  this  time  put  at  the  dis- 
posal of  the  Secretary,  for  scientific  researches,  and  Doctor 
Kidder  had  given  a  legacy  of  the  same  amount,  which  was  by 
his  wish  to  be  devoted  to  advancing  the  interests  of  the  new 
observatory. 

Under  these  circumstances,  the  writer,  in  1890,  made  a  re- 
quest to  Congress  for  the  assignment  of  a  site,  removed  from 
the  tremor  of  the  city,  on  which  it  was  proposed  to  erect  a 
building  of  such  an  extremely  modest  character  as  could  be 
put  up  for  the  sum  in  question,  to  be  supplied  with  instru- 
ments, in   part  at  least,  by  the  Institution,  and  to  be  main- 


been  mentioned.  In  this  shed  there  have 
been  built,  as  the  most  expensive  part  of  the 
structure,  a  number  of  brick  piers  required 
for  the  firm  support  of  the  delicate  apparatus 
employed. 

"The  principal  instrument  consists  of  a 
siderostat  constructed  by  Sir  Howard  Grubb, 
of  Dublin,  Ireland,  for  the  Smithsonian  In- 
stitution, to  meet  my  special  requirements. 
This  arrived  in  March,  1890,  and  has  been 
mounted  and  put  approximately  into  position 
for  use.  Another  important  and  novel  in- 
strument, a  spectro-bolometer,  was  made  un- 
der my  directions  to  meet  new  and  unusual 
demands,  and  has  also  been  received  and 
put  in  place.  A  third  piece  of  apparatus,  a 
special  galvanometer,  also  designed  for  the 
particular  class  of  work  in  view,  has  been  re- 
ceived ;  and  the  only  considerable  instrument 
now  required  to  complete  the  outfit  is  a  re- 
sistance box,  which  has  been  ordered  and  is 
expected  from  London  before  the  end  of  the 
calendar  year. 

"The  siderostat  is  probably  the  largest 
and  most  powerful  instrument  of  its  kind 
ever  constructed.  The  spectro-bolometer  is 
the  largest  instrument  of  its  kind,  and  with 
this  improved  apparatus  it  is  hoped  that  in- 
teresting investigations  begun  several  years 
ago  will  be  continued. 

"  Supplementary  to  these  there  are  a  few 
pieces  of  apparatus,  the  personal  property  of 
the  Secretary,  so  that  at  the  close  of  the  year 
it  might  be  said  that  the  Institution  was  in 
possession  of  the  nucleus  of  a  modern  astro- 
physical  laboratory.     With    this    apparatus 


temporarily  mounted,  researches  have  already 
begun,  and  one  of  a  scientific  and  economic 
character,  upon  '  The  Cheapest  Form  of 
Light,'  has  been  the  subject  of  a  communi- 
cation to  the  National  Academy  of  Sciences. 
This  work  is  mentioned  as  indicating  my  in- 
tention to  give  greater  place  to  one  of  the 
chief  objects  of  the  Institution, —  the  direct 
addition  to  knowledge  by  original  research, 
—  which,  at  least  as  regards  the  physical 
sciences,  has  received  comparatively  little  at- 
tention since  the  time  of  Professor  Henry. 

"  The  prospects  of  renewed  contributions 
to  physical  science  by  the  Institution  in  the 
field  of  original  research  are  happily  now 
better  than  for  many  years  past.  The  late 
Doctor  Jerome  H.  Kidder,  formerly  an  offi- 
cer of  the  United  States  Navy,  and  later 
attached  to  the  United  States  Fish  Commis- 
sion and  to  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  had 
bequeathed  to  the  Institution,  in  a  will  made 
several  years  ago,  the  sum  of  $10,000,  to  be 
employed  for  biological  researches.  Doctor 
Kidder,  having  become  especially  interested 
in  the  proposed  astrophysical  observatory, 
had  the  intention  of  transferring  this  bequest, 
or  at  least  a  portion  of  it,  to  such  an  end,  and 
he  even  ordered  that  a  codicil  giving  $5000 
to  the  Institution  for  an  astrophysical  ob- 
servatory should  be  added  to  bis  will,  but  he 
was  stricken  with  so  sudden  an  illness  that 
he  was  unable  to  sign  it.  In  view  of  these 
circumstances  and  after  careful  deliberation 
upon  the  matter,  the  Regents  decided  to  ac- 
cept as  finally  and  decisively  indicative  of  the 
wishes  of  the  testator  the  provisions  of  this 


The  Astrophysical  Observatory 


425 


tained  by  an  appropriation  from  Congress.  In  anticipation 
of  this,  one  or  two  of  the  principal  instruments  which  would 
take  long  in  construction  were  ordered  in  advance  of  the 
erection  of  the  building  which  was  to  shelter  them. 

Owing  to  difficulties  which  it  is  not  necessary  to  rehearse, 
the  granting  of  a  site,  which  it  had  been  first  proposed  to 
occupy  within  the  extended  grounds  of  the  new  park,  was 
deferred,  and  the  following  appropriation  was  made  by  Con- 
gress in  the  Sundry  Civil  Act  of  March  3,  1891.^  It  is  proper 
to  record  that  it  was  largely  through  the  interest  of  Mr. 
Joseph  G.  Cannon,  Chairman  of  the  Committee  of  Appropri- 


codicil  bequeathing  $5000  for  tlie  purpose 
of  an  astrophysical  observatory,  and  this 
sum  was  therefore  paid  by  Doctor  Kidder's 
executor  to  tlie  Institution. 

"A  further  sum  of  $5000  was  likewise 
generously  presented  by  Doctor  Alexander 
Graham  Bell  to  the  writer  individually  for 
the  prosecution  of  the  researches  in  astro- 
physics, to  which  he  has  devoted  much  of  his 
life,  but  it  has  seemed  proper  to  him,  under 
the  circumstances,  tiiat  this  sum  should  be 
placed  to  the  credit  of  the  Smithsonian  In- 
stitution upon  the  same  footing  as  the  Kidder 
bequest,  and  with  the  consent  of  the  donor  it 
has  been  so  transferred.  I  am,  therefore, 
desirous  of  here  expressing  my  own  personal 
as  well  as  my  official  obligation  to  Doctor 
Bell  for  this  gift  for  the  increase  of  know- 
ledge. 

"  The  initial  step  for  the  establishment  of 
an  astrophysical  observatory  under  the  na- 
tional government  thus  having  been  taken  by 
private  individuals,  it  is  hoped  that  Congress 
will  see  fit  to  place  it  upon  a  firm  footing, 
and  to  make  a  small  annual  provision  for  its 
maintenance.  And  it  seems  proper  to  men- 
tion that  the  field  of  research  to  which  such 
a  department  of  the  Institution  would  be  de- 
voted, has  been  considered  of  sufficient  im- 
portance by  the  legislators  of  leading  foreign 
nations  to  justify  the  erection  of  costly  spe- 
cial observatories  and  to  provide  for  their 
maintenance  with  a  staff  of  astronomers  and 
physicists  of  wide  reputation. 

"The  class  of  work  here  specially  referred 
to  does  not  ordinarily  involve  the  use  of  the 

28 


telescope,  and  is  quite  distinct  from  that  car- 
ried on  at  any  observatory  in  this  country. 
It  would  in  no  way  conflict  with  the  work  of 
the  present  United  States  Naval  Observatory, 
being  in  a  field  of  work  that  the  latter  has 
never  entered. 

"  Briefly  stated,  the  work  for  which  the 
older  government  observatories  at  Green- 
wich, Paris,  Berlin,  and  Washington  were 
founded,  and  in  which  they  are  for  the  most 
part  now  engaged,  is  the  determination  of 
relative  positions  of  heavenly  bodies,  and  of 
our  own  place  with  reference  to  them. 
Within  the  past  twenty  years  all  these  gov- 
ernments but  our  own  have  established 
astrophysical  observatories,  as  they  are  called, 
tliat  are  engaged  in  the  study  of  the  constitu- 
tion of  the  heavenly  bodies  as  distinguished 
from  their  positions  ;  in  determining,  for  ex- 
ample, not  so  much  the  position  of  the  sun 
in  the  sky  as  the  relation  that  it  bears  to  the 
earth  and  to  our  own  daily  wants ;  how  it 
affects  terrestrial  climate ;  and  how  it  may 
best  be  studied  for  the  purposes  of  the 
meteorologist,  and  so  on  ;  and  it  is  an  ob- 
servatory of  the  latter  kind  that  the  donors 
just  mentioned  appear  to  have  had  promi- 
nently in  view,  and  which  it  is  proposed  to 
conduct  (tliough  on  an  extremely  modest 
scale)  under  the  auspices  of  the  Institution." 

1  Astrophysical  Observatory,  Smithsonian 
Institution,  1892.  For  maintenance  of /Vstro- 
physical  Observatory,  under  the  direction  of 
the  Smithsonian  Institution,  including  sala- 
ries of  assistants  and  the  purchase  of  addi- 
tional apparatus,  ten  thousand  dollars. 


426 


The  Smithsonian  Institution 


ations,  and  through  that  of  Mr.  J.  D.  Sayers,  a  subsequent 
chairman,  that  the  appropriation  was  made.  It  was  given 
with  the  understanding  that  this  modest  sum  annually  would 
suffice  for  some  years  for  the  maintenance  of  the  observatory 
and  for  the  provision  of  its  apparatus,  and  this  was  the  more 
feasible  as  no  expenditure  would  be  involved  for  its  manage- 
ment and  direction,  which  it  was  intended  to  leave  in  the 
hands  of  the  Secretary,  whose  services  would  be  given  with- 
out cost  to  the  government. 

The  Smithsonian  Institution  has  the  title  to  a  park  of  about 
twenty  acres  of  land,  forming  a  portion  of  the  larger  area 
commonly  known  as  "The  Smithsonian  Park,"  and  in  this 
narrow  area,  in  the  portion  immediately  south  of  the  principal 
buildings  of  the  Institution,  surrounded  by  streets  and  traffic; 
in  this  (from  a  scientific  point  of  view)  most  unfit  site  there 
was  erected  in   1890,^  at  the  cost  of  the  Institution, — not  of 


1"A  temporary  wooden  building  of  the 
simplest  possible  construction  has  been 
erected  in  the  Smithsonian  grounds  just 
south  of  the  main  building,  having  been  be- 
gun on  the  i8th  of  November,  1889,  and 
finished  about  the  1st  of  March,  1890.  This 
building  is  not  to  be  regarded  as  an  entirely 
suitable  or  permanent  housing  for.the  instru- 
ments. Its  location,  close  to  traveled  streets, 
is  unsuited  for  refined  physical  investigation, 
but  the  preliminary  adjustment  of  the  instru- 
ments and  certain  classes  of  work  can  be 
effectively  and  conveniently  carried  on  here. 

"  The  principal  instrument  is  a  specially 
constructed  siderostat  by  Sir  Howard  Grubb, 
of  Duljlin,  Ireland.  This  instrument  is  in 
position.  A  spectro-bolometer,  the  outcome 
of  many  years'  experience,  has  been  made, 
under  my  personal  direction,  by  William 
Grunow  &  Son,  of  New  York,  and  has  been 
received  and  mounted.  A  galvanometer,  de- 
signed for  the  particular  class  of  work  in 
view,  has  been  received,  and  was  the  last  of 
the  principal  pieces  of  apparatus  (provided 
for  from  the  Smithsonian  fund)  to  be  put  in 
place.  The  outfit  is  now  in  the  main  com- 
plete. 


"This  country  has  no  observatory  devoted 
exclusively  to  astrophysical  research,  though 
England,  France,  and  Germany  have  main- 
tained for  a  number  of  years  at  a  considerable 
expense  observatories  for  the  study  of  the 
physical  condition  of  celestial  bodies.  I 
therefore  indulged  the  hope  that,  in  present- 
ing the  matter  to  Congress,  as  previously 
reported,  a  request  for  a  small  annual  appro- 
priation for  the  maintenance  of  the  observa- 
tory thus  founded  and  equipped  might  meet 
with  favorable  consideration.  I  may  say 
that  the  amount  asked  for  ($10,000  for  an- 
nual maintenance)  has  been  appropriated, 
and  will  be  available  during  the  coming  fiscal 
year. 

"  In  adjusting  and  determining  the  constants 
of  the  instruments,  a  work  involving  consid- 
erable labor,  I  have  had  the  valuable  assist- 
ance of  Professor  C.  C.  Hutchins,  of  Bowdoin 
College,  during  a  portion  of  the  summer  va- 
cation. No  i)ermanent  appointments  of  the 
assistants  who  will  be  required  to  carry  on 
the  investigations  contemplated  will  be  made 
until  after  the  appropriation  shall  have  be- 
come available."  —  Smithsonian  Report, 
1 89 1,  page  7. 


The  Astrophysical  Observatory  427 

Congress, —  a  one-story  building,  or  rather  shed,  whose  object 
was  to  furnish  an  immediate  shelter  for  the  instruments  al- 
ready ordered,  and  to  enable  some  work  to  be  done  under 
the  appropriation  while  a  more  suitable  site  and  building  were 
being  provided.  This  site  has  not  yet,  after  a  lapse  of  over 
six  years,  been  obtained,  and  the  investigations  which  are  to 
be  described  have  been  carried  on  under  all  the  disadvantages 
of  such  an  entirely  inadequate  installation. 

It  will  be  seen  in  the  subsequent  description  of  this  work 
that  above  any  other  department,  even,  of  astronomical  re- 
search, it  demands  entire  quiet  and  absence  of  tremor  in  the 
surroundings,  and  that  it  has  been  necessary  to  give  so  long 
a  time  to  certain  researches  is  due  to  the  difficulties  inherent 
in  the  site  rather  than  in  the  methods  of  observation. 

I  MAY  preface  a  brief  account  of  the  work  of  this  new  observ- 
atory by  repeating  a  portion  of  what  has  been  already  said,  in 
laying  before  the  committees  of  appropriations  of  the  Senate 
and  House,  the  reasons  which  should  induce  government  aid : 

"  The  general  object  of  astronomy,  the  oldest  of  the  scien- 
ces, was,  until  a  very  late  period,  to  study  the  places  and  mo- 
tions of  the  heavenly  bodies,  with  little  special  reference  to 
the  wants  of  man  in  his  daily  life,  other  than  in  the  applica- 
tion of  the  study  to  the  purposes  of  navigation. 

"Within  the  past  generation,  and  almost  coincidentally 
with  the  discovery  of  the  spectroscope,  a  new  branch  of  as- 
tronomy has  arisen,  which  is  sometimes  called  astrophysics, 
and  whose  purpose  is  distinctly  different  from  that  of  finding 
the  places  of  the  stars,  or  the  moon,  or  the  sun,  which  is  the 
principal  end  in  view  at  such  an  observatory  as  that,  for  in- 
stance, at  Greenwich. 

"The  distinct  object  of  astrophysics  is,  in  the  case  of  the 
sun,  for  example,  not  to  mark  its  exact  place  in  the  sky,  but 
to  find  out  how  it  affects  the  earth  and  the  wants  of  man  on 


42  8  The  Smithsonian  histitution 

it ;  how  its  heat  is  distributed,  and  how  it,  in  fact,  affects  not 
only  the  seasons  and  the  farmer's  crops,  but  the  whole  sys- 
tem of  living  things  on  the  earth,  for  it  has  lately  been  proven 
that  in  a  physical  sense  it,  and  almost  it  alone,  literally  first 
creates  and  then  modifies  them  in  almost  every  possible  way. 

"  We  have,  however,  arrived  at  a  knowledge  that  it  does 
so,  without  yet  knowing  in  most  cases  how  it  does  so,  and 
we  are  sure  of  the  great  importance  of  this  last  acquisition, 
while  still  largely  in  ignorance  how  to  obtain  it.  We  are, 
for  example,  sure  that  the  latter  knowledge  would  form 
among  other  things  a  scientific  basis  for  meteorology  and 
enable  us  to  predict  the  years  of  good  or  bad  harvests,  so  far 
as  these  depend  on  natural  causes,  independent  of  man,  and 
yet  we  are  still  very  far  from  being  able  to  make  such  a  pre- 
diction, and  we  cannot  do  so  till  we  have  learned  more  by 
such  studies  as  those  in  question. 

"  Knowledge  of  the  nature  of  the  certain,  but  still  imper- 
fectly understood,  dependence  of  terrestrial  events  on  solar 
causes  is,  then,  of  the  greatest  practical  consequence,  and 
it  is  with  these  large  aims  of  ultimate  utility  in  view,  as  well 
as  for  the  abstract  interest  of  scientific  investigation,  that  the 
government  is  asked  to  recognize  such  researches  as  of  na- 
tional importance ;  for  it  is  to  such  a  knowledge  of  causes 
with  such  practical  consequences  that  this  class  of  investiga- 
tion aims  and  tends. 

"Astrophysics  by  no  means  confines  its  investigation  to 
the  sun,  though  that  is  the  most  important  subject  of  its 
study  and  one  which  has  been  undertaken  by  nearly  every 
leading  government  of  the  civilized  world  but  the  United 
States.  France  has  a  great  astrophysical  observatory  in 
Meudon,  and  Germany  one  on  an  equal  scale  in  Potsdam, 
while  England,  Italy,  and  other  countries  have  also,  at  the 
national  expense,  maintained  for  many  years  institutions  for 
the  prosecution  of  astrophysical  science. 

"  It  has  been  observed  that  this  recent  science  itself  was 
almost  coeval  with  the  discovery  of  the  spectroscope,  and  that 
instrument  has  everywhere  been  largely  employed  in  most 
of  its  work.     Of  the  heat  which  the  sun  sends,  however,  and 


The  Astrophysical  Observatory  429 

which,  in  its  terrestrial  manifestations,  is  the  principal  object 
of  our  study,  it  has  long  been  well  known  that  the  spectro- 
scope could  recognize  only  about  one-quarter;  three-quar- 
ters of  all  this  solar  heat  being  in  a  form  which  the  ordinary 
spectroscope  cannot  see  nor  analyze,  lying  as  it  does  in 
the  almost  unknown  'infra-red'  end  of  the  spectrum,  where 
neither  the  eye  nor  the  photograph  can  examine  it.  It  has 
been  known  for  many  years  that  it  was  there,  and  we  have 
had  a  rough  idea  of  its  amount,  with  an  almost  total  incapac- 
ity to  exhibit  it  in  detail.  Our  imperfect  knowledge  of  this 
region  is  at  present  represented  by  a  few  inadequate  types 
of  parts  of  it  given  in  drawings  made  by  hand,  where  the 
attempts  to  depict  it  at  all  are  even  to-day  more  crude  than 
the  very  earliest  charts  of  the  visible  spectrum  made  in  the 
infancy  of  spectroscopic  science. 

"  One  of  the  first  pieces  of  work  which  this  observatory  has 
undertaken  is  to  explore  and  describe  what  may  be  properly 
called  'this  great  unknown  region,'  by  a  method  which  the 
writer  has  recently  been  able  to  bring  to  such  a  degree  of  suc- 
cess as  to  give  good  grounds  for  its  continued  prosecution 
and  for  the  hope  that  a  complete  map  of  this  whole  region 
will  shortly  be  produced  by  an  automatic,  and  therefore  trust- 
worthy, process,  showing  the  lines  corresponding  to  the  so- 
called  Fraunhofer  lines  in  the  upper  spectrum." 

It  is  now  well  understood  that  nearly  every  movement 
which  goes  on  within  the  confines  of  this  planet,  not  only 
from  changes  of  the  seasons  or  of  rain,  or  the  movement  of 
wind,  or  storm,  but  every  manifestation  of  life  from  that  of 
the  lowest  vegetable  form,  up  through  animal  existence,  to 
that  of  man,  including  all  his  works  and  industries,  comes 
from  the  sun,  so  that  man  himself  and  all  his  works  are,  in 
a  physical  sense,  strictly  its  product. 

It  is  known  in  some  cases  to  what  these  effects  are  traced, 

in  the  greater  number  we  are  still  ignorant,  but  in  all  cases 

we  know  that  a  something  we  call  "  energy  "  comes  across  the 
28* 


430  The  Smithsonian  Instihttion 

void  of  space  from  the  sun  to  the  earth  in  its  rays,  and  falHng 
upon  us  affects  our  senses  in  various  ways. 

When  it  falls  upon  our  bodies  it  produces  a  sensation  of 
warmth ;  when  it  falls  upon  our  eyes  it  produces  a  sensation 
that  we  call  "light"  ;  when  it  falls  upon  our  skin  it  produces 
also  an  effect  different  from  either ;  for  instance,  it  tans  the 
cheek,  by  what  we  call  chemical  action,  but  these  three  dif- 
ferent effects  are  caused  by  the  same  thing  —  solar  energy, 
which  differs  in  its  manifestations  according  to  the  body  on 
which  it  falls,  but  is  one  and  the  same  always  in  its  essence. 
When  it  falls  upon  the  ocean  it  draws  the  water  up  into  the 
sky  to  drop  subsequently  to  the  earth  as  rain  ;  when  it  falls 
upon  the  land,  it  rears  everything  from  the  blade  of  grass  to 
the  tree ;  and  so  through  all  animate  and  a  large  part  of 
inanimate  nature  we  find  everything  that  affects  man  and 
his  interests  on  the  earth  to  come  to  us  in  this  sunbeam, 
whose  study  gradually  leads  to  conclusions  of  not  merely 
interesting  but  of  an  eminently  practical  character. 

Sir  Isaac  Newton,  letting  these  rays  pass  through  a  prism, 
discriminated  between  them,  pointing  out  that  they  were  com- 
posed of  different  colors,  but  he  did  not  know  that  there  was 
anything  in  them  beyond  what  the  eye  could  see.  Nearly 
one  hundred  years  later,  in  the  first  year  of  the  present  cen- 
tury, it  occurred  to  Sir  William  Herschel  to  move  a  thermom- 
eter in  the  spectrum  formed  by  a  prism,  and  notice  the  heat 
in  the  different  rays.  He  found  little  heat  in  the  blue,  more 
in  the  green,  and  more  still  in  the  red,  where  to  the  eye  the 
spectrum  appears  to  end.  Carrying  the  thermometer  still 
further,  that  is,  entirely  outside  and  beyond  the  visible  spec- 
trum at  its  red  end,  he  found  that  the  instrument  rose  still 
more,  showing  that  there  was  something  there  invisible  to 
the  eye.  It  was  recognized  later  that  the  heat  in  this  invisi- 
ble region  was  greater  than  all  the  heat  in  the  region  that 


The  Astrophysical  Observatory  431 

could  be  seen ;  but  beyond  diis  litde  was  known,  except  the 
fact  that  this  heat  was  of  different  kinds,  and  possessed  of  dif- 
ferent properties,  in  the  same  way  that  hght  is  possessed  of 
different  colors;  there  was  no  considerable  investigation  of 
the  matter,  from  the  lack  of  any  thermometer  delicate  enough 
to  appreciate  the  heat  in  very  small  portions,  and  capable  of 
being  placed  with  such  precision  as  to  discriminate  the  posi- 
tions of  these  portions  one  from  another. 

Since  the  beginning  of  this  century,  it  had  been  known 
that  there  had  been  made  visible  to  the  eye  in  the  Newton- 
ian spectrum  certain  sharply  defined  black  lines  called,  from 
their  discoverer,  "F'raunhofer  lines,"  and  which  we  now  know 
are  caused  by  selective  absorption  in  the  atmospheres  of  the 
sun  and  of  the  earth  jointly.  Some  of  these  are  due  to  our 
atmosphere  alone,  and  come  and  go  with  different  states  of 
the  weather,  affording  a  direct  means  of  predicting  the  ap- 
proach of  rain.  All  of  them  are  of  interest  in  other  ways  than 
to  the  meteorologist,  though  all  are  interesting  to  him  also. 

Now,   if  we  take  a  base   line, 
and  at  certain    intervals,   set  off 
upon     it     perpendicularly     lines 
proportional    to    the    height    of   ^- 
the    thermometer    in    the    corre-      ^        fed    ^^^^^^^^^ 
spending  parts  of  the  spectrum,  lamanskys  curve. 

we  obtain  some  such  curve  as  is  shown  in  the  fio-ure. 
where  the  portion  on  the  right  indicates  what  is  invisible, 
and  shows  three  interruptions,  discovered  by  Lamansky  in 
1871,^  and  which  as  indicating  nearly  all  that  was  known 
before  the  writer  commenced  his  work  may  be  compared 
with  the  curve  given  later.  The  invisible  portion  of  the 
spectrum   contains   a  great  deal   more   energy  than   all    the 

1  Lamansky  M.  S.  "On  the    Heat-Spectrum  of  the  Sun  .and  the  Lime-light."  London, 
Edinburgh,  and  Dublin  Philosophical  Magazine,  Volume  LXlii,  1872,  page  282. 


432  The  Sinithso7iian  Institution 

rest  that  is  visible.  The  actions,  then,  to  which  nearly  all 
the  changes  on  earth  are  due,  go  on  principally  in  this  invisi- 
ble region ;  but,  with  the  exception  of  some  investigations  by 
Draper  and  Becquerel  in  the  part  just  below  the  visible  red, 
this  was  all  that  was  known  in  the  matter  twenty  years  ago  ; 
for  since  these  rays  cannot  be  seen,  and  cannot  be  made  evi- 
dent by  ordinary  photography,  there  remains  no  way  of  in- 
vestigating this  most  important  region,  except  by  means  of 
some  instrument  which,  like  the  thermometer  or  the  thermo- 
pile, will  register  the  heat.  For  lack,  then,  of  a  more  sensitive 
instrument  than  science  possessed,  in  this  way,  very  little  had 
been  done  until  the  year  1881,  in  which  the  writer  invented 
a  more  delicate  method  of  measuring  heat,  by  means  of 
an  instrument  which  he  called  the  "  bolometer."  This 
consists  essentially  of  a  metallic  tape,  usually  about  a 
third  of  an  inch  long,  but  narrower  and  far  thinner  than  a 
human  hair,  through  which  an  electric  current  is  kept  con- 
stantly passing.  It  is  found  that  the  slightest  change  in  the 
heat  which  falls  on  this  tape  will  affect  a  distant  galvanometer 
connected  with  it,  so  that  as  the  effects  of  vision  are  no  way 
concerned,  but  only  of  heat,  this  may  be  compared,  figura- 
tively, to  an  eye  which  sees  in  the  dark.  Moreover,  as  this 
thread  can  also  be  pointed  with  extreme  precision,  as  in  the 
case  of  a  vertical  thread  of  an  ordinary  transit  instrument, 
the  greater  sensitiveness  is  accompanied  by  a  corresponding 
accuracy  of  measurement. 

This  instrument  was,  at  that  time,  able  to  indicate  a  change 
of  temperature  of  one  one-hundred-thousandth  of  a  degree, 
and  it  had  the  incidental  advantage  that  it  could  be  pointed 
so  as  to  tell,  within  a  fraction  of  a  minute  of  an  arc,  in  what 
part  of  the  spectrum  the  change  to  which  it  was  sensitive  was 
found. 

A  full  description  of  the  bolometer  must  be  sought  else- 


The  As  trophy  steal  Observatory  433 

where ;  but,  in  further  explanation,  it  may  be  said  that  the 
electric  current  always  passing  flows  less  freely  when  the 
minutest  degree  of  heat  falls  upon  the  strip,  and  more  freely 
when  this  is  made  in  the  least  colder,  so  that  the  galvanome- 
ter needle  swings  in  the  first  case  to  the  right,  and  in  the 
second  to  the  left ;  and  this,  at  present,  may  be  arranged  to 
record  changes  of  temperature  as  small  as  one  millionth  of  a 
degree.  When  this  minute  strip,  or  tape,  is  moved  through 
the  invisible  spectrum,  the  tape  being  parallel  to  the  Fraun- 
hofer  lines,  since  what  is  black  to  the  eye  is  cold  to  it,  its 
contact  with  one  of  them  produces  cold,  which  increases  the 
flow  of  electricity,  and  the  galvanometer  needle  moves  as 
described.  When  it  passes  into  a  warmer  region,  the  needle 
moves  in  the  opposite  direction;  and  in  each  case  the  amount 
by  which  the  needle  moves  is  proportional  to  the  degree  of 
heat  or  cold  in  question,  so  that  the  final  result  is  the  same 
as  if  a  thermometer  could  be  constructed  much  finer  than  a 
human  hair,  from  which  all  of  these  indications  could  be  read 
on  such  an  extended  scale  that  the  millionth  part  of  a  degree 
was  visible,  this  thermometer  being  moved  through  the  spec- 
trum, and  falling  or  rising,  according  as  it  meets  one  of  these 
dark  and  cold  lines  or  g^oes  into  a  warmer  reofion.  This 
rise  or  fall  indicates,  then,  the  presence  of  such  a  line,  whe- 
ther the  eye  can  see  it  or  not,  and  when  we  pass  out  of  the 
visible  into  the  invisible  region,  this  method  remains  trust- 
worthy where  the  eye  and  photography  both  fail  us. 

When  the  instrument  was  first  used,  at  least  two  observers 
were  required,  one  to  note  the  reading  of  the  circle  which 
fixed  the  place  of  the  bolometer  in  the  spectrum,  and  another 
who  sat  at  the  galvanometer  and  noted  through  how  many 
divisions  of  the  scale  the  needle  swung,  owing  to  the  electric 
disturbances,  the  whole  process  being  comparable  to  a  groping 
in  the  dark,  involvino^-  oroing-  over  and  over  the  work  aeain 

'000  o 


434 


The  Smithsouian  Institution 


and  again,  month  after  month  and  year  after  year,  with  almost 
interminable  repetition,  so  that  a  galvanometer  had,  in  fact,  to 
be  read  over  a  thousand  times  to  obtain  with  sufficient  accu- 
racy the  position  and  amount  of  a  deflection  of  the  energy 
curve  in  any  single  part  of  the  invisible  region.  It  took 
nearly  two  years  to  fix  the  position  of  twenty  lines  by  this 
process,  with  the  degree  of  accuracy  then  aimed  at. 


DISTRIBUTION   OF  ENERGY   IN 

THE   SPECTRUM    OF  A 

60°   PRISM  OF  SALT. 

ALLEGHENY    OBSERVATORY. 


-^ 


The  annexed  figure  shows  the  amount  of  heat  in  different 
portions  of  the  spectrum  shown  by  the  inflections  of  the  curve 
as  obtained  by  this  early  process ;  but  since  it  took  two  years 
to  fix  the  position  of  twenty  lines  by  this  means,  it  would  take 
a  hundred  years  to  fix  the  position  of  a  thousand  lines,  sup- 
posing they  existed;  and  it  became  evident  that,  if  the  bolom- 
eter continued  to  be  the  only  means  available,  new  methods 
of  using  it  must  be  devised. 

Accordingly,  when  this  work  was  commenced  at  the  Smith- 
sonian Observatory,  a  plan  which  had  been  under  study  by 
the  writer  for  more  than  ten  years  was  introduced,  by  means 
of  which   the  work   could   be   carried   on   not   only  with   far 


The  Astrophysical  Observatory  435 

greater  rapidity,  but  with  greater  certainty,  and  by  an  auto- 
matic process.  The  idea  in  its  original  simplicity  is  very 
easily  understood. 

In  the  old  process,  just  described,  the  deflection  of  a  spot 
of  light  upon  a  scale  was  read  by  one  observer,  while  another 
simultaneously  read  the  position  in  the  spectrum  of  the  cold 
band,  or  line,  which  caused  the  thermo-electric  disturbance. 

Now,  in  imagination,  let  us  take  away  both  the  observer  at 
the  circle  and  the  one  at  the  galvanometer,  and  in  the  latter 
case  remove  the  scale  also,  and  put  in  its  stead  a  photographic- 
ally sensitive  plate.  As  the  needle  swings  to  the  right  or  left 
the  spot  of  light  will  trace  upon  the  plate  a  black  horizontal 
line,  whose  leneth  will  show  how  far  the  needle  moves  and 
how  great  the  heat  is  which  originated  the  impulse.  If  this 
be  all,  when  under  an  impulse  originated  by  the  movement 
of  the  spectrum  over  the  bolometer  thread  the  needle  swings 
a  second  time,  it  will  go  over  the  same  place;  but  if  the  plate 
have  given  it  by  clockwork  a  uniform  vertical  movement  pro- 
portional to  the  horizontal  movement  of  the  spectrum,  the 
combination  of  the  two  motions  of  the  needle  and  the  plate 
will  write  upon  the  latter  a  sinuous  curve  which  will  be,  in 
theory  at  least,  the  same  as  the  curve  formerly  deduci- 
ble,  only  with  much  pains,  from  thousands  of  galvanometer 
readings. 

If  we  suppose  that  the  movements  of  the  invisible  spec- 
trum, as  well  as  of  the  plate,  are  controlled  by  the  same 
clockwork,  so  that  this  spectrum  is  caused  to  move  uniformly 
over  the  bolometer  thread,  and  that  these  movements  are,  by 
accurate  mechanism,  rendered  absolutely  synchronous  with 
those  of  the  moving  plate,  it  is  clear  that  we  shall  be  able 
to  readily  deduce  from  the  photographic  curve  traced  on  the 
latter  not  merely  the  amount  of  the  heat,  but  each  particular 
position    in    the   spectrum   of  the   thread   of  the   bolometer, 


43  6  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

which  alone  can  correspond  with  any  given  inflection  of  the 
curve. 

The  theory  is  simple,  but  the  practice  is  extremely  difficult, 
and  it  has,  in  fact,  consumed  nearly  five  years  of  continuous 
labor  to  produce  the  results  which  are  obtained  by  the  pres- 
ent apparatus,  which  works  in  the  following  manner : 

A  beam  from  the  mirror  of  the  siderostat  is  conveyed 
through  the  slit  of  a  telescope  having  a  rock-salt  objective  of 
about  ten  meters  focal  length  to  the  prism,  which  is  mounted 
on  the  massive  spectro-bolometer,  the  novel  feature  lying  in 
the  mechanical  connection  of  the  large  circle  carrying  the 
prism  with  a  distant  photographic  plate,  susceptible  of  verti- 
cal motion,  and  taking  the  place  of  the  scale  formerly  in  front 
of  the  remote  galvanometer,  both  circle  and  plate  being  now 
moved  by  the  same  clockwork,  through  a  continuous  train  of 
shafting,  which  works  with  such  steadiness  and  precision  as 
to  make  the  two  movements  entirely  synchronous. 

To  understand  this  better,  let  us  suppose  that  the  very 
slowly  moving  circle  carrying  the  prism  moves  the  spectrum 
through  one  minute  of  arc  in  one  minute  of  time,  across 
the  vertical  bolometer  thread.  To  the  observer  watching  the 
spectrum  the  motion  is  as  slow  as  that  of  the  hour-hand  on  the 
dial,  but  it  is  continuous  and  uniform,  and  the  same  mechan- 
ism which  causes  this  motion  of  the  spectrum  of  one  minute 
of  arc  in  one  minute  of  time  causes  the  photographic  plate  to 
move  vertically,  before  the  galvanometer  mirror,  at  any  given 
rate, —  for  instance,  at  the  rate  of  one  centimeter  of  space  in 
one  minute  of  time.  It  follows  that  during  every  second  of 
this  minute  a  portion  of  the  spectrum  represented  by  one 
second  of  arc  will  have  glided  before  the  bolometer  thread, 
and  that  during  this  same  second  the  photographic  plate  will 
have  been  lifted  automatically  through  one  sixtieth  of  a  centi- 
meter in  space ;   the  essential  thing  being  that  the  plate  shall 


The  Astrophysical  Observatory 


437 


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I 

CO 
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O 

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h 
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43  8  The  Sinithso7iian  Institution 

show,  on  simple  inspection,  not  only  the  inflection  of  the 
energy  curve  there  written  down,  but  the  exact  relative  posi- 
tion in  the  distant  spectrum  which  the  bolometer  thread  oc- 
cupied at  the  moment  it  caused  the  disturbance.  By  suitably 
changing  the  wheels  in  the  clockwork  we  may  cause  the 
spectrum  to  move  fast  or  slow,  in  the  former  case  giving  only 
its  principal  inflections,  in  the  latter  case  giving  a  great  deal 
more  of  detail,  but  with  liabilities  to  error,  which  will  be 
spoken  of  later. 

The  building  shown  in  the  annexed  sketch  plan,  which 
was  erected  in  1890  at  the  cost  of  the  Institution,  has  been 
slightly  modified  from  its  original  form  to  meet  the  wants  of 
this  process  as  they  have  been  developed  by  experiment,  and 
it  is  only  lately  that  the  small  photographic  room  shown  at 
the  right  has  been  added.  The  observatory's  latitude  and 
longitude  as  given  by  the  United  States  Coast  and  Geodetic 
Survey  is  38°  53'  i7".3  and  5''  08""  06''  .24  respectively. 

The  building  is  essentially  a  room  arranged  so  that  it  can 
be  closed  to  all  light  by  means  of  sliding  shutters  before  the 
windows,  and  by  a  sliding  shutter  under  the  skylight  in  the 
roof,  and  containing  an  inner  chamber  F  F  which  can  be  kept 
at  a  constant  temperature.  In  the  front  is  a  small  room  L 
containing  books  and  writing  materials,  below  which  is  a 
cellar  in  which  are  stored  the  batteries  and  a  furnace,  the 
latter  being  no  longer  used,  having  been  replaced  by  steam 
radiators  R,  operated  from  another  building.  Around  the 
walls  are  cases  containing  those  pieces  of  apparatus  which 
are  not  in  constant  use,  and,  with  the  exception  of  the  small 
cellar,  the  floor  joists  are  almost  in  contact  with  the  soil,  but 
piers  for  the  instruments  rise  to  the  level  of  the  floor  at  A, 
76  centimeters  above  the  floor  at  B,  and  40  centimeters 
above  the  floor  at  J.  When  the  shutters  are  closed  the 
only  light  which  enters  comes  from  the  siderostat  at  C,  which 


The  Astrophysical  Observatory  439 

sends  a  horizontal  beam  from  north  to  south  along  the  meri- 
dian at  a  height  of  1 10  centimeters  from  the  floor,  through 
the  tube  T. 

The  principal  piece  of  apparatus,  the  spectro-bolometer,  is 
shown  at  D.  This  instrument,  made  by  W.  Grunow  &  Son, 
is  a  development  of  that  already  devised  by  the  writer  and 
figured  by  him  in  the  "American  Journal  of  Science."^  Its 
object  is  to  enable  researches  to  be  made  on  that  invisible 
portion  of  the  solar  radiation  below  the  red  in  which  it  is  now 
known  that  a  greater  part  of  all  the  solar  energy  lies,  in  a 
region  whose  details  have  been,  up  to  the  present  researches, 
comparatively  unknown. 

This  instrument  consists  of  an  azimuth  circle  of  52  centi- 
meters diameter,  reading  by  verniers  to  five  seconds  of  arc. 
Over  the  center  of  the  azimuth  circle  is  a  prism,  ordinarily  of 
rock-salt,  a  material  pervious  to  the  rays  in  question,  which 
do  not  freely  pass  through  glass.  This  prism  is  fixed  to  a 
mirror  parallel  to  its  rear  surface,  and  it  turns  with  it  when 
the  circle  is  turned.  A  horizontal  ray  from  the  siderostat, 
which  falls  upon  the  prism,  passes  through  it  at  an  angle  of 
minimum  deviation,  falls  upon  the  plane  mirror,  and  is  by 
that  reflected  to  a  distant  concave  mirror,  7n,  by  which  an 
image  of  the  spectrum  is  formed  at  S.  In  the  actual  case, 
the  visible  part  of  the  solar  spectrum  is  about  nine  inches  in 
length  and  one  high,  and  filled  with  Fraunhofer  lines,  which 
are  visible  to  the  naked  eye  when  projected  upon  a  screen. 
The  rays  fall  upon  the  strip  of  the  bolometer  at  E. 

If,  now,  the  circle  be  moved  by  the  clockwork  K,  and  with 
it  the  prism  and  its  attached  plane  mirror,  the  spectrum  is 
put  in  motion  relatively  to  the  bolometer  strip,  so  that  this 
is  virtually  carried  through  the  spectrum,  its  exact  position 
in  it  being  at  all  times  determined  by  reference  to  the  circle. 

1  "The  Selective  Absorption  of  Solar  Energy,"  Volume  xxv,  page  169,  March  1S83,  plate  2. 


440  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

As  the  strip  of  the  bolometer  passes  through  a  dark  line,  its 
temperature  falls,  less  current  passes  through  the  cable  con- 
necting it  with  the  distant  galvanometer,  shown  at  G,  and  the 
needle  of  the  latter  instrument  is  deflected,  showing  how 
great  the  radiant  heat  of  the  spectrum  was  at  the  precise 
position  in  question.  In  the  accompanying  illustration  are 
shown  two  such  curves  obtained  on  different  days,  quite  in- 
dependently of  each  other,  by  two  successive  movements  such 
as  have  been  described  through  the  whole  spectrum.  They 
represent  nearly  two  hundred  lines,  which  are  otherwise 
shown  in  the  plate  in  the  usual  form  as  a  line  spectrum. 
The  general  coincidence  of  the  two  curves  one  with  another 
affords  the  most  convincing  proof  that  could  be  desired  of 
the  accuracy  of  the  process,  which  thus  obtains  in  a  few 
hours  data  which  could  hardly  be  obtained  by  a  life-time  of 
assiduous  labor  with  the  old  one.  But  this  new  method 
is  so  sensitive  that  it  can  record  more  minute  inflections 
than  are  here  set  down,  these  inflections  being  intentionally 
slurred  over,   as  here  given. 

When,  however,  we  proceed  with  the  aim  of  developing  all 
the  minute  deflections  that  are  caused  by  the  changes  in  the 
atmosphere  of  the  sun  and  the  earth,  we  are  confronted  with 
the  difficulty  common  to  delicate  physical  measurements  of 
every  kind,  that,  owing  to  the  sensitiveness  of  our  apparatus, 
it  will  register  deflections  due  to  causes  which  we  are  not 
concerned  with,  and  do  not  want  to  record.  For  instance,  if 
a  wagon  be  passing  in  a  distant  street  the  jar  communicated 
to  the  ground,  although  quite  imperceptible  to  all  ordinary 
sense,  will  be  registered  by  the  galvanometer,  forming  a 
minute  inflection  of  the  curve,  which  might  be  confounded 
with  those  produced  by  the  action  of  the  sun  itself,  the  distant 
sun  and  the  wagon  in  the  next  street  registering  their  action 
in  the  same  place  and  in  the  same  manner. 


rNFRA-RED   SPECTRUM   OF  A  ROCK-SALT   PRISM. 

WAVE-LENGTHS  0.75jx  TO  -._.:.;j.. 


440  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

ir  passes  throug 


as  have  ceeii  ccscriDcci  tarougn  cnc  v. 
represent  nearly   two    hundred    lines, 
shown   in  the  plate   in  the  usual  form  as 
oincidencp  of  the  twc 

'  ^-'-^of  that  could 


e   old   one.      But   this   new  method 
t   it   ran   record   more    mir 
than  .i  •.  'se  inflections  ^nally 

sli  ven. 

Vv  ncj  we  proc'  ith  the  aim  of  de 

inute  deflections  that  are  caused  by  the  chang 

-.  -  .  „--i  and  the  earth,  we  are  confrn- 

the  dui.       ■    -■   ■--  to  delicate  physical  men  ■ 

kiiiu  '  nsitiveness  of  our  apparatus, 


..■•a 

itself,  the  disr 

reet  reeist.     ._  their .: 

M'  "  ■  bu.::e  manner. 


3 

tr: 
J- 

a 

OL 

_i 
< 


\^  —  '.. 


/'  ■  -y 


are  many  other  causes  of  local  d  t  it 

be  understood  that  they  are  too  slight  to  distort  the 
when  we  are  only  taking  the  main  features  of  the 
curve,  as  is  shown  in  the  exai-    '  given.     But  it  is 

!  the  minuter  f  the  solar  •  va- 

are  sought  that  these  local  distur  are  of 

,ame  order  nf  ma crn  nme  especK- . .  . 

n,  the-  lake  a  fuller  m 

ularities  o\ 
e  con. 


MUllbi. 


Ihe  ler  mus;  eferred  to  pr 

rs  for  ar  of  th  ns  of  overcoming  these  d 

^s,  but  that  the  ^  >f  the 

achieved,  it  is  rema. -. that  enrh  inf!< 

ivertible  into  a  line  1 ^  ~ 


process  of  con 


,   wha  .11  our  knowle 

;^een.     Describing  it  ^..  ^   upon   th' 

al  spectrum    '"-  —"-■'"    lulcu  that  '-^  "^^' 

ewton  be  unit 
ould  be  represented  by  a  li 


29  iM"..^  HT-tr/:a:j-avAV/ 


f-uiii^"-": 


mFRA-RED   SPEOTEUM   OF   A '  ROOK-  SALT   PRISM. 

WAVE-LENGTHS  2.09[i  TO  5.69jj.. 


The  Astrophysical  Observatory  441 

There  are  many  other  causes  of  local  disturbance,  but  it 
should  be  understood  that  they  are  too  slight  to  distort  the 
record,  when  we  are  only  taking  the  main  features  of  the 
solar  curve,  as  is  shown  in  the  example  just  given.  But  it  is 
when  the  minuter  details  of  the  solar  and  terrestrial  observa- 
tions are  sought  that  these  local  disturbances,  which  are  of 
the  same  order  of  magnitude,  become  especially  troublesome. 
When,  therefore,  we  proceed  to  make  a  fuller  map  of  the 
irregularities  of  the  invisible  spectrum  than  shown  above,  we 
are  compelled  to  study  the  causes  of  these  accidental  deflec- 
tions, and  to  try  to  eliminate  them,  and  this  necessity  has 
greatly  delayed  the  work,  a  full  account  of  which  will  shortly 
be  published. 

The  professional  reader  must  be  referred  to  professional 
papers  for  an  account  of  the  means  of  overcoming  these  diffi- 
culties, but  that  the  general  reader  may  conceive  of  the  re- 
sults achieved,  it  is  remarked  that  each  inflection  of  the  curve 
is  convertible  into  a  line  by  a  nearly  automatic  optical  process, 
giving  linear  spectra,  and  while  the  measurements  of  pre- 
cision are  made  upon  the  original  curves,  these  linear  spectra 
are  united  by  a  process  of  composite  photography  for  the 
purpose  of  illustration.  That  presented  on  the  accompanying 
plate  is  obtained  by  another  method. 

With  it  is  given  on  the  scale  of  mean  dispersion  the  length 
of  the  spectrum  as  known  to  Sir  Isaac  Newton  "  (H  —  A)" 
to  show  what  the  extent  of  the  increase  in  our  knowledge 
has  been.  Describing  it  otherwise  upon  the  scale  of  the 
normal  spectrum,  it  may  be  stated  that  if  the  length  of  the 
spectrum  as  observed  by  Newton  be  unity,  its  length  as  here 
given  would  be  represented  by  a  little  over  twelve,  and  very 
nearly  all  of  this  addition  has  been  made  by  the  application 
of  the  processes  which  have  been  described. 

A  comparison  of  the  three  superposed  curves  with  the 
29 


442  The  Smithsoniaji  histitiition 

vignette  already  given  from  Lamansky's  drawing  will  show 
in  another  way  the  progress  which  has  been  made  by 
bolometric    research. 

I  have  described  here  but  one  research,  though  that  is  not 
the  only  one  prosecuted  at  the  observatory.  Among  others 
one  of  more  general  interest  is  that  on  the  "Cheapest  Form 
of  Light,"  carried  on  by  the  joint  use  of  the  bolometer  and 
photographic  processes,  of  which  an  account  will  be  found  in 
the  "American  Journal  of  Science."^  The  principal  conclusion 
of  the  research  just  named  is  that  processes  exist  by  which 
light  can  be  produced  without  the  present  waste  of  energy  in 
producing  invisible  heat  along  with  it  —  a  conclusion  of  much 
practical  importance. 

Other  and  subordinate  researches  will  be  described  else- 
where; of  the  principal  one  here  spoken  of  it  is  proper  to 
repeat  that  the  difficulties  have  been  enormously  increased  by 
the  unsuitability  of  the  site,  and  that  it  is  to  be  earnestly  hoped 
that  the  Institution  may  be  enabled  later  to  provide  a  more 
fitting  one. 

1  Volume  XL,  page  97,  August,  1890. 


THE    NATIONAL   ZOOLOGICAL    PARK 


By  Frank  Baker 


NTEREST  in  living  animals  is  a  characteristic 
of  both  savage  and  civilized  man.  Doubtless 
this  was  at  first  a  mere  curiosity  to  know  more 
of  the  creatures  he  pursued  in  the  chase  or 
against  whose  attacks  he  had  to  guard,  but 
later  it  rose  to  that  desire  to  understand  the  phenomena  of 
life  in  general,  to  obtain  some  insight  into  the  mysteries  of 
being,  which  is  at  the  root  of  all  scientific  zoological  studies. 

Royal  preserves  and  menageries  are  as  old  as  the  civiliza- 
tions of  Assyria  and  Egypt,  and  it  was  from  the  East,  by 
means  of  the  Roman  conquerors,  that  the  first  collections  of 
animals  were  brought  to  Europe.  The  displays  of  the  Roman 
triumphs  and  the  conflicts  of  famishing  beasts  in  the  arena 
were  but  little  calculated  to  advance  the  interests  of  zoology, 
but  it  is  from  these  that  we  trace  the  genesis  of  the  zoological 
collections  of  to-day.  Exhibitions  of  animals  for  the  purpose 
of  impressing  the  populace  with  the  wealth  or  power  of  the 
ruling  sovereign  were  common  during  the  Middle  Ages. 
The  Emperor  Frederick  II  had  at  his  Sicilian  court  a  notable 
collection,  from  which  he  sent  to  Henry  III  of  England  three 
leopards,  in  compliment  to  the  three  animals  of  that  species 

443 


444  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

which  appeared  in  that  monarch's  coat-of-arms.  These  ani- 
mals, with  an  elephant  sent  not  long  after  by  Louis  IX  of 
France,  formed  the  nucleus  of  the  famous  Tower  Menagerie, 
that  was  kept  up  until  1834,  when  it  was  merged  with  the 
Zoological  Garden  now  in  Regent's  Park  in  London. 

The  well-known  collection  of  exotic  animals  in  the  Jardin 
des  Plantes  in  Paris  had  a  similar  origin,  being  derived  from 
the  royal  menagerie  maintained  with  different  degrees  of  in- 
terest by  various  kings,  and  finally,  at  the  time  of  the  French 
Revolution,  turned  over  to  the  people. 

The  conditions  prevalent  in  these  royal  collections  were 
not  as  a  rule  favorable  to  the  study  of  animals,  and  we  con- 
sequently find  that  with  few  exceptions  they  aided  the  ad- 
vancement of  zoology  but  little.  The  animals  were  usually 
kept  in  small  and  badly  ventilated  cages  with  slight  regard 
to  their  proper  food  or  natural  habits,  and  it  is  therefore  not 
at  all  surprising  that  the  mortality  among  them  should  have 
been  very  great.  It  was  not  until  the  care  of  such  collections 
was  intrusted  to  scientific  zoologists  that  any  improvement 
was  manifested. 

The  collections  of  Europe  seem,  however,  to  have  been 
surpassed  in  extent,  variety,  and  magnificence  by  those  of 
the  New  World,  where  an  equable  climate,  a  rich  fauna,  and 
a  natural  fondness  of  the  natives  for  animals  appear  to  have 
combined  to  produce  much  better  results.  The  accounts 
of  the  menageries  of  Montezuma  and  the  Incas  read  like 
fairy  tales.  They  were  doubtless  of  great  size  and  richness, 
but  the  conquerors  of  Mexico  and  Peru  left  nothing  of  these 
extraordinary  collections. 

In  the  United  States  the  establishment  of  permanent  col- 
lections of  animals  for  public  exhibition  is  comparatively 
recent.  The  menagerie  in  Central  Park  in  New  York  was 
not  contemplated  by  the  original  plan  of  that  park,  but  grew 


The  National  Zoological  Park  445 

up  from  chance  gifts  made  to  the  city  authorities,  from  i860 
onward. 

In  Philadelphia  a  zoological  society,  composed  of  public- 
spirited  citizens  interested  in  natural  history,  succeeded  in 
1872  in  raising  sufficient  funds  to  begin  the  construction  of  a 
zoological  garden  in  a  retired  portion  of  Fairmount  Park. 
This  garden,  though  limited  as  to  space,  has  always  been  con- 
ducted with  reference  to  the  advancement  of  science,  and  is 
now,  probably,  the  most  important  collection  in  America.  A 
zoological  society  in  Cincinnati  also  succeeded  in  1874  in 
securing  a  collection  of  animals  for  exhibition.  It  now  has 
an  excellent  garden  in  a  flourishing  condition.  Collections 
of  living  animals  have  been  formed  in  San  Francisco,  Chicago, 
St.  Louis,  Atlanta,  Buffalo,  Detroit,  Pittsburg,  and  other 
places.  Some  of  these  are  controlled  by  the  city  authorities 
as  an  attractive  feature  of  public  parks,  others  kept  by  priv- 
ate parties  for  their  own  pleasure  or  profit  in  game  preserves 
thousand  of  acres  in  extent. 

The  collection  of  animals  for  exhibition  as  museum  speci- 
mens was  early  commenced  by  the  Smithsonian  Institution. 
This  necessarily  involved  the  accumulation  of  skins  and  skele- 
tons and  the  employment  of  skilled  taxidermists  to  study  the 
natural  forms  of  living  animals  in  order  that  they  might  im- 
part to  the  prepared  specimens  the  grace  and  characteristics 
of  life.  A  considerable  number  of  livinor  animals  was  ob- 
tained  for  this  purpose  annually,  and  as  there  were  no 
adequate  arrangements  for  keeping  them,  they  were,  after 
serving  as  studies  for  the  modeler,  either  killed  for  their 
skins,  or,  if  not  desired  as  specimens,  sent  to  the  zoological 
garden  in  Philadelphia.  During  their  temporary  detention 
at  the  Institution  such  specimens  attracted  much  notice  from 
visitors.  It  early  occurred  to  Mr.  S.  P.  Langley,  the  present 
Secretary  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  that  it  would  be 
29* 


44  6  The  Sinithsonian  Institution 

easy  to  extend  this  method  so  as  to  secure  a  considerable 
collection  of  livinof  animals. 

The  National  Museum  was  fortunate  in  having  upon  its 
staff  at  that  time  Mr.  William  T.  Hornaday,  well  known  for 
his  unusual  skill  as  a  taxidermist,  and  for  his  travels  in  Bor- 
neo and  South  America  for  the  collection  of  specimens  of 
natural  history.  As  his  interest  in  the  matter  was  very 
great,  a  separate  department  of  the  National  Museum,  that 
of  living  animals,  was  created,  and  of  this  he  was  appointed 
curator.  As  a  result  of  his  energy  and  activity  the  museum 
possessed,  at  the  close  of  the  fiscal  year  1887-88,  no  fewer 
than  two  hundred  and  twenty  living  specimens. 

At  this  time  public  interest  was  much  excited  by  the  al- 
most total  extinction  of  the  American  buffalo  or  bison,  which 
once  covered  the  country  as  far  east  as  Virginia  with  herds 
of  almost  countless  numbers,  and  which,  retreating  before 
civilization,  had  finally  succumbed  to  the  unchecked  extrava- 
gance of  avaricious  hunters  and  the  repeating  rifle  until  there 
remained  but  a  few  herds,  small  in  numbers  and  widely  scat- 
tered. This  is  one  of  the  most  striking  and  appalling  cases 
of  the  effect  of  the  contact  of  man  with  animate  nature,  but 
many  others  were  also  noted  which,  though  less  in  degree, 
showed  all  thoughtful  people  that  most  of  the  larger  native 
animals  indigenous  to  this  continent  were  doomed  to  extinc- 
tion unless  active  measures  were  taken  to  protect  and  pre- 
serve them.  The  great  auk  and  the  sea-cow  of  Steller  are 
now  to  be  seen  only  in  museum  cases,  and  rank  in  the  popu- 
lar mind  with  the  dodo  and  the  megatherium ;  the  sea-ele- 
phant has  nearly  if  not  wholly  disappeared,  and  the  manatee 
is  approaching  extinction.  The  moose,  the  caribou,  the 
antelope,  the  mountain  sheep  and  goat,  the  fur  seal,  the 
sea  otter,  the  Pacific  walrus,  and  even  the  grizzly  bear  and 
panther,  are  rapidly  disappearing,  and  in  a  few  generations 


The  National  Zoological  Park  447 


may  share  the   fate  of  the  moa,  the    mammoth,   and  other 
animals  once   widely  distributed  but   now  extinct. 

The  loss  to  zoological  science  in  the  disappearance  of  these 
animals  is,  of  course,  very  great,  and  from  an  economic  point 
of  view  the  matter  is  by  no  means  to  be  disregarded.  When 
we  consider  the  enormous  food  value  of  the  great  herds  of 
bison,  that,  with  a  little  care,  might  have  been  preserved 
almost  indefinitely  upon  those  parts  of  the  country  fitted  only 
for  grazing,  we  realize  how  shameful  and  unwise  the  waste 
has  been.  The  extirpation  of  the  fur  seal  and  sea  otter 
deprives  this  country  of  some  millions  of  dollars  of  annual 
revenue ;  the  elk  and  deer  if  carefully  protected  would  yield 
flesh  and  skins  of  considerable  value ;  the  wild  pigeon  and 
the  prairie  chicken,  now  nearly  extinct,  have  had  a  definite 
market  value  of  no  small  amount.  When  we  notice  with 
what  care  similar  animals  are  preserved  in  European  coun- 
tries, and  the  prices  that  they  readily  command  when  brought 
to  market,  the  reckless  extravagance  with  which  the  vast 
animal  resources  of  this  continent  have  been  wasted  becomes 
apparent.  It  seemed  to  Secretary  Langley  that  the  Institu- 
tion might  do  something  to  bring  this  matter  clearly  before 
the  eyes  of  our  legislators  and  of  the  public  generally  by 
exhibiting  specimens  of  the  most  important  animals  likely  to 
suffer  extinction,  placing  them  as  nearly  as  possible  in  the 
conditions  natural  to  them  so  that  they  might  breed  and 
thrive  in  captivity  as  in  their  native  haunts.  An  enterprise 
of  this  kind  could  also  assist  in  the  general  difiusion  of  zo- 
ological knowledge,  especially  if  there  were  associated  with 
these  animals  that  it  was  desired  to  preserve  from  extermi- 
nation such  specimens  belonging  to  the  fauna  of  widely 
distant  regions  as  might  be  useful  for  purposes  of  comparison 
or  illustration.  There  would  thus  be  combined  the  advan- 
tages of  a  park  in  which  animals  could  be  studied  in  nearly 


44^  The  Smithsonian  Institntion 

their  native  condition  and  the  attractions  of  the  ordinary 
zoological  garden. 

It  was  believed  that  this  project  was  entirely  novel  and  that 
it  marked  some  advance  over  any  scheme  for  the  maintenance 
of  animals  in  captivity  that  had  up  to  that  time  ever  been 
proposed.  The  zoological  gardens  of  European  capitals  are 
invariably  situated  in  the  midst  of  a  numerous  population, 
where  spacious  grounds  cannot  be  spared  for  their  mainten- 
ance. This  greatly  embarrasses  their  development  and  the 
result  is  that  the  animals  therein  exhibited  rarely  if  ever 
appear  in  their  natural  conditions,  and  the  old  methods  of 
crowding,  a  heritage  from  the  royal  menagerie,  yet  prevail 
to  some  extent.  It  is  rarely  possible  to  accommodate  their 
captivity  to  their  obvious  needs. 

The  question  of  a  possible  site  for  such  an  enterprise  was 
at  once  raised.  Secretary  Langley,  with  rare  judgment, 
turned  his  attention  to  the  picturesque  valley  of  Rock  Creek, 
a  small  affluent  of  the  Potomac  that  empties  at  Georgetown. 
This  little  stream,  ordinarily  very  quiet  and  peaceful,  drains 
an  area  of  about  eighty  square  miles  in  the  District  of  Col- 
umbia and  Montgomery  County,  Maryland.  The  steepness 
of  its  watershed,  which  lies  among  the  foothills  of  the  Blue 
Ridge,  is  such  that  in  a  few  hours,  after  a  heavy  and  pro- 
longed rain,  the  little  brook  may  swell  to  a  foaming  torrent. 
This  has  caused  an  amount  of  erosion  that  seems  quite  out 
of  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  stream,  and  it  accordingly  lies 
some  two  hundred  feet  below  the  level  of  the  surrounding" 
hills,  in  a  valley  varied  greatly  in  its  aspect  according  to  the 
devious  windings  of  the  stream  and  the  nature  of  the  soil. 
It  would  be  impossible  to  find  in  this  latitude  a  situation 
more  admirably  adapted  to  the  preservation  of  wild  animals, 
combining  as  it  does  exposures  of  every  variety,  sunny  slopes 
and  cool  hillsides,  level  meadows  and  rocky  cliffs,  affording 


The  National  Zoological  Park  449 

an  abundance  of  excellent  water,  and  sufficiently  near  the 
city  to  make  it  easily  accessible. 

Fortunately  the  land  along  this  beautiful  stream,  being 
hilly  and  not  immediately  available  for  building  purposes, 
had  not  shared  the  general  advance  of  prices  that  had 
affected  nearly  all  property  in  the  vicinity  of  Washington. 
Upon  a  hasty  survey  of  the  region  made  by  Mr.  Hornaday, 
under  the  direction  of  the  Secretary,  it  was  found  that  a  tract 
of  one  hundred  acres  or  more  could  be  procured  for  a  sum 
that  did  not  seem  exorbitant. 

It  was  not  found  difficult  to  interest  public-spirited  persons 
in  an  enterprise  of  this  novel  and  peculiar  character,  which 
would  not  only  afford  an  excellent  opportunity  for  zoological 
study,  but  would  also  give  to  the  public  a  beautiful  pleasure 
ground,  and  preserve  from  devastation  and  the  real-estate 
agent  a  delightful  region  greatly  needed  as  a  park  by  the 
inhabitants  of  Washington.  Senator  Beck,  of  Kentucky,  and 
Senator  Morrill,  of  Vermont,  were  among  the  first  to  warmly 
espouse  the  cause  of  the  new  park.  The  former  introduced  a 
bill  on  April  23,  1888,  which  provided  for  a  commission,  com- 
posed of  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior,  the  President  of  the 
Board  of  Commissioners  of  the  District  of  Columbia,  and  the 
Secretary  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  which  was  to  have 
power  to  select  and  obtain  land,  to  lay  it  out  as  a  National 
Zoological  Park,  and  finally  to  turn  the  same  over  to  the 
Regents  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution.  This  bill  received 
the  earnest  support  of  Senator  Morrill  and  many  other  gen- 
tlemen in  both  Houses  of  Congress.  Attached  as  an  amend- 
ment  to  the  sundry  civil  appropriation  bill,  it  failed  before  the 
conference  committee  appointed  by  the  two  Houses. 

At  the  next  session  of  Congress  a  measure  of  a  similar 
character  was  introduced  by  Senator  Edmunds  as  an  amend- 
ment to  the   District  of  Columbia  appropriation  bill.     With 


450  The  Smithsonian  histitution 

this  was  associated  an  appropriation  of  $200,000  for  the  pur- 
chase of  land  for  the  desired  site.  It  became  a  law  upon 
March  2,  1889. 

The  commission  constituted  by  this  act  made  an  exhaust- 
ive examination  of  all  the  land  in  the  valley  of  Rock  Creek 
available  for  a  site,  and  finally  selected  about  one  hundred 
and  sixty-six  acres  lying  two  miles  from  the  Executive 
Mansion  and  not  far  distant  from  frequented  public  roads 
and  street-car  lines.  Some  difficulty  was  found  in  estab- 
lishing the  boundaries  of  some  of  the  tracts,  owing  to  the 
fact  that  many  of  the  landmarks  described  in  the  earlier 
deeds  had  become  obliterated  by  the  lapse  of  time.  This 
was,  however,  satisfactorily  overcome  at  last,  and  the  survey 
of  the  grounds  was  finally  completed  November  21,  1889. 
It  was  not  until  November  4,  1890,  that  possession  was 
finally  obtained  of  the  entire  site. 

On  April  30,  1890,  an  act  was  passed  definitely  placing 
the  National  Zoologfical  Park  under  the  direction  of  the 
Regents  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  authorizing  them  to 
transfer  to  it  any  living  animals  in  their  charge,  to  here- 
after make  exchanges  of  specimens,  and  to  administer  the 
Park  "for  the  advancement  of  science  and  the  instruction 
and  recreation  of  the  people."  Thus  the  National  Zoological 
Park  became  an  accomplished  fact,  and  the  work  of  develop- 
ing it  was  begun  with  great  enthusiasm. 

The  first  care  was,  necessarily,  the  preparation  of  the  site 
and  the  providing  of  means  of  access  to  it.  The  funds  at 
the  disposal  of  the  Regents  for  all  objects,  including  roads, 
walks,  bridges,  water-supply,  sewerage,  fencing,  and  build- 
ings, were  less  than  $100,000;  and  when  it  is  remembered 
that  the  zooloo-ical  collections  of  other  cities  are  housed  in 
buildings  of  modest  proportions,  it  is  true,  but  which  have 
cost  from  $300,000  to  $400,000,  it  will  be  seen  that  no  very 


The  National  Zoological  Park  451 

great  results  were  to  be  expected  from  such  inadequate 
means.  The  preparation  of  grounds  alone  must  necessarily 
be  very  expensive  —  the  proper  laying  out,  planting,  and 
improving  for  park  purposes  being  estimated  by  experienced 
authorities  at  from  $3,000  to  $5,000  an  acre. 

It  was  at  once  determined  to  procure  the  best  possible 
professional  advice  for  the  general  planning  and  laying  out 
of  the  park,  it  being  felt  that  the  utmost  care  should  be 
taken  to  preserve  the  extraordinary  natural  beauties  of  the 
region,  and  that  none  but  a  master  could  be  expected  to 
adapt  to  the  needs  of  the  project  so  charming  a  piece  of  pic- 
turesque rural  landscape.  Mr.  Frederick  Law  Olmsted, 
whose  reputation  as  a  landscape  architect  is  world-wide,  was 
asked  to  give  his  advice,  and  visited  the  park  on  several 
occasions  for  that  purpose.  While  it  has  not  been  possible, 
from  want  of  funds,  fully  to  carry  out  the  plan  outlined  by 
him,  it  is  hoped  that  no  serious  errors  have  been  made,  and 
that  the  leafy  retreats  of  this  lovely  valley  afford  much  the 
same  pleasure  to  the  tired  citizen  that  they  did  when  their 
beauty  was  known  to  few  beyond  the  wandering  naturalist 
and  the  solitary  rambler. 

It  being  impossible,  with  the  resources  at  command,  com- 
pletely to  develop  the  entire  area  of  the  park,  it  was  found 
advisable  to  select  a  portion  of  the  most  available  ground  for 
immediate  improvement,  leaving  the  remainder  in  a  state  of 
nature.  The  area  selected  comprised  about  fifty  acres  situ- 
ated in  the  most  central  part  of  the  park,  where  previous 
clearings  had  already  made  some  open  helds  and  grazing 
land,  and  where  the  ground  was  sufficiently  level  to  offer  a 
variety  of  suitable  building  sites. 

Considerable  sums  were  necessarily  expended  in  lading 
out  roads,  in  protecting  the  banks  of  the  stream,  in  form- 
ing ponds  for  aquatic  animals,  and  in  planting  and  otherwise 


452  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

improving  the  grounds.  There  is  at  present  a  single  main 
macadamized  road  extending  through  the  park.  Though 
this  is  by  no  means  free  from  defects,  as  on  the  side  next  the 
city  the  approach  is  so  steep  as  to  be  dangerous  for  heavily 
loaded  vehicles,  it  has  served  the  purpose  of  access.  It  is 
expected  that  additional  roads  will  be  built  at  an  early  day. 

In  view  of  the  probable  future  increase  of  the  collection, 
it  seemed  desirable  that  the  principal  buildings  should  be 
planned  in  such  a  way  as  to  admit  of  possible  extension.  It 
was  also  thouofht  best  that  all  structures  should  be  of  a  char- 
acter  adapted  to  the  retired  and  picturesque  natural  scenery 
of  the  neighborhood.  Imposing  buildings,  even  if  they  could 
have  been  constructed  within  the  small  sums  allotted  by  Con- 
gress, would  have  been  out  of  place  and  calculated  to  mar  the 
restful  effect  of  the  quiet  valley  in  which  they  were  located. 

The  offices  of  the  park  were  established  in  an  old  and 
dilapidated  mansion,  the  only  dwelling  found  upon  the  whole 
area  of  the  site.  This  mansion  is  one  of  the  earliest  built  in 
this  region,  dating  back  to  1805,  and  is  in  a  most  picturesque 
spot  encircled  by  a  broad  sweep  of  Rock  Creek.  Its  isolated 
situation  makes  it  especially  suitable  for  any  matters  of  ad- 
ministration desirable  to  remove  from  the  general  public, 
such  as  laboratory  work,  the  seclusion  of  sick  animals,  and 
the  growth  of  plants  and  shrubs  for  the  grounds. 

During  the  first  year  the  entire  park  was  fenced  in,  a 
single  roadway  was  established  extending  through  the  area 
just  referred  to,  and  the  creek  was  spanned  by  an  inex- 
pensive bridge. 

While  it  would  have  been  desirable  to  prepare  at  once 
houses  for  different  classes  of  animals,  so  that  each  could 
have  the  treatment  most  appropriate  to  its  needs,  it  was 
impossible,  for  want  of  funds,  to  arrange  for  more  than  one 
house  which   should   shelter  animals   requiring   heat  during 


llie  National  Zoological  Park  453 

winter.  This  included  both  animals  from  the  valley  of 
the  Amazon,  that  never  in  their  native  haunts  experience 
great  changes  of  temperature,  and  those  from  the  southern 
portion  of  the  United  States,  that  thrive  better  when  exposed 
to  considerable  vicissitudes.  The  carnivorous  nocturnal  ani- 
mals had  to  be  housed  with  the  timid  herbivorous  ones  natur- 
ally wakeful  by  day.  Experience  has  shown,  as  was  expected, 
that  better  results  would  have  been  obtained  had  it  been 
possible  to  separate  these  groups. 

The  animals  turned  over  to  the  management  of  the  Na- 
tional Zoological  Park  were  one  hundred  and  eighty-five  in 
number,  large  and  small.  They  had  been  kept  huddled  to- 
gether in  such  temporary  quarters  as  could  be  provided  in  a 
low  shed  and  a  few  small  paddocks  upon  the  south  side  of 
the  Smithsonian  building.  They  were  then  transferred  to 
their  permanent  quarters  at  the  park. 

The  experience  of  the  first  year  was  in  every  way  favor- 
able. Great  interest  was  taken  by  the  public  in  the  new 
enterprise,  a  considerable  number  of  valuable  gifts  were 
made,  among  which  was  an  Asiatic  elephant  presented  by 
Mr.  J.  E.  Cooper,  of  the  Forepaugh  shows.  A  few  valuable 
specimens  were  purchased  as  opportunity  offered  of  obtain- 
ing them  at  reasonable  figures.  The  whole  enterprise  took 
on  a  healthy  growth,  and  was  evidently  firmly  established. 

During  the  next  year  the  mutations  of  politics  caused  a 
change  in  the  dominant  political  party,  and  there  were  elected 
to  the  House  of  Representatives  a  large  number  of  new 
members  to  whom  the  park  was  a  totally  unknown  project. 
The  Committee  on  Appropriations  no  longer  regarded  it 
favorably,  and  the  annual  estimates,  which  were  made  only 
with  reference  to  the  proper  and  economical  development  of 
the  original  design,  were  much  reduced.  Further  than  this, 
the  authority  to  increase  the  collection  by  the  purchase  of  ani- 


454  The  Smithso7iian  Institution 

mals,  which  had  been  contained  in  the  previous  appropria- 
tion acts,  was  withdrawn,  and  it  was  evidently  intended  to  re- 
strict the  operations  of  the  park  as  much  as  possible.  Indeed 
the  question  of  abolishing  it  altogether  was  at  one  time  con- 
sidered, but  better  counsels  finally  prevailed.  This  policy 
naturally  retarded  to  a  considerable  extent  the  growth  so 
auspiciously  commenced.  Instead  of  permanent  structures 
suited  to  the  needs  of  each  class  of  animals,  temporary  make- 
shifts were  necessarily  erected,  which,  requiring  to  be  fre- 
quently repaired  and  renewed,  involved  in  the  end  a  waste 
of  public  money. 

In  no  matter  was  this  policy  more  injurious  than  in  its 
effect  on  the  growth  of  the  collection.  It  now  became  impos- 
sible to  procure  specimens  except  by  gifts,  by  transfer,  or  by 
collecting  them  at  great  expense  within  the  limits  of  govern- 
ment preserves,  like  the  Yellowstone  National  Park.  Expe- 
rience has  shown  that  the  increase  by  gifts  is  very  precarious. 
The  animals  given  are,  it  is  true,  sometimes  very  valuable ; 
often,  however,  they  are  diseased  or  defective  in  some  way. 
They  are  usually  the  random,  accidental  finds  made  by 
chance  sportsmen  or  curiosity  hunters,  and  are,  naturally, 
more  numerous  in  certain  classes  than  in  others.  Numbers 
of  opossums,  raccoons,  and  small  alligators  are  yearly  pre- 
sented, but  no  one  has  ever  thought  of  presenting  a  moose,  a 
caribou,  a  manatee,  a  sea-lion,  or  any  of  the  important  ani- 
mals for  the  preservation  of  which  the  park  was  especially 
instituted. 

The  increase  by  transfer  really  amounts  only  to  this,  that 
certain  of  the  animals  bred  within  the  park  may,  if  any  one 
chances  to  want  them,  be  exchanged  for  others.  Native 
American  animals  are  not  much  used  in  menageries,  and 
there  is,  therefore,  but  little  demand  for  them.  Slight  use 
has,  therefore,  been  made  of  this  privilege. 


The  National  Zoological  Park  455 

By  the  kind  cooperation  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior, 
permission  was  given  to  the  Smithsonian  to  make  collections 
of  wild  animals  within  the  Yellowstone  National  Park.  This 
has  become  the  only  source  of  supply  for  certain  species.  It 
was  hoped  that  large  numbers  of  buffalo,  elk,  deer,  antelope, 
moose,  and  beaver  might  be  obtained  there,  and  considerable 
sums  have  been  expended  for  the  purpose  of  building  corrals 
and  paddocks  within  that  park  for  the  capture  and  temporary 
confinement  of  animals  and  their  transportation  to  Washington. 
This  has  proved  an  expensive  undertaking.  The  isolation  of 
the  Yellowstone  Park  enhances  greatly  the  prices  of  labor  and 
material  there,  and  its  great  distance  from  this  city  makes  the 
charges  for  transportation  amount  to  as  much  or  more  than 
the  value  of  the  animals. 

Some  interesting  results  have,  however,  been  attained.  A 
colony  of  beavers  was,  with  considerable  difficulty,  collected 
and  placed  in  the  National  Zoological  Park,  where  the  animals 
at  once  made  themselves  at  home  and  proceeded  to  build  a 
lodge  and  several  dams  after  the  most  approved  fashion.  It 
was  thought  that  it  would  be  necessary  to  isolate  them  entirely 
from  the  public,  but  it  is  found  that  they  readily  become  tamed, 
those  which  have  been  properly  treated  having  no  fear  of  man, 
eating  from  the  hand  and  carrying  on  their  building  operations 
undisturbed  by  the  presence  of  the  public. 

With  regard  to  results  attained  by  the  park,  it  may  be  said 
that  the  popular  interest  in  the  collection  is  very  great.  On 
Sundays  and  holidays  the  walks  and  buildings  are  crowded 
with  visitors,  and  any  important  accessions  at  once  increase 
the  throng.  On  several  occasions  the  attendance  has  ex- 
ceeded ten  thousand  a  day,  and  once,  when  a  considerable 
number  of  new  animals  had  just  arrived,  it  nearly  reached 
thirty  thousand  by  actual  count.  Classes  of  children  from 
the  public  schools  are  constantly  seen  during  fine  weather, 


45 6  The  Smithsonian  InsHhttion 

in  the  school  season,  carefully  examining  the  animals  and 
noting  their  characteristics  under  the  guidance  of  their  teach- 
ers, who  in  this  way  are  enabled  to  give  them  definite  instruc- 
tion in  the  elements  of  natural  history.  Art  students  may 
often  be  seen  making  studies  from  life,  drawing,  painting,  and 
modelinor  the  animals.  To  the  taxidermist  such  studies  are 
invaluable  and  indispensable. 

It  is,  of  course,  impossible,  even  with  as  generous  an  area 
as  that  afforded  in  the  National  Zoological  Park,  to  reproduce 
perfectly  the  conditions  of  nature.  It  would  not  be  practica- 
ble to  give  to  moose  a  large  forest  in  which  to  browse,  or  to 
caribou  a  growth  of  the  arctic  lichens  and  mosses  upon  which 
they  thrive.  Neither  would  it  be  desirable  to  allow  the  ani- 
mals to  prey  upon  each  other  as  they  do  in  a  state  of  nature. 
It  is,  however,  perfectly  possible  to  keep  them  in  reasonable 
health  and  activity,  and  to  present  them  to  the  public  in  con- 
ditions that  are  far  more  instructive  than  those  which  prevail 
in  ordinary  institutions  of  the  same  sort. 

One  of  the  best  tests  of  the  salubrity  of  the  conditions 
under  which  the  animals  are  kept  is  the  readiness  with  which 
they  breed.  The  buffalo,  elk,  deer,  panther,  wild-cat,  and 
even  the  black  bear,  beaver,  and  porcupine,  have  all  brought 
forth  young.  In  the  case  of  the  bear  this  result  has  rarely 
been  attained  in  captivity.  There  is  no  reason  to  doubt  that 
any  of  our  native  animals  that  can  endure  this  climate  will 
increase  without  difficulty  if  appropriately  treated. 

The  collection,  though  far  from  what  it  might  be,  is  an  ex- 
cellent beginning.  As  the  enterprise  was  conceived  mainly 
in  the  interest  of  preserving  animals  likely  to  become  extinct, 
much  more  attention  has  been  given  to  native  than  to  exotic 
species.  Herds  of  buffalo,  of  llamas,  of  elk,  and  of  deer  have 
been  formed.  Two  teams  of  Esquimaux  dogs,  one  presented 
by   Mrs.    Peary,   and  one  loaned   by   Mr.    Bruce,  have  bred 


The  National  Zoological  Park  457 

freely,  and  the  animals  appear  to  endure  the  heat  of  our  sum- 
mers without  serious  inconvenience.  A  collection  of  domestic 
dogs,  intended  to  show  the  great  variation  of  that  species  by 
typical  examples  of  well  recognized  breeds,  has  been  com- 
menced. 

A  few  valuable  exotic  animals  have  been  presented  to  the 
park.  Besides  the  large  elephant  given  by  Mr.  J.  E.  Cooper, 
there  is  a  fine  lion  brought  from  the  Matabele  country  of  cen- 
tral Africa  by  Mr.  H.  C.  Moore;  a  female  leopard  from  the 
headwaters  of  the  Congo  by  Mr.  R.  Dorsey  Mohun,  and  a 
zebu  presented  by  Mr.  J.  H.  Starin. 

It  is  hoped  that  all  the  restrictions  that  impede  the  growth 
of  the  collection  will  in  time  be  removed.  Purchase  of  animals 
should  be  allowed,  both  because  it  is  the  only  practicable  way 
of  properly  keeping  up  the  collection,  and  because  it  is  desir- 
able that  certain  exotic  species  should  be  introduced  for  pur- 
poses of  comparison.  Unless  this  is  done  the  park  must 
necessarily  be  relegated  to  a  low  rank  as  compared  with  other 
zoological  collections. 

A  considerable  amount  of  material  for  study  is  derived  from 
the  animals  that  die  in  the  park.  If  suitable  for  museum 
specimens  their  skins  and  skeletons  are  preserved  by  the 
United  States  National  Museum.  It  is  hoped  soon  to  estab- 
lish a  suitable  laboratory  for  the  adequate  anatomical  and 
pathological  investigations  of  this  material,  as  is  done  in  con- 
nection with  all  European  collections  of  living  animals.  This 
promises  much  for  the  advancement  of  biological  sciences,  for 
the  anatomy  of  many  of  the  rarer  American  animals  is  im- 
perfectly known,  and  many  of  the  diseases  of  animals  in  con- 
finement are  obscure  and  but  little  understood. 

The  future  success  of  the  park  cannot  be  doubted.  Popu- 
lar interest  everywhere  is  being  awakened  upon  the  subject 
of  the  preservation  of  game  and  the  care  of  animals  in  cap- 

30 


45 8  The  Smithsonian  Instihttion 

tivity.  In  New  York  City  a  zoological  society  has  been 
formed  which  has  recently  had  set  aside  for  its  use  a  tract 
of  land  in  one  of  the  public  parks  two  hundred  and  sixty-one 
acres  in  extent.  Upon  this  it  is  intended  to  erect  buildings 
at  a  cost  of  two  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  dollars,  and  to 
maintain  a  large  collection  of  animals  both  native  and  foreign. 
It  would  seem  proper  that  the  National  Park  should  have  an 
establishment  at  least  equal  to  this.  A  feeling  of  national 
pride  should  lead  all  public-spirited  citizens  to  take  an  active 
interest  in  the  increase  and  suitable  maintenance  of  the  col- 
lection. At  present  it  is  not  as  widely  known  as  it  should 
be.  When  United  States  officials  in  all  parts  of  the  world 
become  interested  in  its  advancement,  it  is  believed  that  the 
scope  of  the  enterprise  will  be  vastly  increased. 


EXPLORATION    WORK   OF    THE 
SMITHSONIAN    INSTITUTION 

By  Frederick  William  True 


^\0  give  a  just  conception  of  the  work  of  the 
Institution  in  connection  with  explorations  in 
the  brief  space  which  can  be  afforded  in  this 
volume,  is  a  task  of  much  difficulty.  Its  in- 
TT^^^^  fluence  has  been  exerted  in  a  thousand  direc- 
tions, and  the  extent  and  manner  of  its  cooperation  have 
varied  greatly  in  different  instances.  Furthermore,  from  its 
policy  of  aiding  where  aid  seemed  most  needed,  it  has  very 
naturally  joined  in  enterprises  from  year  to  year  which  had 
no  essential  connection  with  one  another.  In  a  single  year 
it  assisted  in  explorations  in  Alaska,  in  Ecuador,  and  in 
Ohio.  The  character  of  the  explorations  in  which  the  In- 
stitution has  interested  itself  has  varied  no  less  than  the  field 
they  cover.  While  it  may  perhaps  be  said  that  more  aid  has 
been  rendered  to  zoological  exploration  than  any  other,  re- 
searches in  anthropology,  botany,  geology,  and  geography 
have  also  received  a  laree  share  of  attention. 

Though  frequently  showing  itself  willing  to  bear  the  bur- 
den of  expense,  the  funds  of  the  Institution  have  never  been 
sufficient  to  enable  it  to  defray  the  whole  cost  of  explorations 

459 


4^0  The  Sinifhsonian  Institution 

of  great  magnitude.  Fortunately,  so  far  as  North  America 
is  concerned,  the  government  of  the  United  States,  a  few 
years  after  the  founding  of  the  Institution,  inaugurated  a 
great  series  of  surveys  for  railroad  routes  across  the  conti- 
nent, and  for  the  delimitation  of  boundary  lines.  These 
have  been  followed  by  general  topographical  and  geological 
and  biological  surveys,  and  by  explorations  of  the  coasts  and 
of  the  rivers  and  lakes  in  the  interest  of  commerce  and  the 
fisheries.  An  extensive  knowledge  of  the  characteristics  and 
natural  resources  of  the  continent  has  thus  been  obtained 
very  largely  at  the  expense  of  the  general  government.  Yet 
in  all  these  undertakings  the  influence  of  the  Institution  has 
been  felt,  and  its  aid  has  been  of  importance.  Especially 
was  this  true  in  the  earlier  years  of  its  history,  when  the  par- 
ticipation of  the  government  in  scientific  research  was  less 
extensive  and  less  varied  than  at  present.  In  many  lines  the 
Institution  was  a  pioneer,  and  the  government  interested 
itself  only  after  the  importance  and  the  practical  bearings  of 
the  investigations  had  been  demonstrated. 

In  explorations,  perhaps,  more  than  in  any  other  form  of 
activities,  the  peculiar  workings  of  the  policy  of  the  Institu- 
tion can  be  seen  to  advantage.  Established  "for  the  increase 
and  diffusion  of  knowledge,"  its  rule  has  nevertheless  been 
that  of  "not  expending  the  Smithson  fund  in  doing  with  it 
what  could  be  equally  well  done  by  other  means";  but,  on 
the  other  hand,  it  has  endeavored  to  foster  those  worthy  en- 
terprises which  seemed  likely  to  fail  for  want  of  proper  sup- 
port. In  explorations,  as  in  other  lines  of  work,  it  has  not 
entered  into  competition  with  kindred  organizations,  but  has 
endeavored  to  make  their  work  broader  and  more  successful, 
without  the  expectation  of  advantage  to  itself  It  has  not 
sought  the  credit  which  attaches  to  the  management  of  great 
explorations,  but  has   found  satisfaction  in  aiding  other  or- 


Exploration  Work  of  the  Institution         461 

ganizations  to  bring  their  labors  in  the  cause  of  science  to 
fruition. 

In  the  plan  of  organization  of  the  Institution,  among  ex- 
amples of  objects  for  which  appropriations  may  be  made,  the 
following  are  cited : 

"Explorations  in  descriptive  natural  history,  and  geologi- 
cal, magnetical,  and  topographical  surveys,  to  collect  mate- 
rials for  the  formation  of  a  Physical  Atlas  of  the  United 
States. 

"  Ethnological  researches,  particularly  with  reference  to  the 
different  races  of  men  in  North  America ;  also  explorations 
and  accurate  surveys  of  the  mounds  and  other  remains  of  the 
ancient  people  of  our  country. 


"  1 


It  so  happened  that  the  first  scientific  memoir  submitted  to 
the  Institution  for  publication  was  one  on  American  archaeol- 
ogy—  the  now  famous  work  of  Squier  and  Davis  on  the 
**  Ancient  Monuments  of  the  Mississippi  Valley ;  comprising 
the  results  of  Extensive  Original  Surveys  and  Explorations." 
This  work  was  submitted  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Institution, 
May  15,  1847,  and  by  him  referred  to  the  American  Ethno- 
logical Society,  of  which  Albert  Gallatin  was  President.  The 
committee  which  examined  it  reported  it  "worthy  of  the  sub- 
ject and  highly  creditable  to  the  authors,"  and  its  publication 
by  the  Institution  was  therefore  undertaken.  The  Institution 
by  this  action  expressed  its  recognition  of  the  importance 
of  scientific  explorations,  and  has  shown  a  continued  interest 
in  work  of  this  character  by  publishing,  year  by  year,  in  the 
"Contributions"  or  the  "Report,"  the  results  of  other  field 
investigations  in  zoology,  botany,  geology,  and  ethnology. 

The  publication  of  Squier  and  Davis's  work  awakened  an 
interest  in  American  archeeological  investigation  which  has 

1 "  Smithsonian  Report,"  1846,  pages  6  and  7. 
30* 


4^2  The  SmitJisoiiian  Institution 

ever  since  been  kept  alive.  In  1849,  ^  ^^^  years  after  the 
appearance  of  the  first  volume,  the  Institution  evinced  its  con- 
tinued interest  in  this  subject  by  publishing  a  work  by  Squier 
on  the  antiquities  of  New  York,  based  on  explorations  made 
at  the  joint  expense  of  the  Institution  and  the  Historical 
Society  of  New  York. 

The  same  year  the  Institution  lent  its  aid  in  the  increase 
of  the  knowledge  of  the  physical  geography  of  the  United 
States  by  publishing  a  treatise  on  the  hydrography  of  the 
Ohio  River  "from  actual  surveys,"  written  by  Charles  Ellet, 
the  engineer  of  the  first  Niagara  suspension-bridge. 

In  the  direction  of  botanical  explorations,  the  first  aid  ren- 
dered by  the  Institution  took  the  form  of  a  small  appropri- 
ation for  the  expense  of  an  expedition  to  Texas,  in  1849,  by 
Charles  Wright,  under  the  direction  of  Asa  Gray.  The  re- 
sults of  this  expedition  were  published  in  the  "Contributions" 
in  1852  and  1853.^ 

Of  the  collections  made  at  that  time  Professor  Henry  re- 
marked : 

"  Specimens  of  all  the  plants  obtained  by  Mr.  Wright  be- 
long to  this  Institution;  and  these,  with  sets  collected  by 
Fendler  and  Lindheimer,  form  the  nucleus  of  an  important 
and  authentic  North  American  herbarium."^ 

The  sixth  volume  .of  the  "  Contributions,"  published  in 
1854,  contained  a  paper  by  Torrey  on  the  botany  of  Cali- 
fornia, based  on  the  explorations  of  Fremont. 

At  this  early  day  the  Institution  also  rendered  aid  to  ex- 
plorations of  especial  importance  to  paleontology.  In  the 
Report  for   1850,   Professor  Henry  remarked: 

"  The  programme  of  organization  contemplates  the  insti- 
tution of  researches  in  Natural   History,  Geology,  etc.;  and 

1  Gray,  Asa,  "  Plantse  Wrightianse  Texano-Neo-Mexicanre."     Part  I,  1852;  part  2,  1853. 

2  "Smithsonian  Report,"  1851,  page  11. 


Exploration  Work  of  the  Institution         463 

though  the  state  of  the  funds  would  permit  of  Httle  being- 
done  in  this  line,  yet  we  have  made  a  beginning.  Besides  the 
assistance  rendered  to  the  exploration  of  the  botany  of  New 
Mexico,  by  the  purchase  of  sets  of  plants  from  Mr.  Wright 
and  Mr.  Fendler,  as  mentioned  in  my  last  Report,  a  small  sum 
was  appropriated  to  defray  the  cost  of  transportation  of  the 
articles  which  might  be  collected  by  Mr.  Thaddeus  Culbert- 
son  in  the  region  of  the  Upper  Missouri.  This  gentleman, 
a  graduate  of  the  institutions  at  Princeton,  had  purposed  to 
visit  the  remote  regions  above  mentioned  for  the  benefit  of 
his  health,  and  was  provided  by  Professor  Baird  with  minute 
directions  as  to  the  preservation  of  specimens  and  the  objects 
which  should  particularly  engage  his  attention. 

"Mr.  Culbertson  first  visited  an  interesting  locality  called  the 
Mauvaises  Terres,  or  Bad  Lands,  where  his  brother  had  pre- 
viously found  the  remains  of  the  fossils  sent  to  the  Academy 
[of  Natural  Sciences,  Philadelphia]. 

"He  afterwards  ascended  the  Missouri  to  a  point  several 
hundred  miles  above  Fort  Union.  .  .  .  Though  he  had 
withstood  the  privations  and  exposures  of  the  wilderness,  he 
sank  under  an  attack  of  a  prevalent  disease,  and  died  after  a 
few  weeks'  illness. 

"  He  left  a  journal  of  all  the  important  events  of  his  tour, 
which  is  thought  of  sufficient  importance  to  be  appended  to 
this  report. 


"  1 


While  doinof  what  it  could  to  make  successful  the  memor- 
able  journey  of  Culbertson,  the  Institution  at  the  same  time 
lent  its  aid  to  geological  exploration  by  defraying  a  portion 
of  the  expense  of  researches  of  Professor  E.  Hitchcock,  of 
Amherst  College,  on  the  subject  of  erosion  by  rivers,  and  also 
relative  to  ancient  sea  beaches  and  terraces.  The  results  of 
this  work  were  published  later,  at  large  expense,  in  the  ninth 
volume  of  the  "Contributions." 

Thus  the  Institution  made  a  beginning  in  many  lines  of 
exploration. 

1 "  Smithsonian  Report,"  1850,  page  19. 


4^4  The  Smithsonian  Institntion 

In  connection  with  the  explorations  of  Culbertson,  already 
mentioned,  we  first  learn  of  the  association  of  Professor  Baird 
with  this  branch  of  the  work  of  the  Institution.  His  services 
had  been  recently  engaged  by  the  Institution,  and  he  was  des- 
tined to  play  a  most  important  part.  Himself  an  enthusiastic 
explorer  in  many  lines  of  natural  history,  and  withal  a  man 
of  most  engaging  conversation  and  industrious  habits,  he  was 
able  greatly  to  aid  the  cause  of  exploration  both  by  supply- 
ing thoroughly  practical  directions  for  observation  and  by  im- 
pressing on  those  in  authority  the  importance  of  investigations 
of  natural  phenomena. 

He  was  appointed  Assistant  Secretary  of  the  Institution  in 
1850,  and  only  three  years  had  passed  when  the  great  series 
of  Pacific  Railroad  surveys  and  the  Mexican  boundary  survey 
were  undertaken  by  the  government,  while  at  the  same  time 
very  numerous  minor  explorations,  both  under  government 
and  private  auspices,  were  instituted.  Of  the  two  years  1853 
and  1854  Professor  Baird  writes: 

"The  number  of  important  scientific  explorations  embraced 
in  this  period  mark  it  conspicuously  in  the  history  of  Ameri- 
can discovery.  Most  of  these  are  due  to  the  appropriation 
for  the  survey  of  the  China  seas  and  Behring's  Straits,  and 
that  for  a  survey  of  the  several  routes  for  a  railroad  to  the 
Pacific  (although  many  more  private  expeditions  were  set  on 
foot),  in  addition  to  the  regular  operations  of  the  United 
States  and  Mexican  Boundary  Survey,  whose  labors  during 
the  past  years  were  in  continuation  of  those  commenced 
before.  Many  reports  of  explorations,  commenced  or  com- 
pleted prior  to  1853,  have  been  published  during  this  period."^ 

He  gives  an  account  of  twenty-six  important  explorations 
undertaken  in  these  two  years,  including  the  six  Pacific  Rail- 

1"  Smithsonian  Report,"  1854,  page  79. 


Exploration  IVork  of  the  Iiistitiition         465 

road  surveys,  and  of  nineteen  reports  of  explorations  which 
were  pubHshed  during  the  same  period. 

Of  the  participation  of  the  Institution  in  these  great  activi- 
ties, he  writes : 

"  With  scarcely  an  exception,  every  expedition  of  any  mag- 
nitude has  received  more  or  less  aid  from  the  Smithsonian 
Institution.  This  has  consisted  in  the  supplying  of  instruc- 
tions for  making  observations  and  collections  in  meteorology 
and  natural  history,  and  of  information  as  to  particular  desid- 
erata ;  in  the  preparation,  in  part,  of  the  meteorological,  mag- 
netical,  and  natural  history  outfit,  including  the  selection  and 
purchase  of  the  necessary  apparatus  and  instruments ;  in  the 
nomination  and  training  of  persons  to  fill  important  positions 
in  the  scientific  corps ;  in  the  reception  of  the  collections 
made,  and  their  reference  to  individuals  competent  to  report 
upon  them ;  and  in  employing  skilful  and  trained  artists  to 
make  accurate  delineations  of  the  new  or  unfigured  species. 
Much  of  the  apparatus  supplied  to  the  different  parties  was 
invented  or  adapted  by  the  Institution  for  this  special  pur- 
pose, and  used  for  the  first  time,  with  results  surpassing  the 
most  sanguine  expectations."^ 

A  list  of  these  government  explorations,  from  the  Report 
of  1856,  may  be  of  interest  in  this  connection.  It  is  as 
follows : 

A. GEOLOGICAL    SURVEYS. 

1.  The  survey  of  Wisconsin,  Iowa,  Minnesota,  and  a  por- 
tion of  Nebraska,  by  Dr.  David  Dale  Owen. 

2.  The  survey  of  the  Lake  Superior  district,  by  Dr. 
Charles  T.  Jackson. 

3.  The  survey  of  the  same  region,  by  Messrs.  Foster  and 
Whitney. 

4.  The  survey  of  Oregon,  by  Dr.  John  Evans. 

1 "  Smithsonian  Report,"  1854,  page  79. 


4^6  The  Sniithsojiian  Institution 


B. BOUNDARY    SURVEYS. 

5.  The  survey  of  the  hne  between  the  United  States  and 
Mexico,  first  organized  under  Honorable  J.  B.  Weller,  as 
commissioner,  and  Major  W.  H.  Emory,  as  chief  of  the  scien- 
tific department,  then  under  John  R.  Bartlett,  commissioner, 
and  Colonel  J.  D.  Graham,  chief  of  the  scientific  corps,  suc- 
ceeded subsequently  by  Major  W.  H.  Emory,  then  under 
General  R.  B.  Campbell,  commissioner,  and  Major  W.  H. 
Emory,  chief  of  the  scientific  corps, 

6.  The  survey  of  the  boundary  line  of  the  Gadsden  pur- 
chase, under  Major  W.  H.  Emory,  commissioner. 

C. SURVEYS    OF    A    RAILROAD    ROUTE    TO    THE    PACIFIC. 

7.  Along  the  47th  parallel,  under  Governor  I.  I.  Stevens. 

8.  Along  the  38th  and  39th  parallel,  under  Captain  J.  W. 
Gunnison. 

9.  Along  the  41st  parallel,  under  Captain  E.  G.  Beckwith. 

10.  Along  the  35th  parallel,  under  Lieutenant  A.  W. 
Whipple. 

11.  In  California,  under  Lieutenant  S.  R.  Williamson. 

12.  Along  the  3 2d  parallel,  western  division,  under  Lieu- 
tenant J.  G.  Parke. 

13.  Along  the  3 2d  parallel,  eastern  division,  under  Captain 
J.  Pope. 

14.  In  a  portion  of  California,  under  Lieutenant  J.  G. 
Parke. 

15.  In  northern  California  and  Oregon,  under  Lieutenant 
R.  S.  Williamson. 


D. MISCELLANEOUS    EXPEDITIONS    UNDER    THE    WAR 

DEPARTMENT. 

16.  Expedition  along  the  3  2d  parallel,  eastern  division,  for 
experimenting  upon  artesian  borings,  under  Captain  Pope. 

17.  Exploration  of  Red  River,  under  Captain  R.  B.  Marcy. 


Exploration  JVork  of  the  Instihttion         467 

18.  Survey  of  Indian  reservation  in  Texas,  under  Captain 
R.  B.  Marcy. 

19.  Exploration  of  the  Upper  Missouri  and  Yellowstone, 
under  Lieutenant  G.  K.  Warren. 

20.  Construction  of  a  wagon-road  from  Fort  Leavenworth 
to  Bridger's  Pass,  under  Lieutenant  F.  T.  Bryan. 


E. NAVAL    EXPEDITIONS    UNDER    THE    NAVY    DEPARTMENT. 

21.  The  United  States  naval  astronomical  expedition  in 
Chile,  under  Lieutenant  J.  M.  Gilliss. 

22.  The  Japan  expedition,  under  Commodore  M.  C.  Perry. 

23.  Exploration  of  the  China  seas  and  Behring's  Straits, 
first  under  command  of  Captain  C.  Ringgold,  then  under 
Captain  J.  Rodgers. 

24.  Exploration  of  the  La  Plata  and  its  tributaries,  under 
Captain  T.  J.  Page. 

25.  Exploration  of  the  west  coast  of  Greenland  and 
Smith's  Sound,  under  Dr.   E.   K.   Kane.^ 

The  participation  of  the  Institution  in  explorations  con- 
ducted by  the  government  continued  actively  for  many  years, 
though  the  character  of  these  explorations  as  a  whole  has 
varied  in  the  course  of  time.  The  surveys  for  railroad 
routes  and  wagon-roads  across  the  public  lands  of  the  West 
form  the  first  important  series  of  explorations  in  which  the 
Institution  was  interested.  Next  after  these  interest  centered 
in  the  extensive  geological  surveys  of  the  same  region. 
After  these  came  the  explorations  of  the  sea-coast,  rivers,  and 
lakes  of  the  United  States  by  the  Fish  Commission,  and  in- 
vestigations of  the  North  American  Indians  by  the  Bureau 
of  Ethnology. 

In  the  case  of  the  geological  surveys,  although  the  work 
done  was  more  strictly  scientific  in   character  than  that  of 

1 "  Smithsonian  Report,"  1856,  page  6i. 


468  The  Smithsonian  Institiitioii 

many  of  the  earlier  surveys,  the  government  supplied  suffi- 
cient means  both  for  equipment  and  for  publication,  and  the 
Institution  was  seldom  appealed  to  for  aid.  Its  connection 
with  these  government  organizations  was  therefore,  on  the 
whole,  a  more  indirect  one  than  in  the  case  of  the  earlier 
surveys. 

It  became  the  custodian,  however,  of  large  collections, 
chiefly  zoological,  made  by  naturalists  and  surgeons  con- 
nected with  the  field  parties.  To  these  same  naturalists, 
when  they  returned  from  the  field,  the  Institution  opened  its 
great  stores  of  natural  history  material,  and  supplied  work- 
rooms ;  and  in  many  of  the  zoological  treatises  published  by 
the  geological  and  geographical  surveys,  by  way  of  illustra- 
tion, we  find  acknowledgment  of  the  assistance  rendered. 

Thus,  Doctor  J.  A.  Allen,  in  his  monographs  of  the  North 
American  hares  published  in  the  eleventh  volume  of  the 
quarto  reports  of  the  United  States  Geological  Survey  of 
the  Territories,  under  the  direction  of  Doctor  F.  V.  Hayden, 
remarks : 

"  The  author  has  thus  had  access  not  only  to  the  types  of 
the  species  described  by  Professor  S.  F.  Baird  in  his  great 
work  on  the  '  Mammals  of  North  America,'  published  in  1857, 
but  also  to  nearly  all  the  material  used  by  him  in  his  excel- 
lent elaboration  of  this  family  in  the  above-named  work, 
together  with  the  vast  amount  of  material  that  has  since  ac- 
cumulated at  the  Smithsonian  Institution.  This  includes  not 
only  the  collections  made  by  the  different  government  expe- 
ditions since  1857,  but  also  the  large  collections  made  since 
that  date,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution, 
in  Alaska,  the  British  Possessions,  Mexico,  and  Central 
America.  By  far  the  larger  portion  of  the  specimens  ex- 
amined from  localities  within  the  United  States  received  from 
any  one  source  have  been  the  collections  made  either  by 
Doctor    F.  V.   Hayden    personally   or   under  his   immediate 


Exploration  IVork  of  the  histitution         469 

direction,  and  especially  during  the  prosecution  of  the  geo- 
graphical and  geological  survey  of  the  Territories,  now 
[1876]  in  progress,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Department  of 
the  Interior."^ 


In  the  prefatory  note  by  Doctor  Hayden  in  Doctor  Elliott 
Coues's  work  on  "  Fur-bearing  Animals,"  which  was  pub- 
lished by  the  United  States  Geological  Survey  of  the  Terri- 
tories in  1877,  we  read  : 

"  The  Memoir  is  based  upon  specimens  secured  by  the 
Survey  under  my  direction,  together  with  all  the  material 
contained  in  the  National  Museum,  for  the  opportunity  of  ex- 
amining which  the  Survey  acknowledges,  in  this  as  in  other 
instances,  its  indebtedness  to  the  Smithsonian  Institution."^ 

The  interest  which  the  Institution  has  had  in  the  explora- 
tions of  the  United  States  Fish  Commission  has  been  of  a 
special  character,  due  to  the  fact  that  the  first  Commissioner, 
Professor  Baird,  was  an  Assistant  Secretary  of  the  Institu- 
tion, and  afterward  its  Secretary. 

He  served  without  compensation,  and  his  status  was,  there- 
fore, that  of  an  officer  of  the  Institution  engaged  in  impor- 
tant scientific  explorations  and  investigations  for  the  benefit 
of  the  government  and  the  people.  On  this  point  Professor 
Henry  remarked  in  1877: 

"  It  will  be  seen  from  the  report  of  Professor  Baird  that  a 
large  amount  of  his  time  has  been  expended  in  labor  for  the 
general  government,  in  relation  to  American  fisheries. 

"Almost  from  the  first  organization  of  the  Institution  until 
the  present  time  the  officers  of  the  Institution  have  rendered 

1  Volume  XI,  page  267,  Washington,  1877.       dae."     United  States  Geological  Survey  of 

2  Coues,  Elliott,  "Fur-bearing  Animals:       the  Territories,  Miscellaneous  Publications, 
A  Monograph  of  North  American  Musteli-       No.  8,  page  4,  Washington,  1S77. 


470  The  SniitJisoniaii  Institution 

service    to    the     general      government    without     additional 
salary."^ 

The  operations  of  the  Commission  were  reported  upon 
briefly  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Institution,  from  year  to  year, 
and  the  manifold  importance  of  the  explorations  was  fre- 
quently insisted  upon.  In  the  Report  just  quoted  from,  Pro- 
fessor Henry  remarked:  "The  labors  of  the  United  States 
Fish  Commission  can  scarcely  be  too  highly  estimated."^ 

The  history  of  the  Commission  cannot  be  more  than 
lightly  touched  upon  here. 

In  his  first  report  Professor  Baird  acknowledges  the  aid 
received  from  the  Institution  through  the  loan  of  nets, 
dredges,  and  other  apparatus,  whereby  the  Commission  was 
saved  "the  considerable  outlay  which  would  otherwise  have 
been  necessary."  An  equipment  was  soon  secured  which 
was  improved  year  by  year,  and  at  last  received  its  most 
important  addition  in  the  form  of  a  sea-going  steamer,  the 
Albatross,  which  enabled  the  Commission  to  carry  on  explo- 
rations of  the  highest  scientific  interest  in  the  deep  sea,  off 
the  coasts  of  the  United  States  —  a  considerable  portion  of 
the  results  of  which  have  been  or  are  being  published  under 
the  Institution. 

The  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology  is  the  most  recently 
organized  bureau  concerned  in  explorations  with  which  the 
Institution  has  had  intimate  relations ;  but  the  subjects  dealt 
with,  as  I  have  already  stated,  were  among  the  earliest  which 
it  lent  its  aid  in  elucidating. 

"  It  is  well  known,"  wrote  Secretary  Baird  in  his  report 
for  1879,  "that  the  natural  history  of  primitive  man,  espe- 
cially in  North  America,  has  always  been  a  special  object  of 
the  attention  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution.     The  first  vol- 

1 "  Smithsonian  Report,"  1877,  page  51.  "^Ibidem,  page  50. 


Exploratmi  IVork  of  the  Institution         471 

lime  of  its  series  of  publications  consisted  of  a  work  by 
Messrs,  Squier  and  Davis,  entitled  'The  Ancient  Monuments 
of  the  Mississippi  Valley,'  which,  appearing  in  1848,  gave  a 
stimulus  to  archaeological  research  in  America,  and  aided 
greatly  in  exciting  that  high  degree  of  interest  in  the  subject 
which  now  pervades  the  whole  country.  The  work,  although 
thirty  years  old  [in  1878],  is  still  a  standard  publication,  and 
greatly  sought  after."  ^ 

An  account  of  the  history  of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology  will 
be  found  in  another  part  of  this  volume,  and  it  will  suffice 
here  to  remark  that  it  originated  with  the  explorations  of  the 
Colorado  River  by  Major  J.  W.  Powell  in  1867,  1868,  and 
1869,  which  were  fostered  by  Professor  Henry,  and  were  ex- 
tended afterward  into  a  survey  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  region 
under  the  direction  of  the  Institution. 

The  ethnological  investigations  were  finally  separated  from 
those  relating  to  geography  and  geology,  and  in  1879  were 
placed  in  the  hands  of  a  special  bureau,  under  the  direction 
of  the  Institution. 

In  1875  Secretary  Henry,  taking  cognizance  of  the  work 
then  being  carried  on  by  Major  Powell,  placed  in  his  care,  in 
accordance  with  the  policy  pursued  in  all  similar  cases,  the 
linguistic  manuscripts  belonging  to  the  Institution.  The 
Secretary  remarked : 

"  For  a  number  of  years  the  Institution  has  been  collect- 
ing, as  a  part  of  its  work  in  the  line  of  ethnology,  Indian  vo- 
cabularies, and  of  these  the  number  amounts  to  670.  ...  It 
was  the  intention  of  the  Institution  to  publish  these  vocabu- 
laries as  a  part  of  the  volumes  of  the  Smithsonian  Contribu- 
tions to  Knowledge,  and  also  in  a  separate  form  for  more 
general  distribution  to  philologists  actually  engaged  in  the 
comparative  study  of  languages  of  savage  tribes.  An  offer, 
however,   was   made  by  Major  J.   W.   Powell,  who  had  also 

1 "  Smithsonian  Report,"  1879,  page  38. 


472  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

collected  a  series  of  Indian  vocabularies,  to  adopt  those  of 
the  Institution,  and  to  publish  the  whole  in  connection  with 
his  researches  under  government  in  regard  to  the  ethnology 
of  the  Indian  tribes  inhabiting  the  country  watered  by  the 
tributaries  of  the  Great  Colorado  of  the  West.  In  accordance 
with  the  general  policy  of  the  Institution  in  not  expending 
its  funds  on  anything  which  can  be  as  well  done  by  other 
means,  the  proposition  of  Major  Powell  was  accepted,  the 
only  conditions  exacted  on  which  the  transfer  was  made  be- 
ing that  full  credit  should  be  given  in  the  publication  to  the 
name  of  Smithson  for  collecting  and  arranging  the  articles, 
and  also  that  extra  copies  be  furnished  the  Institution  for 
liberal  distribution."  ^ 

For  eighteen  years  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology  has  carried 
on  important  investigations  of  the  distribution,  languages, 
customs,  and  beliefs  of  the  North  American  Indians,  and  has 
published  a  valuable  series  of  works  relating  thereto.  A  de- 
tailed account  of  the  labors  of  the  bureau  has  been  given  by 
Mr.  McGee  in  an  earlier  chapter  of  this  volume,  and  need 
not  be  recounted  here. 

The  cooperation  of  the  Institution  in  government  explo- 
rations cannot  be  dwelt  upon  more  at  length,  and  it  is 
necessary  to  return  to  the  consideration  of  the  explorations 
which  were  set  on  foot  through  its  influence  and  encourage- 
ment and  were  sustained  as  far  as  possible  by  grants  of 
money.  The  number  of  these  explorations  is  very  great, 
and  the  territory  they  cover  is  of  vast  extent.  In  importance 
also  they  have  varied  greatly,  and  some  —  a  majority  per- 
haps—  are  no  more  than  collecting  excursions.  Yet,  as  no 
earnest  collector  of  natural  objects  in  the  field  can  fail  to 
make  new  observations  of  more  or  less  value,  even  these  col- 
lecting expeditions  may  perhaps  fairly  be  regarded  in  the 
light  of  explorations.     The  policy  adopted  by  the  Secretaries 

1 "  Smithsonian  Report,"  1876,  page  35. 


Exploration  Work  of  the  Institution  473 

of  showing  by  prompt  and  full  correspondence  the  appreci- 
ation of  the  Institution  of  labors  in  the  cause  of  science,  how- 
ever small,  has  led  to  the  formation  of  an  army  of  zealous 
collaborators,  scattered  throughout  the  world,  who  are  always 
willing  to  advance  the  work  of  the  Institution  and  to  add  to 
the  collections  which  have  grown  up  in  the  National  Mu- 
seum under  its  charge.  Indeed,  it  seems  to  have  become  a 
fixed  belief  in  many  parts  of  the  United  States  that  all  scien- 
tific explorations  in  the  country  are  conducted  by  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution,  and  that  all  explorers  are  its  agents.  The 
fruits  of  these  hundreds  of  minor  explorations  are  to  be  found 
in  the  collections  of  the  National  Museum,  and  the  names  of 
thousands  of  contributors  are  inscribed  in  its  record-books, 
A  simple  list  of  these  correspondents  and  their  donations 
covers  a  score  or  more  of  pages  in  each  annual  Report,  and  it 
would  be  obviously  impossible  to  do  justice  to  such  a  roll  in 
the  space  here  available. 

It  is  desirable,  however,  to  make  mention  of  a  few  explo- 
rations which  show  the  generous  response  of  individuals  and 
oreanizations  to  the  endeavors  of  the  Institution  for  the  ad- 
vancement  of  science.  One  of  the  earliest  of  these  was  the 
exploration  of  the  prehistoric  mounds  of  Wisconsin  by  the 
American  Antiquarian  Society,  in  relation  to  which  Secretary 
Henry  made  the  following  interesting  statement  in  the  Re- 
port for   1 851 :  ^ 

"The  most  interesting  circumstance  connected  with  the 
study  of  the  ancient  remains  of  this  country  is  a  recent  action 
of  the  American  x'^ntiquarian  Society  of  Worcester,  Massa- 
chusetts, This  Institution  was  founded  in  181 2  by  the  zeal 
and  liberality  of  Isaiah  Thomas,  for  the  purpose  of  collecting 
and  preserving  such  manuscripts,  pamphlets,  and  other  articles 
as  relate  to  the  history  of  this  country,  and  for  the  explora- 

1  Page  18. 

31 


474  The  SinitJisonian  Institution 

tion  and  publication  of  its  antiquities.  It  was  at  the  expense 
of  this  society  that  the  original  researches  of  Mr.  Atwater,  on 
the  mounds  of  the  Ohio  Valley,  were  first  published ;  and 
during  the  last  two  years  the  condition  of  its  funds  has  again 
enabled  it  to  take  the  field,  and  to  direct  its  attention  to  the 
remarkable  antiquities  in  the  State  of  Wisconsin. 

"These  antiquities,  it  is  well  known,  consist  of  representa- 
tions, on  a  gigantic  scale,  of  birds,  beasts,  and  fishes;  and 
though  many  of  them  have  been  surveyed,  and  accounts  of 
them  given  in  the  memoir  of  Messrs.  Squier  and  Davis,  com- 
paratively few  of  those  which  are  said  to  exist  have  been  ex- 
plored or  delineated.  For  this  reason,  the  council  of  the 
society  have  engaged  Mr.  I.  A.  Lapham,  an  experienced  en- 
gineer, to  make  the  explorations  and  surveys  and  drawings 
of  these  mounds.  He  has  been  engaged  in  these  operations 
for  two  seasons,  and  is  now  employed  in  making  up  an 
account  of  his  labors. 

"To  insure  harmony  of  action  in  the  cultivation  of  the  wide 
field  of  research  offered  in  the  investigations  of  the  ancient 
monuments  of  this  country,  the  Antiquarian  Society  has 
agreed  to  present  to  the  Smithsonian  Institution  the  results 
of  the  explorations  of  Mr.  Lapham  for  publication,  and  to  re- 
serve its  limited  funds  for  further  explorations.  The  me- 
moirs will  be  examined  and  revised  by  the  society,  and  will 
be  published  under  its  auspices  in  the  Smithsonian  Con- 
tributions. 

"This  arrangement  is  another  pleasing  evidence  of  the 
feeling  with  which  the  efforts  of  this  Institution  are  regarded, 
and  the  willingness  with  which  other  Institutions  cooperate 
with  it  in  the  important  work  of  promoting  original  know- 
ledge." 

The  results  of  this  exploration  were  published  in  the 
seventh  volume  of  the   "  Contributions  to  Knowledge." 

The  exploration  of  California  by  E.  Samuels  in  1855  is 
another  interesting  example  of  friendly  cooperation,  not  only 
on  the  part  of  scientific  organizations,  but  of  private  business 


Exploration  JVork  of  the  Institution         475 

corporations  as  well.     Secretary   Henry's    statement  in   the 
Report  of  1856  is  as  follows: 

"  Brief  mention  was  made  in  my  last  report  of  the  fitting 
out  of  Mr.  Samuels  by  the  Boston  Society  of  Natural  History 
and  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  aided  by  the  liberality  of 
the  United  States  mail  line  to  California,  via  Panama.  Mr. 
Samuels  returned  in  July  last,  having  thoroughly  explored 
the  field  of  his  labors,  and  gathered  a  rich  collection  of  speci- 
mens, embracing  many  rare  and  new  species.  The  liberal 
promises  of  the  Pacific  Mail  Steamship  Company,  the  Panama 
Railroad  Company,  and  the  United  States  Mail  Steamship 
Company  have  been  more  than  realized  in  the  free  passage 
home  given  to  Mr.  Samuels  and  all  his  large  collections  — 
an  act  of  generosity  which  may  well  excite  the  attention  and 
recognition  of  the  lovers  of  science.  Nor  should  less  meed 
ot  praise  be  awarded  to  Messrs.  Wells,  Fargo  &  Co.  for  their 
free  transmission  to  San  Francisco  of  Mr.  Samuels'  boxes, 
thus  facilitating  their  semi-monthly  despatch  to  Washington. 

"  It  may,  perhaps,  not  be  out  of  place  here  to  state  that 
the  above-mentioned  mail  line  still  continues  its  kind  offices 
by  transporting,  free  of  charge,  all  packages  of  the  Smithso- 
nian Institution  containing  books  of  specimens  of  natural  his- 
tory. The  United  States  mail  line,  also,  has  furnished  free 
freight  of  a  similar  character  from  Cuba  and  New  Orleans  to 
New  York. 

"The  results  of  Mr.  Samuels'  explorations  will  shortly  be 
published  in  connected  form  in  the  journal  of  the  Boston 
Society  of  Natural  History,  illustrated  with  the  necessary 
plates  and  figures."^ 

The  notable  explorations  of  Robert  Kennicott  in  British 
America  and  Alaska  were  made  possible  by  the  cooperation 
of  several  private  individuals  and  scientific  organizations  and 
the  Hudson  Bay  Company.  This  intrepid  explorer,  whose 
early  death  was  a  severe  loss  to  American  natural   history, 

1"  Smithsonian  Report,"  1856,  page  52. 


47^  The  S^nithsoniaii  Institution 

spent   four   years    In   the   North   and  made   most   extensive 
travels. 

"  During  the  whole  exploration  he  was  the  guest  of  the 
Hudson's  Bay  Company,  the  officers  of  which  not  only  fur- 
nished him  with  free  transportation  for  the  materials  he 
collected,  but  also  extended  to  him  in  the  most  liberal  manner 
the  hospitalities  of  their  several  posts,  and  facilitated  in  every 
way  in  their  power  the  objects  of  his  perilous  enterprise. 

"The  principal  object  of  the  exploration  was  to  collect 
materials  for  investigating  the  Zoology  of  the  region  visited. 
Mr.  Kennicott,  however,  also  collected  specimens  of  plants 
and  minerals,  and  gave  considerable  attention  to  the  eth- 
nology of  the  country,  in  observing  the  peculiarities  of  the 
various  Indian  tribes,  and  forming  vocabularies  of  the  lan- 
guages. He  carried  with  him  a  number  of  thermometers,  and 
succeeded  in  enlisting  a  number  of  persons  as  meteorological 
observers,  as  well  as  in  exciting  an  interest  in  natural  history 
and  in  physical  phenomena  which  cannot  fail  to  be  produc- 
tive of  important  information  respecting  a  region  of  the  globe 
but  little  known."  ^ 

The  interest  aroused  by  these  investigations  has  never 
completely  died  out,  and  the  Institution  received  year  by 
year  for  a  long  period  the  fruits  of  explorations  carried  on 
by  officers  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Company  in  many  parts  of  the 
British  territory. 

Following  immediately  upon  Kennicott's  explorations,  an 
expedition  was  sent  out  under  private  auspices  to  Alaska  and 
Siberia  for  the  purpose  of  establishing  an  overland  tele- 
graphic route  between  America  and  Europe.  The  enterprise 
failed  as  a  financial  venture  on  account  of  the  success  of  the 
Atlantic  cable,  but  large  benefits  accrued  to  science  from  the 
labors  of  the  naturalists  who   accompanied  the  expedition." 

1 "  Smithsonian  Report,"  1862,  pag;e  40. 
2  For  an  extended  account  of  this  expedition,  see  Science,  1896,  Volume  ill,  pages  37  and  87. 


MELVILLE   AVESTO:X  FULLEE. 


SIXTH  CHANCELLOR  OF  THE   SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION, 

ELECTED  IN  1S8S. 


(( 


Is  iie 
er 
m  every 
prise. 
The  jct  of  the 

materials  for  investigating  the  gy  of  the  ree 

jMr.  Kennicott,  however,  also  collected  s 

s,  and  gave   consi;  !e   attentic 

:^v,  in  observing  the  pet 

ind  forminc^  vocabularies  ■ 

'^rmnmcff^r?;.  and 

•al 

n-y 

;C- 

l.">e 


i   out,   and   the   Institution    ro 

"       '  '         any  m  many  }- 


■nee  I 
the  exp^ 

iTITaKI    KAF/TOaPITIMa   SHT  ^Q)  JTOJJaO^/lAHO  HTZTR 

.8881  Ki  aaToaja 


Exploratio7t  Work  of  the  Iiistihitioji         477 

"The  telegraph  company  not  only  afforded  facilities  for 
making  the  collections,  but  also  contributed,  as  did  the 
Chicago  Academy  of  Sciences,  to  lessen  the  expense  to  the 
Smithsonian  fund  in  the  purchase  of  the  necessary  articles 
comprising  the  outfit  of  the  naturalists  of  the  expedition."^ 

After  the  disbanding  of  the  telegraph  expedition  one  of 
the  naturalists,  William  H.  Dall,  remained  in  Alaska  and 
made  explorations  particularly  in  the  region  of  the  Yukon 
River.  The  support  of  his  labors  is  a  notable  instance  of  the 
cooperation  which  has  existed  between  the  Smithsonian  In- 
stitution and  other  scientific  and  non-scientific  organizations. 
Mr.  Dall  defrayed  the  first  cost  of  his  expedition  from  private 
funds ;  the  transportation  of  his  collections  from  the  west 
coast  was  undertaken  by  the  Pacific  Mail  Steamship  Com- 
pany; and  the  expense  attending  their  elaboration  was  borne 
jointly  by  the  Boston  Society  of  Natural  History  and  the 
Smithsonian  Institution,  which  latter  furnished  the  necessary 
work-rooms. 

Mention  has  already  been  made  of  the  services  rendered 
to  science  by  the  medical  officers  attached  to  the  various  gov- 
ernment surveying  parties.  Hardly  less  important  have  been 
the  activities  of  the  army  surgeons  stationed  at  the  military 
posts  of  the  West.  In  the  years  when  the  Institution  was 
paying  special  attention  to  the  investigation  of  the  abo- 
rigines of  America,  the  pages  of  the  annual  reports  are 
thickly  dotted  with  the  names  of  medical  officers  who  ren- 
dered important  service  in  this  line  of  exploration.  The 
great  collections  of  the  National  Museum  tell  of  their  zeal, 
which  even  at  the  present  day  has  suffered  no  abatement, 
though  the  spread  of  population  and  the  cultivation  of  waste 
places  have  in  large  measure  lessened  opportunities. 

Other  branches  of  the  public  service  no  less  than  the  army 

1 "  Smithsonian  Report,"  1865,  page  61. 


47^  The  Sinithsonian  Institution 

have  cooperated  extensively  with  the  Institution  in  explor- 
ing the  national  domain,  and  there  is  hardly  a  department  or 
a  bureau  of  the  government  whose  operations  include  field 
work  which  has  not  at  some  time  joined  with  the  Institution 
in  investigations.  The  good  offices  of  the  State  Department, 
the  Navy  Department,  the  Weather  Bureau,  the  Life-saving 
Service,  the  Lighthouse  Board,  the  Land  Office,  the  Indian 
Bureau,  and  the  Bureau  of  Education,  come  at  once  to  mind 
in  this  connection.  In  1864,  Professor  Henry  wrote  in  his 
Report : 

"  In  addition  to  the  collections  which  have  been  received 
from  explorations  organized  under  the  direction  of  the  Insti- 
tution, large  numbers  of  duplicate  specimens  have  been  pre- 
sented by  the  meteorological  observers  and  other  Smithso- 
nian collaborators,  the  whole  forming  a  body  of  material  for 
the  illustration  and  study  of  the  products  of  the  American 
continent  unequalled  by  any  collection  previously  made. 
The  explorations,  however,  as  might  be  inferred,  have  not 
been  confined  to  the  collecting  of  specimens,  but  have  also 
furnished  information  relative  to  the  topography,  geology, 
physical  geography,  ethnology,  and  the  living  fauna  of  the 

regions  visited."^ 

Though  the  explorations  in  which  the  Institution  has  in- 
terested itself  have  centered  chiefly  in  North  America,  its 
influence  has  also  extended  to  other  parts  of  the  world.  As 
an  example  may  be  cited  the  survey  of  Yucatan.  This  was 
undertaken  by  Governor  Salazar  y  Ilarregui  in  1865,  who, 
upon  the  recommendation  of  the  Institution,  appointed 
Doctor  Arthur  Schott  to  take  charge  of  natural  history 
operations.^ 

The  same  year  an  exploration  of  British  Honduras  was 
undertaken  by  Doctor  H.  Berendt,  under  the  auspices  of  the 
Institution. 

1" Smithsonian  Report,"  1864,  page  50.  "^Ibidem,  1865,  page  62. 


Exploration  Work  of  the  Institution         479 

"The  outfit  of  physical  instruments  and  apparatus,  and 
suppHes,  for  collections  of  natural  history,  were  principally 
furnished  from  the  Smithsonian  fund,  while  the  personal  ex- 
penses were  borne  by  a  subscription  of  a  number  of  gentlemen 
interested  in  the  advance  of  science,  and  by  the  Academies 
of  Natural  Sciences  of  Philadelphia  and  Chicago."^ 

In  1867  an  exploration  of  the  northern  parts  of  South 
America  was  made  by  the  Lyceum  of  Natural  History  of 
Williams  College,  Massachusetts,  under  Professor  James  Or- 
ton,  and  the  Institution  furnished  instruments  and  a  consid- 
erable part  of  the  necessary  outfit,  and  took  charge  of  the 
transportation  of  the  collections  made.^ 

In  1882  an  expedition  to  the  Commander  Islands  in  the 
North  Pacific  was  arranged  for  by  the  Institution,  and  Doc- 
tor Leonhard  Stejneger  was  selected  for  the  work.  One 
of  the  special  tasks  committed  to  him  was  to  collect  bones  of 
the  extinct  Arctic  sea-cow.  His  transportation  was  secured 
through  the  Alaska  Commercial  Company,  a  corporation 
which  has  always  been  ready  to  aid  the  Institution  in  scien- 
tific enterprises.  Doctor  Stejneger  obtained  large  collections, 
including  skulls  and  bones  of  the  sea-cow,  which  were  the 
special  object  of  his  quest. 

In  1883  Pierre  L.  Jouy,  who  has  been  in  the  ser\nce  of  the 
Institution  for  a  number  of  years,  accompanied  Honorable 
Lucius  H.  Foote  to  Korea  upon  the  occasion  of  the  inaugu- 
ration of  official  intercourse  with  that  country,  and  later  con- 
nected himself  with  the  civil  service  of  the  Korean  govern- 
ment. He  made  valuable  observations  and  collections  while 
so  engaged.  Lieutenant  J.  B.  Bernadou,  U.  S.  N.,  also  ex- 
plored Korea  under  the  auspices  of  the  Institution. 

Important  explorations  in  the  East,  especially  in  Mongolia 
and  Tibet,  were  conducted,  pardy  under  the  auspices  of  the 
Smithsonian  Institution,  by  Honorable  William  W.  Rockhill, 

1 "  Smithsonian  Reporl,"  1S65,  page  62.  2  Ibidem,  1867,  page  49. 


4^0  The  Sjnithsonian  histitution 

in  1888-89  ^^<^  1891-92.  Mr.  Rockhill  was  especially  fitted 
for  such  work  in  view  of  his  connection  with  the  United 
States  Consular  Service  in  China  during  several  previous 
years.  At  the  time  of  revisiting  the  East  he  obtained  much 
interesting  information  concerning  the  manners  and  customs 
of  the  people,  and  made  extensive  collections.  An  account 
of  his  last  journey  was  published  by  the  Institution  under  the 
title  of  "  Diary  of  a  Journey  through  Mongolia  and  Tibet  in 
1 89 1  and  1892."  Another  illustrated  paper  by  Mr.  Rockhill, 
on  the  "Ethnology  of  Tibet,"  in  which  his  collections  are  de- 
scribed, was  published  in  1893/ 

In  1890  an  expedition  was  sent  to  the  west  coast  of  Africa 
to  observe  an  eclipse  of  the  sun,  and  the  Institution  was  af- 
forded an  opportunity  to  send  an  assistant  of  the  National 
Museum  to  make  natural  history  observations. 

These  are  but  a  few  examples  from  a  large  series  of  for- 
eign explorations  in  which  the  Institution  has  taken  a  more 
or  less  prominent  part.  The  appreciation  of  its  labors  in 
foreign  fields  has  been  manifested  in  various  ways,  and  per- 
haps in  no  more  conspicuous  manner  than  by  the  generous 
action  of  Doctor  William  L.  Abbott,  who  has  presented  the 
fruits  of  his  own  extended  explorations  in  Africa  and  Asia 
to  the  Institution. 

Thus  it  is  manifest  that  the  Smithsonian  Institution  has 
contributed  to  the  work  of  exploring  the  domain  of  nature 
not  only  directly  by  setting  on  foot  expeditions  supported 
from  its  own  funds,  and  indirectly  by  aiding  and  equipping 
numerous  government  and  private  expeditions,  but  more  re- 
motely as  well  by  influencing  independent  workers  to  explore 
in  many  lands,  and  to  add  new  treasures  to  the  national  col- 
lections. 

1 "  Report  of  the  United  States  National  Museum,"  1893,  page  665. 


THE    SMITHSONIAN    PUBLICATIONS 


By  Cyrus  Adler 


It  is  chiefly  by  the  publications  of  the  Institution  that  its  fame  is  to  be  spread 
through  the  world,  and  the  monument  most  befitting  the  name  of  Smithson  erected 
to  his  memory.  —Henry. 

^HAT  a  portion  of  the  income  arising  from  the 
Smithson  bequest  should  be  devoted  to  the 
pubHcation  of  scientific  memoirs  was  an  idea 
early  advanced  in  the  course  of  the  discussion 
relating  to  its  application.  In  the  year  1840, 
Peter  S.  Duponceau,  then  president  of  the  American  Philo- 
sophical Society,  described  the  benefit  which  that  society 
had  received  from  the  publication  of  a  bulletin  containing 
its  own  proceedings. 

One  of  the  favorite  plans  for  the  application  of  the  Smith- 
son  Fund  was  the  establishment  of  an  Astronomical  Observa- 
tory. The  bills  which  would  have  authorized  this  disposition 
of  the  fund  were  introduced  into  Congress  in  1839,  in  1841, 
and  again  in  1844.  All  of  these  bills  directed  that  the  sum 
of  $30,000  be  set  aside,  the  income  of  which  was  to  be  used 
for  the  printing  of  a  nautical  almanac,  to  be  known  as  the 
"Smithson  Almanac."     In  a  bill  introduced  into  the  House 

of  Representatives  February  28,    1846,  by  Mr.  Robert  Dale 

481 


482  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

Owen,  for  the  establishment  of  the  Institution,  the  following 
provision  for  publications  was  contained : 

Section  10.  ''And  be  it  further  enacted,  That  it  shall  be 
competent  for  the  board  of  managers  to  cause  to  be  printed 
and  published  periodically  or  occasionally  essays,  pamphlets, 
magazines,  or  other  brief  works  or  productions  for  the  dis- 
semination of  information  among  the  people,  especially  works 
in  popular  form  on  agriculture  and  its  latest  improvements, 
on  the  sciences  and  the  aid  they  bring  to  labor,  manuals  ex- 
planatory of  the  best  systems  of  common  school  instruction, 
and  generally  tracts  illustrative  of  objects  of  elementary  sci- 
ence and  the  rudiments  of  history,  chemistry,  astronomy,  or 
any  other  department  of  useful  knowledge ;  also,  they  may 
prepare  sets  of  illustrations,  specimens,  and  apparatus,  suited 
for  primary  schools." 

Another  proposition  was  submitted  by  Mr.  Giles  of  Mary- 
land, "providing  for  the  publication  and  distribution  of  books 
for  the  instruction  of  the  blind." 

The  act  establishinof  the  Smithsonian  Institution  did  not 
directly  specify  that  publications  should  be  issued.  The  last 
sentence  of  the  third  section  reads:  "And  the  said  Board  [of 
Regents]  shall  submit  to  Congress,  at  each  session  thereof, 
a  report  of  the  operations,  expenditures,  and  condition  of  the 
Institution."  Upon  the  basis  of  this  statement,  the  annual 
Reports,  the  series  of  the  Institution's  publications  issued  in 
the  largest  edition  and  most  widely  distributed,  rest. 

The  first  Report  of  the  Institution  presented  to  Congress 
was  printed  as  a  Congressional  document,  and  consisted  of 
thirty-seven  pages.  It  was  devoted  entirely  to  the  business 
of  the  Board  of  Regents.  This  plan  of  report  was  followed 
for  several  years;  but  the  importance  of  making  this  docu- 
ment something  more  than  a  mere  record  of  receipts  and 
expenditures  was  recognized  at  the  outset,  the  committee  on 


The  Smithsonian  Publicatioiis  483 

organization  recommending^  that  "as  an  additional  means  of 
diffusing  knowledge,  your  committee  suggest  the  publication 
of  a  series  of  reports,  to  be  published  annually,  or  oftener, 
containing  a  concise  record  of  progress  in  the  different 
branches  of  knowledge,  compiled  from  the  journals  of  all 
languages,  and  the  transactions  of  scientific  and  learned 
societies  throughout  the  world." 

Great  care  was  taken  that  these  Reports  should  be  properly 
distributed,  the  Board  of  Regents  resolving,  even  before  the 
actual  publication  of  the  first  Report,^  "That  of  this  Report, 
in  such  form  as  it  may  be  ultimately  adopted,  five  thousand 
copies  be  printed,  under  the  direction  of  the  Secretary ;  and 
that  he  be  required  to  transmit  a  copy  of  the  same  to  each  of 
the  principal  scientific  and  literary  societies  both  in  this  and 
in  other  countries;  and  also  to  such  individuals,  of  scientific 
or  literary  reputation,  as  he  may  judge  likely  to  find  interest 
in  the  proceedings  of  the  Institution." 

The  second  Report  was  a  very  much  larger  document, 
consisting  of  208  pages,  and  containing  the  program  of  organi- 
zation, correspondence,  reports  of  committees,  and  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  building.  When  this  Report  was  laid  before  the 
Senate,  Senator  Davis  of  Mississippi  moved  that  a  thousand 
additional  copies  be  printed  for  the  use  of  the  Senate.  In 
the  House,  objection  was  made  to  it  by  Mr.  Johnson  of 
Tennessee  as  a  "cumbrous  document."  In  1849,  when  the 
third  Report  was  laid  before  the  Senate,  objection  was  again 
made  to  printing  it,  this  time  by  Senator  Rhett  of  South 
Carolina.  The  proposition,  however,  was  defended  by  Sen- 
ator Davis  of  Mississippi.  Opinion  finally  favored  the  pub- 
lication of  the  Report,  and  the  edition  was  increased  to  3000 
copies.  Of  the  Report  of  1850,  5000  copies  were  printed; 
and  the   number  from   that  time   on  fluctuated,   rising  some 

1"  Smithsonian  Report,"  1846,  page  23.  ^Ibidem,  page  12. 


4^4  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

years  as  high  as  20,000  copies,  being  maintained  for  a  num- 
ber of  years  at  15,500  copies,  the  standard  edition  of  late 
years  being  10,000  copies. 

As  time  went  on,  and  the  Institution  had  estabhshed  itself 
in  the  regard  of  Congress  and  of  the  people,  objection  was 
rarely,  if  ever,  raised  against  the  printing  of  the  Smithsonian 
Report.  For  the  first  thirty  years,  the  volume  was  limited 
to  450  pages,  and  it  never  exceeded  that  size  and  often  fell 
somewhat  below  it.  All  illustrations  were  furnished  at  the 
expense  of  the  Institution ;  but  the  entire  cost  of  the  type- 
setting and  press-work  was  borne  by  the  government. 
From  the  first  Report  of  thirty-seven  pages,  published  in 
1846,  these  Reports  have  steadily  increased  in  size;  the  last 
published,  1894,  consists  of  two  parts,  the  first  a  Report  of 
the  Institution  containing  770  pages,  and  the  second,  that  of 
the  National  Museum,  consisting  of  1030  pages.  Thus  over 
1800  pages  annually  published,  in  an  edition  of  10,000  copies 
at  the  joint  expense  of  the  government  and  the  Institution, 
freely  distributed  to  libraries  and  scientific  men,  most  worthily 
carry  out  the  provision  of  the  will  of  Smithson  for  the  diffusion 
of  knowledge  among  men. 

During  the  civil  war,  owing  to  the  expense  of  paper,  the 
general  cost  of  labor,  and  the  vast  drain  on  the  government's 
resources,  the  edition  of  the  Reports  was,  for  a  few  years,  re- 
duced to  five  thousand  copies ;  but  as  stereotype  plates  had 
been  made,  it  was  provided  in  1870,  by  act  of  Congress,  that 
two  thousand  additional  copies  of  the  Reports  for  the  years 
1865,  1866,  1867,  and  1868  should  be  printed.  It  was 
through  the  efforts  of  President  James  A.  Garfield,  then  a 
representative  from  Ohio,  that  the  edition  of  1872  was  raised 
to  twenty  thousand  copies. 

After  the  financial  crisis  of  1873,  economy  in  expenditure 
being  felt  necessary,  a  general  resolution  to  limit  the  size  of 


The  Smithso7iian  Publications  485 

the  editions  of  publications  passed  the  Senate.  When  the 
usual  resolution  for  the  publication  of  the  Smithsonian  Re- 
port came  up,  it  occasioned  a  debate,  in  which  a  number  of 
distinguished  senators  participated.  The  proposition  not  to 
cut  down  the  Smithsonian  Report  was  championed  by  Sena- 
tor Hamlin  of  Maine  as  follows  : 

"  I  may  say  in  behalf  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  that 
I  think  this  [report]  is  entirely  distinct  from  the  documents 
which  we  publish  sent  to  us  from  the  departments,  or  which 
emanate  from  our  committees.  This  is  purely  a  scientific 
work.  ...  I  think  no  man  can  ever  examine  a  single  report 
of  that  institution  without  being  impressed  with  its  great 
value.  These  reports  .  .  .  are  of  immense  value  to  the 
world,  and  they  are  transmitted  all  over  the  world,  and  we 
receive  back  in  exchange  the  scientific  reports  of  the  different 
societies  and  different  governments." 

Professor  Henry  explained  the  theory  of  the  annual  Re- 
ports in  the  following  words  : 

"The  Report  of  the  Regents  to  Congress  for  1858,  besides 
an  exposition  of  the  conditions  and  operations  of  the  Institu- 
tion for  that  year,  was,  as  usual,  accompanied  by  an  appendix 
containing  the  report  of  lectures,  and  other  matter  which  has 
proved  highly  acceptable  to  a  large  number  of  intelligent 
persons  in  every  part  of  the  country.  These  Reports,  copies 
of  which  are  especially  solicited  by  teachers,  besides  furnish- 
ing valuable  knowledge  not  otherwise  readily  attainable, 
serve  to  diffuse  information  as  to  the  operations  of  the  Insti- 
tution which  tends  to  increase  the  number  of  its  friends  and 
cooperators,  and  to  elevate  popular  conceptions  in  reference 
to  science,  as  well  as  to  increase  the  number  of  its  cultivators. 

"The  number  of  copies  ordered  to  be  printed  at  the  last 
session  was  less  than  that  of  the  preceding  year,  yet  the  sup- 
ply to  the  Institution  was  the  same.     Indeed  it  is  a  gratifying 

"Smithsonian  Report,"  1859,  page  32. 


486  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

evidence  of  the  public  estimation  in  which  the  Institution  is 
held,  that  Congress  has  been  so  favorably  disposed,  even 
during  the  depressed  condition  of  the  treasury,  towards  the 
distribution  of  this  document." 

It  is  difficult  to  epitomize  the  contents  of  these  Reports. 
During  the  early  period  of  the  Institution  they  were  merely 
reports  to  Congress,  although  an  extensive  appendix  to  the 
Report  of  1850  was  printed.  Beginning  with  the  Report  for 
1854,  the  general  appendix,  so  called,  became  a  feature.  In 
speaking  of  this  appendix  in  1856,  Professor  Henry  said  that 
its  object  was  "to  illustrate  the  operations  of  the  Institution 
by  the  reports  of  lectures  and  extracts  from  correspondence, 
as  well  as  to  furnish  information  of  a  character  suited  espe- 
cially to  the  meteorological  observers  and  other  persons  in- 
terested in  the  promotion  of  knowledge."  Until  1865,  many 
important  lectures  by  distinguished  scientific  men  were  de- 
livered at  the  Institution,  and  their  publication  was  a  feature 
of  the  Reports.  It  was  also  the  custom  of  the  Secretary,  in 
these  Reports,  to  summarize  the  contents  of  the  scientific 
papers  published  in  the  other  series,  which  will  be  alluded  to 
presently.  There  were  added  to  the  lectures,  in  each  Report, 
translations  of  articles  relating  to  science  which  appeared  in 
foreign  journals,  descriptions  of  the  organization  of  impor- 
tant academies  abroad,  lists  of  prize  questions  announced  by 
various  learned  societies,  reports  of  meteorological  observers, 
biographical  sketches  of  distinguished  scientific  men  recently 
deceased,  and  a  report  of  the  progress  of  the  science  of 
physics  in  recent  years.  Gradually,  as  the  meteorological 
work  ceased  to  absorb  so  much  of  the  attention  of  the  Insti- 
tution, less  space  was  given  to  that  branch  of  knowledge,  and 
more  to  North  American  ethnology  and  archaeology,  con- 
cerning which  there  are  many  contributions  in  the  earlier 
volumes  of  the  Reports. 


The  Smithsonian  Pttblications  487 

As  early  as  1849,  Professor  Henry  designed  that  the  annual 
Reports  should  "give  an  account  of  the  progress  of  the  differ- 
ent branches  of  knowledge  in  every  part  of  the  world."  He 
called  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  first  reports  of  this 
sort  were  due  to  the  Emperor  Napoleon,  who  directed  the 
French  Academy  "  to  present  him  with  accounts  of  the  pro- 
gress of  the  different  branches  of  knowledge."  Reports  on 
special  departments  of  science,  which  had  already  been  pub- 
lished abroad,  were  translated  into  English  and  printed  under 
this  plan ;  and  reports  on  the  state  of  knowledge  in  a  few 
fields  were  especially  prepared  for  the  Institution. 

The  plan,  however,  of  having  annual  reports  especially 
prepared  for  the  Institution,  covering  nearly  all  the  branches 
of  science,  was  not  carried  out  until  Professor  Baird  became 
Secretary.  He  had  edited  for  the  firm  of  Harper  &  Brothers 
"The  Annual  Record  of  Science  and  Industry,"  from  1871  to 
1878;  and  in  the  Report  for  1880  there  was  begun  a  series 
entitled  "  Record  of  Scientific  Progress."  The  object  of  the 
general  appendix  was  there  stated  to  be  "To  furnish  sum- 
maries of  scientific  discovery  in  particular  directions ;  occa- 
sional reports  of  the  investigations  made  by  collaborators  of 
the  Institution ;  memoirs  of  a  general  character,  or  on  special 
topics,  whether  original  and  prepared  expressly  for  the  pur- 
pose, or  selected  from  foreign  journals  and  proceedings ;  and 
briefly  to  present  (as  fully  as  space  will  permit)  such  papers 
not  published  in  the  'Smithsonian  Contributions'  or  in  the 
*  Miscellaneous  Collections  '  as  may  be  supposed  to  be  of 
interest  or  value  to  the  numerous  correspondents  of  the 
Institution." 

Under  this  plan,  reports  of  the  progress  of  science  were 
given  in  astronomy,  geology,  physics,  chemistry,  mineralogy, 
botany,  zoology,  anthropology,  meteorology,  vulcanology, 
seismology,  North  American  invertebrate  paleontology,  and 


488  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

oriental  archaeology.  It  was  the  practice  of  Professor  Baird, 
for  many  years,  in  his  report  as  Assistant  Secretary,  to  give 
an  account  of  the  natural  history  explorations  of  the  United 
States.  Since  1889,  however,  most  of  these  reports  of  pro- 
gress have  been  omitted,  though  one  or  two  continue  to  be 
published,  anthropology  especially. 

Secretary  Langley  stated  in  the  advertisement  to  the  gen- 
eral appendix  of  the  Report  for  1889  that,  owing  to  "the  in- 
completeness of  the  special  record,  the  discouragement  from 
the  increasing  delays  encountered  in  the  printing  of  these 
summaries,  the  recent  multiplication  by  private  enterprise  of 
special  books  and  periodicals  devoted  to  critical  summaries," 
he  had  decided  to  temporarily  suspend  the  printing  of  the 
Reports,  and  would  revert  to  what  he  believed  the  more  ac- 
ceptable plan,  "  of  publishing  yearly  papers  selected  with  a 
principal  view  to  their  general  scientific  interest,"  rather  than 
to  continue  these  summaries,  which  were  "  chiefly  of  impor- 
tance to  the  professional  student."  This  policy  has  been 
continued  to  the  present  time. 

Stress  has  been  laid  upon  the  Reports  of  the  Institution, 
not  because  they  are  the  most  important  publications  issued, 
but  for  the  reason  that  they  are  the  only  volumes  the  publica- 
tion of  which  is  based  on  a  direct  statement  in  the  organic 
law  of  the  Institution,  and  because  their  lars^e  edition  has 
given  them  the  widest  circulation. 

The  most  important  volumes  issued  in  the  name  of  the  In- 
stitution, those  which  have  contained  the  greatest  additions 
to  the  sum  of  human  knowledge  and  are  most  prized  among 
scientific  men,  are  the  quarto  volumes  of  "  Smithsonian  Con- 
tributions to  Knowledge,"  thirty-two  volumes  of  which  have 
appeared.  This  series  was  foreshadowed  in  the  resolutions 
appended  to  the  report  made  January  25,  1847,  ^^  ^^^  ^^st 
committee  appointed  by  the  Board  of  Regents  for  the  prepar- 


The  Smithsonian  Ptiblications  489 

ation  of  a  plan  ;  it  being  proposed  that  the  Institution  procure 
"original  papers  containing  positive  additions  to  the  sum  of 
human  knowledge ;  and  that  these,  together  with  other  suit- 
able papers,  be  published  in  'Transactions  of  the  Institution,' 
to  be  entitled  'Smithsonian  Contributions  to  Knowledge,'  and 
to  be  issued  periodically  or  occasionally,  in  quarto  form,  as 
materials  may  be  obtained." 

These  "  Contributions  to  Knowledge "  combine  the  two 
features  of  the  Smithson  bequest :  they  both  increase  and  dif- 
fuse knowledge.  The  program  of  organization,  submitted 
by  Professor  Henry  in  1847,  "^^Y  still  be  said  to  guide  the 
issuing  of  these  volumes.  It  was  proposed  to  stimulate  re- 
search by  offering  rewards  for  original  memoirs  on  all  sub- 
jects of  investigation  : 

"  I.  The  memoirs  thus  obtained  to  be  published  in  a  series 
of  volumes,  in  a  quarto  form,  and  entitled  'Smithsonian  Con- 
tributions to  Knowledge.' 

"  2.  No  memoir  on  subjects  of  physical  science,  to  be  ac- 
cepted for  publication  which  does  not  furnish  a  positive  ad- 
dition to  human  knowledge,  resting  on  original  research ; 
and  all  unverified  speculations  to  be  rejected. 

"3.  Each  memoir  presented  to  the  Institution  to  be  sub- 
mitted for  examination  to  a  commission  of  persons  of  repu- 
tation for  learning  in  the  branch  to  which  the  memoir 
pertains,  and  to  be  accepted  for  publication  only  in  case 
the  report  of  this  commission  is  favorable. 

"4.  The  commission  to  be  chosen  by  the  officers  of  the  In- 
stitution, and  the  name  of  the  author,  as  far  as  practicable, 
concealed,  unless  a  favorable  decision  be  made. 

"  5.  The  volumes  of  the  memoirs  to  be  exchanged  for  the 
transactions  of  literary  and  scientific  societies,  and  copies  to 
be  given  to  all  the  colleges  and  principal  libraries  in  this 
country.  One  part  of  the  remaining  copies  may  be  oftered 
for  sale  and  the  other  carefully  preserved  to  form  complete 
sets  of  the  work  to  supply  the  demand  from  new  institutions. 

32 


490  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

"6.  An  abstract,  or  popular  account,  of  the  contents  of 
these  memoirs  to  be  given  to  the  public  through  the  annual 
Report  of  the  Regents  to  Congress." 

In  illustration  of  this  portion  of  the  program.  Professor 
Henry  wrote: 

"  The  publication  of  original  memoirs  and  periodical  re- 
ports, as  contemplated  by  the  program,  will  act  as  a  power- 
ful stimulus  on  the  latent  talent  of  our  country,  by  placing  in 
bold  relief  the  real  laborers  in  the  field  of  original  research, 
while  it  will  afford  the  best  materials  for  the  use  of  those 
engaged  in  the  diffusion  of  knowledge. 

"  The  advantages  which  will  accrue  from  the  plan  of  publish- 
ine  the  volumes  of  the  'Smithsonian  Contributions  to  Know- 
ledge,'  are  various.  In  the  first  place,  it  will  serve  to  render 
the  name  of  the  founder  favorably  known  wherever  literature 
and  science  are  cultivated,  and  to  keep  it  in  continual  remem- 
brance with  each  succeeding  volume,  as  long  as  knowledge  is 
valued.  A  single  new  truth,  first  given  to  the  world  through 
these  volumes,  will  forever  stamp  their  character  as  a  work 
of  reference.  The  contributions  will  thus  form  the  most  be- 
fitting monument  to  perpetuate  the  name  of  one  whose  life 
was  devoted  to  the  increase  of  knowledge,  and  whose  ruling 
passion,  strong  in  death,  prompted  the  noble  bequest  in- 
tended to  facilitate  the  labors  of  others  in  the  same  pursuit. 

"Again,  the  publication  of  a  series  of  volumes  of  original 
memoirs  will  afford  to  the  Institution  the  most  ready  means 
of  entering  into  friendly  relations  and  correspondence  with  all 
the  learned  societies  in  the  world,  and  of  enriching  its  library 
with  their  current  transactions  and  proceedings.  But  per- 
haps the  most  important  effect  of  the  plan  will  be  that  of 
giving  to  the  world  many  valuable  memoirs,  which,  on  account 
of  the  expense  of  the  illustrations,  could  not  be  otherwise 
published.  Every  one  who  adds  new  and  important  truths  to 
the  existing  stock  of  knowledge,  must  be  of  necessity,  to  a 
certain  decree,  in  advance  of  his  as^e.  Hence  the  number  of 
readers  and  purchasers  of  a  work  is  generally  in  the  inverse 


The  Smithsonian  Publications  491 

ratio  of  its  intrinsic  value ;  and  consequently  authors  of  the 
highest  rank  of  merit  are  frequently  deterred  from  giving 
their  productions  to  the  world  on  account  of  the  pecuniary 
loss  to  which  the  publication  would  subject  them. 

"  Besides  the  advantage  to  the  author  of  having  his  mem- 
oir published  in  the  'Smithsonian  Contributions'  free  of  ex- 
pense, his  labors  will  be  given  to  the  world  with  the  stamp 
of  approval  of  a  commission  of  learned  men ;  and  his  merits 
will  be  generally  made  known  through  the  Reports  of  the 
Institution. 

"  There  is  one  proposition  of  the  program  which  has 
given  rise  to  much  discussion,  and  which,  therefore,  requires 
particular  explanation :  I  allude  to  that  which  excludes  from 
the  contributions  all  papers  consisting  merely  of  unverified 
speculations  on  subjects  of  physical  science.  The  object  of 
this  proposition  is  to  obviate  the  endless  difficulties  which 
would  occur  in  rejecting  papers  of  an  unphilosophical  char- 
acter ;  and  though  it  may  in  some  cases  exclude  an  interest- 
ing communication,  yet  the  strict  observance  of  it  will  be 
found  of  so  much  practical  importance  that  it  cannot  be  dis- 
pensed with."  ^ 

Some  objection  was  made  to  the  publishing  of  original 
memoirs  by  the  Institution  on  the  ground  that  in  so  doing 
it  was  merely  performing  the  duties  of  a  learned  society,  to 
which  Professor  Henry  replied  "that  the  learned  societies 
in  this  country  have  not  the  means,  except  in  a  very  limited 
degree,  of  publishing  memoirs  which  require  expensive  illus- 
trations, much  less  of  assisting  to  defray  the  cost  of  the  in- 
vestigations by  which  the  results  have  been  obtained.  The 
real  workingmen  in  the  line  of  original  research  hail  this  part 
of  the  plan  as  a  new  era  in  the  history  of  American  science. 
The  assistance  which  the  Institution  will  thus  render  to  origi- 
nal research  will  occupy  the  place  of  the  governmental  patron- 
age of  other  countries,  and  will  enable  true  genius,  wherever 

1 "  Smithsonian  Report,"  1847,  page  179. 


492  The  Sfuithsonian  Institution 

found,  to  place  its  productions  before  the  world,  free  of  cost, 
and  in  a  manner  most  favorable  for  securing  due  attention  and 
proper  appreciation."^ 

At  the  time  of  the  publication  of  the  first  volume  of  the 
"  Contributions  to  Knowledge  "  the  question  of  the  propriety 
of  the  Institution's  securing  a  copyright  was  raised.  Profes- 
sor Henry  decided  this  question  in  the  negative: 

"  I  had  not  an  opportunity  of  conferring  with  the  Execu- 
tive Committee  on  this  point,  and  was  therefore  obliged  to 
settle  it  on  my  own  responsibility.  I  concluded  that  it  would 
be  in  accordance  with  the  spirit  of  the  Institution  to  decide 
against  the  copyright.  The  knowledge  which  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution  may  be  instrumental  in  presenting  to  the 
world  should  be  free  to  all  who  are  capable  of  using  it.  The 
republication  of  our  papers  ought  to  be  considered  as  an  evi- 
dence of  their  importance,  and  should  be  encouraged  rather 
than  prohibited. "  ^ 

This  policy  has  always  been  followed,  the  only  provision 
beingf  that  full  credit  should  be  griven  to  the  name  of  Smith- 
son  for  any  extract  which  is  made  from  these  publications. 
Professor  Henry  truly  said: 

"What  prouder  monument  could  any  man  desire  than  the 
perpetual  association  of  his  name  with  a  series  of  new  truths  ! 
This  building  and  all  its  contents  may  be  destroyed,  but  the 
volumes  of  the  Smithsonian  Contributions,  distributed  as 
they  are  among  a  thousand  libraries,  are  as  wide-spread  and 
lasting"  as  civilization  itself"  ^ 

Professor  C.  C.  Felton,  after  returning  from  Europe,  wrote 
the  following  letter,  which  shows  how  as  early  as  1854  the 
publications  were  appreciated  abroad : 

"  It  gave  me  pleasure  to  notice  the  high  estimation  in 
which  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  under  its  present  manage- 

1  "  Smithsonian  Report,"  1849,  page  26.      '^Ibidem,  page  24.      3  Jbidan,  185 1,  page  10. 


The  Smithsonian  Publications  493 

ment,  is  held  everywhere  in  Europe,  The  volumes  pub- 
lished under  its  auspices  have  done  the  highest  honor  to 
American  science  and  are  considered  most  valuable  contribu- 
tions to  the  stock  of  knowledge  among  men.  They  are 
shown  to  visitors  as  among  the  most  creditable  publications 
of  the  age,  and  as  highly  interesting  illustrations  of  the  prog- 
ress of  science  and  the  arts  in  the  United  States ;  and  the 
eagerness  to  possess  them  is  very  great  among  the  savants 
of  the  Old  World.  They  were  shown  to  me  wherever  I 
went,  and  the  commendations  bestowed  on  the  civilization  of 
America,  as  evinced  by  the  excellence  of  these  works,  both  in 
matter  and  form,  was  deeply  gratifying  to  me." 

In  the  course  of  the  debate  in  Congress  on  Senator  Choate's 
resignation  as  a  Regent,  Mr.  William  H.  English  of  Indiana 
said,  in  the  House  of  Representatives : 


"  Original  researches  have  been  stimulated,  and  many  valu- 
able memoirs  upon  scientific  subjects  published  and  distrib- 
uted to  all  the  principal  libraries  and  learned  societies  in  the 
world.  To  show  conclusively  what  has  already  been  done  in 
this  direction,  I  will  give  a  list  of  some  of  the  publications, 
premising  in  the  language  of  the  secretary  of  the  board,  that 
'the  institution  up  to  this  time  has  scarcely  published  a  single 
paper  the  production  of  which  has  not  been  stimulated  and 
assisted,  or  whose  character  has  not  been  improved,  by  the 
agency  of  the  institution,  and,  as  a  whole,  they  are  such  as 
could  not  have  been  given  to  the  world  without  the  aid  of  the 
Smithsonian  bequest.'  They  are  the  product  of  American 
genius,  and  have  reflected  the  highest  honor  on  American 
science. 

"These  works  are  distributed  gratuitously  to  most  of  the 
incorporated  colleges  and  libraries  in  the  United  States,  and 
to  the  leading  literary  institutions  of  other  countries.  They 
are  not  copyrighted,  and  are  sold  by  the  trade  at  a  low  rate. 

"  It  may  be  contended  that  researches  and  publications  of 
a  character  so  purely  scientific  are  not  calculated  directly  to 
diffuse  knowledge  among  the  great  mass  of  mankind. 


494  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

"This  is,  no  doubt,  to  a  certain  extent,  true,  and  I  shall  be 
glad  to  see  the  operations  of  the  institution  made  as  plain 
and  practical  as  the  nature  of  the  subjects  will  admit;  but  it 
should  not  be  forgotten  that  the  grand  object  of  the  institu- 
tion is  to  add  to  the  sum  total  of  the  knowledge  now  existing 
in  the  world,  and  to  diffuse  it  among  men,  rather  than  to 
scatter  that  more  widely  which  is  already  accessible  in  a 
greater  or  less  degree  to  all." 

While  the  distinguished  naturalist,  Professor  Louis  Agas- 
siz  wrote  : 

"  If  I  am  allowed  to  state,  in  conclusion,  my  personal  im- 
pression respecting  the  management  of  the  Institution  thus 
far,  I  would  only  express  my  concurrence  with  the  plan  of 
active  operations  adopted  by  the  Regents,  which  has  led  to 
the  publication  of  a  series  of  volumes  equal,  in  scientific  value, 
to  any  productions  of  the  same  kind  issued  by  learned  socie- 
ties anywhere.  The  distribution  of  the  *  Smithsonian  Con- 
tributions to  Knowledge '  has  already  carried  the  name  of 
the  Institution  to  all  parts  of  the  civilized  world,  and  con- 
veyed with  them  such  evidence  of  the  intellectual  activity  of 
America  as  challenges  everywhere  admiration;  a  result  which 
could  hardly  be  obtained  by  applying  a  large  part  of  the 
resources  of  the  Institution  to  other  purposes." 

Of  the  contents  of  the  "  Smithsonian  Contributions  to 
Knowledge,"  it  would  be  impossible  to  speak  here,  but  it  is 
not  too  much  to  say  that  from  the  valuable  contribution  to 
North  American  archaeology  by  Squier  and  Davis,  to  the  con- 
tribution on  Oceanic  Ichthyology,  by  Goode  and  Bean,  every 
paper  in  each  volume  of  this  series  has  carried  out  the  purpose 
of  the  organizers  of  the  Institution,  to  publish  only  such  con- 
tributions as  would  add  to  the  sum  of  human  knowledge. 
Many  of  these  publications  are  printed  in  so  expensive  a  man- 
ner, with  plates  and  illustrations,  that  it  is  safe  to  say  that 
their  appearance  would  have  been  greatly  delayed,  if  not 
altogether  prevented,  had  not  the  Smithsonian  bequest  been 


The  Smithsonian  PMblications  495 

made.  A  summary  of  the  contents  of  these  memoirs  is  made 
annually  by  the  Secretary  in  his  Report  to  Congress ;  and  an 
"appreciation"  of  their  importance  for  the  advancement  of 
knowledge  and  of  the  new  truths  they  contain  is  found  in  the 
various  chapters  of  the  second  part  of  this  work.  All  of  the 
volumes  of  this  series  have  been  issued  at  the  expense  of 
the  Smithson  bequest,  without  any  assistance  from  Congress, 
or  from  any  other  fund. 

The  same  statement  applies  to  the  third  Smithsonian  series, 
which  is  an  octavo  series,  known  as  the  "  Smithsonian  Mis- 
cellaneous Collections,"  now  consisting  of  thirty-five  com- 
plete volumes  with  three  others  in  course  of  publication, 
making  in  all  thirty-eight.  This  series,  which  "is  intended  to 
embrace  all  the  publications  issued  directly  in  octavo  form," 
was  "  designed  to  contain  reports  on  the  present  state  of  our 
knowledge  of  particular  branches  of  science  ;  instructions  for 
collecting  and  digesting  facts  and  materials  for  research  ; 
lists  and  synopses  of  species  of  the  organic  and  inorganic 
world  ;  museum  catalogues  ;  reports  of  explorations  ;  aids  to 
bibliographical  investigations,  etc.,  generally  prepared  at  the 
express  request  of  the  Institution  and  at  its  expense."  In  the 
"  Smithsonian  Miscellaneous  Collections,"  as  well  as  in  the 
"Smithsonian  Contributions  to  Knowledge,"  each  article  is 
separately  paged  and  indexed,  and  the  actual  date  of  its  pub- 
lication is  given  on  the  special  title-page. 

A  considerable  proportion  of  this  series  is  devoted  to  scien- 
tific bibliography.  When  separate  publications  for  the  Mu- 
seum were  first  established,  it  was  the  practice  to  reprint  the 
"Proceedingfs"  and  "Bulletin"  in  the  "Smithsonian  Miscellan- 
eous  Collections."  It  was  also  the  custom,  when  the  scientific 
societies  of  Washington  were  in  their  infancy,  for  the  Institution 
to  publish  the  proceedings  of  these  societies,  more  especially 
the  Philosophical,  Anthropological,  and  Biological,  the  estab- 
lishment of  all  of  which  societies,  it  may  be  said,  was  directly 


49^  The  Smithsonian  Instihttion 

due  to  the  initiative  and  encouragement  of  the  members  of 
the  staff  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution. 

A  very  interesting  suggestion  was  made  in  Congress  in 
1 85 1,  by  Mr.  Thompson,  of  Mississippi.  When  the  bill  con- 
taining the  appropriation  of  money  to  purchase  books  for  the 
Library  of  Congress  was  under  consideration,  he  proposed 
an  amendment  requiring  that  the  plates  and  engravings  of 
the  report  of  the  Wilkes  Exploring  Expedition,  which  had 
been  made  at  the  expense  of  the  United  States,  should  be 
delivered  to  the  Smithsonian  Institution  for  the  issuing  of  a 
new  edition.  All  students  of  science  will  deplore  the  fact 
that  this  important  amendment  was  lost. 

In  addition  to  these  three  series,  and  excepting  the  pub- 
lications of  the  bureaus  under  the  direction  of  the  Smithsonian 
Institution,  it  has  issued  certain  other  publications  which 
may  be,  for  want  of  any  particular  designation,  called  "Spe- 
cial Publications."  One  of  these  is  a  quarto  volume  of  almost 
twelve  hundred  pages,  entitled  "The  Results  of  Meteoro- 
logical Observations  made  under  the  Direction  of  the  United 
States  Patent  Office  and  the  Smithsonian  Institution,"  and 
published  by  the  government  in  1861  as  a  general  report 
of  the  Commissioner  of  Patents  and  the  Secretary  of  the 
Smithsonian  Institution.  The  memoirs  of  Professor  James 
P.  Espy  on  Meteorology,  one  of  which  was  embodied  in  a 
message  to  the  President  of  the  United  States,  the  others 
being  reports  made  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  were  all 
prepared  as  a  part  of  the  Smithsonian  meteorological  work, 
the  staff  being  the  observers  attached  to  the  Institution. 

The  first  publication  of  the  Institution  was  entitled  "  Hints 
on  Public  Architecture,"  being  really  a  careful  description  of 
the  proposed  building  of  the  Institution,  by  Robert  Dale 
Owen,  chairman  of  the  building  committee.  A  half  dozen 
detached  papers  which  have  never  been  included  in  any  of 


The  Sinithsonian  Publications  497 

the  regular  series  were  also  issued.  The  volume  containing 
the  report  on  the  exploration  of  the  Colorado  River  of  the 
West  and  its  tributaries,  by  Major  J.  \V.  Powell,  was  pre- 
pared under  the  direction  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  and 
printed  by  order  of  Congress  upon  being  submitted  to  that 
body  by  the  Secretary.  Recently  the  Institution  issued,  as 
a  separate  volume,  not  to  be  placed  in  any  of  its  series,  the 
"  Diary  of  a  Journey  through  IVIongolia  and  Tibet,"  by 
William  Woodville  Rockhill,  First  Assistant  Secretary  of 
State,  who  undertook  an  expedition  through  these  countries 
with  the  aid  of  the  Institution. 

The  Institution  has  also,  in  several  cases,  indirectly  aided 
the  publication  of  valuable  scientific  memoirs.  The  most 
notable  of  these  was  the  series  known  as  "The  Library  of 
American  Linguistics,"  now  extremely  rare  and  costly,  edited 
by  John  G.  Shea.  The  manuscript  of  some  of  this  series  had 
actually  been  in  the  possession  of  the  Institution  with  a  view 
to  publication.  Mr.  Shea,  however,  presented  a  memoir  to 
the  Secretary,  expressing  a  desire  to  publish  them  all  in  one 
series,  and  asking  for  the  aid  of  the  Institution.  They 
were  referred  to  a  commission,  of  whom  E.  B.  O'Callahan, 
the  well  known  bibliographer,  Jared  Sparks,  George  Gibbs, 
and  Peter  Force  were  members.  This  commission  recom- 
mended to  the  Smithsonian  Institution  that  "a  subscription 
which  will  insure  the  continuance  of  these  series  will  be  emi- 
nently within  the  scope  of  the  foundation,  by  preserving  a 
number  of  rapidly  perishing  monuments  of  human  knowledge, 
and  securing  to  posterity,  in  the  languages  of  the  native  tribes, 
the  surest  clue  to  their  ori<jin  and  affinities."  All  of  these 
volumes  were  printed  at  the  Cramoisy  Press,  in  New  York, 
"under  the  auspices  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution."  To  the 
"  Grammar  of  the  Mutsun  Language  "  the  following  "  adver- 
tisement "  was  prefixed : 


49^  The  Smithsortian  Instihttioii 

"  Material  for  this  work  was  forwarded  to  the  Smithsonian 
Institution,  with  a  number  of  other  Indian  vocabularies. 
.  .  .  The  intention  was  to  publish  it  with  other  manuscripts 
in  the  course  of  several  years, —  as  a  part  of  the  miscellane- 
ous collections  of  the  Institution,  but  it  was  afterwards 
concluded  that  more  service  could  be  done  in  the  way  of 
advancing  knowledge, — with  the  small  appropriation  which 
could  be  devoted  to  this  purpose,  by  transferring  the  work  to 
Mr.  John  G.  Shea  of  New  York,  to  be  published  as  a  part  of 
his  interesting  series  of  American  Linguistics.  It  is  accord- 
ingly presented  to  the  student  of  ethnology  by  Mr.  Shea, 
under  the  auspices  and  in  part  at  the  expense  of  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution." 

Since  1881,  the  National  Museum  has  made  separate  an- 
nual Reports.  From  1881  to  1883  they  were  embodied  in 
the  Smithsonian  Report.  Since  1884  they  have  formed  a 
second  volume  of  the  Smithsonian  Report,  and  consist  of  an 
account  of  the  administrative  work  of  the  year,  with  an  ap- 
pendix containing  papers  by  members  of  the  staff  concerning 
,  the  collections,  or  by  collaborators  of  the  Institution,  based 
upon  these  collections.  Some  of  these  publications  are  large 
and  valuable  documents,  containing  more  than  one  thousand 
pages  and  many  illustrations. 

Since  1878  the  Museum  has  issued  an  octavo  series  en- 
titled "Proceedings  of  the  United  States  National  Museum," 
the  nineteenth  volume  of  which  is  now  in  course  of  publication, 
their  character  being  indicated  by  the  following  statement: 

"  Many  of  the  objects  gathered  are  of  a  novel  and  import- 
ant character,  and  serve  to  throw  a  new  light  upon  the  study 
of  nature  and  of  man. 

"The  importance  to  science  of  prompt  publication  of  de- 
scriptions of  this  material  led  to  the  establishment  of  the 
present  series,  .  .  .  the  distinguishing  particularity  of  which 
is  that  the  articles  are  published  in  pamphlet  form  as  fast  as 


The  Smithsonian  Publications  499 

completed  and  in  advance  of  the  bound  volume.  .  .  .  The 
articles  in  this  series  consists:  First,  of  papers  prepared  by 
the  scientific  corps  of  the  National  Museum ;  secondly,  of 
papers  by  others,  founded  upon  the  collections  in  the  Na- 
tional Museum;  and,  finally,  of  facts  and  memoranda  from  the 
correspondence  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution." 

The  third  series  of  the  Museum,  also  published  in  octavo 
size,  is  known  as  the  "  Bulletin  of  the  National  Museum," 
forty-nine  numbers  of  which  have  now  been  issued.  The 
publication  of  the  "  Bulletin  "  was  begun  in  1875,  constituting 
the  "elaborate  papers  based  upon  the  collections  of  the 
Museum."  A  number  of  these  Bulletins  contain  scientific 
bibliographies  of  American  naturalists. 

The  Museum  has  also  issued  forty-six  circulars  of  instruc- 
tions, and  four  handsomely  illustrated  quarto  volumes,  two 
of  which  are  devoted  to  the  "Life  Histories  of  North  Ameri- 
can Birds,"  and  the  others  to  a  description  of  the  "Deep  Sea 
Fishes  of  the  North  Atlantic  Basin." 

The  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology,  which  is  also  under 
the  direction  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  has  issued  the 
following  series  :  first,  annual  reports,  making  now  thirteen 
royal  octavo  volumes,  devoted  to  North  American  ethnology; 
second,  twenty-four  bulletins,  in  octavo,  special  monographs, 
among  the  most  valuable  being  the  linguistic  bibliographies 
of  Pilling ;  third,  a  quarto  series  of  eight  volumes,  entitled 
"Contributions  to  North  American  Ethnology,"  being  the  re- 
sults of  the  geographical  and  geological  survey  of  the  Rocky 
Mountain  Region,  conducted  under  the  immediate  direction 
of  Major  Powell,  upon  the  initiative,  and  with  the  aid  of  the 
Smithsonian  Institution;  fourth,  a  series  of  four  "Introduc- 
tions," in  quarto  form,  issued  in  a  very  small  edition,  and  in- 
tended only  for  the  use  of  the  collaborators  of  the  Bureau  ; 
and,   finally,   four  miscellaneous  publications,   three  of  which 


500  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

were  similarly  issued  for  the  collaborators  of  the  Bureau,  the 
other  being  a  map  of  North  American  linguistic  stocks. 

In  1889  the  American  Historical  Association  was  in- 
corporated by  act  of  Congress,  with  the  proviso  that  the  as- 
sociation should  report  annually  to  the  Secretary  of  the 
Smithsonian  Institution  concerning  its  proceedings  and  the 
condition  of  historical  study  in  America.  Under  this  au- 
thority, seven  octavo  volumes  of  historical  papers  and  his- 
torical bibliography  have  been  issued. 

All  of  these  publications  are  distributed  freely.  The  Re- 
ports of  the  Institution  and  Museum  are  sent  to  all  the  prin- 
cipal libraries  in  America,  and  in  foreign  lands,  and  to  the 
collaborators  and  friends  of  the  Institution  and  of  the  Museum 
throughout  the  world.  The  same  is  true,  in  a  lesser  degree, 
owing  to  the  fact  that  the  edition  is  limited,  of  the  "  Proceed- 
ings" and  "Bulletin"  of  the  Museum,  which  are  sent  to  all 
important  American  colleges,  to  all  State  libraries,  to  all  State 
historical  societies,  and  to  a  specially  selected  list  of  scientific 
men.  The  publications  of  the  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology 
are  distributed  in  like  manner  through  the  Director  of  the 
Bureau.  Owing  to  the  expensive  nature  of  the  "Smithsonian 
Contributions  to  Knowledge"  and  the  "Smithsonian  Mis- 
cellaneous Collections,"  it  has  never  been  possible  to  pub- 
lish a  large  edition  of  these  series ;  so  that  their  distribution 
has  been  limited  to  1000  libraries,  about  650  in  the  United 
States,  and  the  remainder  in  foreign  lands ;  a  small  edition 
being  reserved  for  the  collaborators  of  the  Institution. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  publications  issued  by  the 
Smithsonian  Institution  and  under  its  direction,  from  its  own 
funds  and  with  the  assistance  of  the  government,  form  in 
themselves  a  library  which  records  the  progress  and  illus- 
trates the  advance  of  knowledge  in  every  field  of  human 
activity  during  the  last  fifty  years. 


BIOGRAPHICAL   SKETCH    OF 
GEORGE  BROWN   GOODE 

By  David  Starr  Jordan, 

President  of  Leland  Stanford  Junior  University. 

hHE  untimely  death  of  George  Brown  Goode 
has  left  a  great  break  in  the  ranks  of  the  sci- 
entific men  of  America.  One  of  the  most  ac- 
curate and  devoted  of  students,  the  ablest 
exponent  of  museum  methods,  a  man  of  the 
most  exalted  personal  character,  Doctor  Goode  occupied  a 
unique  position  in  the  development  of  American  science. 
George  Brown  Goode  was  born  in  New  Albany,  Indiana, 
on  February  13,  185 1,  and  died  of  pneumonia  at  his  home  on 
Lanier  Heights  in  Washington  City  on  September  6,  1896. 
According  to  Doctor  Marcus  Benjamin,  to  whom  I  am  in- 
debted for  many  of  the  details  of  this  sketch  : 

"  Doctor  Goode  was  of  Colonial  descent.  His  family  lived 
in  Virginia,  and  he  traced  with  pride  his  paternal  line  to 
John  Goode,  who  came  to  that  colony  prior  to  1660,  and  set- 
tled four  miles  from  the  present  site  of  Richmond,  on  an 
estate  which  he  named  'Whitby.'  John  Goode  was  one  of 
the  advisers  of  Bacon  in  1676,  in  the  first  armed  uprising  of 
the  Americans  against  the  oppression  of  royal  authority.     On 

SOI 


502  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

his  mother's  side  he  was  descended  from  Jasper  Crane,  who 
came  to  New  England  before  1630,  and  afterwards  settled 
near  the  present  site  of  Newark,  New  Jersey.  Doctor  Goode's 
father  was  Francis  Collier  Goode,  who  married,  in  1850,  Sarah 
Woodruff  Crane,  and  their  distinguished  son  was  born  at  the 
home  of  his  maternal  grandfather." 

In  1857  Doctor  Goode's  parents  moved  to  Amenia,  in 
New  York  State,  where  the  boy  passed  his  early  youth,  and 
where  he  was  prepared  for  college.  In  due  time  young 
Goode  was  matriculated  in  Wesleyan  University  in  Middle- 
town,  Connecticut,  where  he  graduated  in  1870,  at  the  too 
early  age  of  nineteen. 

The  fixed  curriculum  of  the  college  gave  him  little  oppor- 
tunity for  the  studies  in  which  he  was  chiefly  interested,  and 
his  standincT  in  the  conventional  branches  on  which  the  hio^her 
education  was  then  supposed  to  depend  was  not  unusually 
high.  He  was,  however,  regarded  as  "  a  man  exceptionally 
promising  for  work  "  in  natural  history. 

Doctor  Goode  spent  part  of  the  year  of  1870  in  graduate 
work  in  Harvard,  and  there  fell  under  the  stimulating  influ- 
ence of  the  greatest  of  teachers  of  science,  Louis  Agassiz. 
Before  the  year  was  over  he  was  recalled  to  Middletown 
to  take  charge  of  the  Museum  of  Natural  Science  then  just 
erected  by  Orange  Judd.  His  work  in  Judd  Hall  was  a 
prelude  to  his  reorganization  of  the  National  Museum  in 
Washington,  an  institution  which  will  always  show  in  its 
classification  and  arrano^ement  the  traces  of  his  master  hand. 

In  1872  he  first  met  Professor  Baird  in  Eastport,  Maine, 
and  in  1873,  while  at  the  meeting  of  the  American  Association 
for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  in  Portland,  Maine,  he  re- 
newed this  acquaintance.  Professor  Baird,  with  his  character- 
istic insight  into  the  ambitions  and  possibilities  of  promising 
young  men, — one  of  his  notable  qualities, — invited   Doctor 


V 


GEORGE    BROW^^    GOODE. 

ASSISTANT  SECRETARY  OF  THE  S^EITHSOXIAX 

IXSTTTI^TION, 

1887-1896. 


^^<  /  n  i  I  t  L  ^?i/  /  ,■ 


he  was  d  fasnpr  Crane,  who 

-n.^   '  '  ,rds  settled 

-ah 


T  „ 


jariy  ye 
colie'.  a   due   t  iio- 

Jated  in  Wesleyan  University  in  M 

^'-  ^Vi^c      ....    ^,     .le  graduated  in   1870,  at  ...^   -.^ 

""  :en. 

lum  of  the       "    :]^e  gave  him  iittie  c 

which  he  was  chieflv  interested,  ana 
•'anches 


870  in 
nd  lL  •  the  stimulating 

<"  '--^  teach'?'  --^   '^f  science,  Louis  Agassiz. 
er  he  was  recalled   to  Middletown 
:  ot  a  of  Natural  Science 

jdd    Hall  wa;- 
nization   of  the 


and,  Maine,  he  re- 
ne  ;  ,  with  his  character- 

istic '  :  ssibilities  of  promisinQ- 

•    '    <L!4'diiics, — invited   Doctor 

VIAmOHHTlMH  aHT  ^50  YHAT:f[JT03R  TKATRT^iHA 

,W)IT'rTTTR'5^1 
.8681-1881 


Biographical  Sketch  of  George  Brown  Goode  503 

Goode  to  aid  in  the  work  of  the  newly  organized  Fish  Com- 
mission. At  that  time  Professor  Baird  was  Assistant  Secre- 
tary of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  in  charge  of  the  National 
Museum,  and  also  United  States  Fish  Commissioner.  The  or- 
ganizations were  managed  in  similar  fashion  and  all  their  activ- 
ities directed  to  the  same  high  ends.  Very  soon  Doctor  Goode 
was  brought  into  the  service  of  them  both.  In  the  summer 
he  was  employed  by  the  Fish  Commission  in  investigations 
and  explorations  along  the  Atlantic  Coast.  In  the  winter  he 
divided  his  time  between  Wesleyan  University  and  the  Na- 
tional Museum,  until  the  former  institution  was  reluctantly 
compelled  in  1877  wholly  to  give  him  up.  Till  that  date  his 
only  compensation  for  work  done  in  Washington  was  found 
in  duplicate  specimens  of  fishes  and  other  animals,  which  in 
turn  were  presented  by  him  to  the  museum  in  Middlctown. 

In  1887  he  became  Assistant  Secretary  of  the  Smithsonian 
Institution  in  charge  of  the  National  Museum.  On  the  death 
of  Professor  Baird  he  became  for  a  time  United  States  Fish 
Commissioner,  holding  the  office  without  pay  until  a  change 
in  the  law  permitted  the  appointment  of  a  separate  salaried 
head.  In  his  later  years  Mr.  Goode  devoted  his  whole 
energies  to  museum  administration,  a  kind  of  work  for  which 
no  one  in  the  world  has  ever  shown  greater  aptitude.  Two 
important  publications,^  "Museums  of  the  Future"  and 
"  Principles  of  Museum  Administration,"  admirably  embody 
his  views  and  experiences  in  this  regard.      His  appreciation 


1 "  The  Museums  of  the  Future."  Report 
of  the  United  States  National  Museum,  1889, 
page  427.  This  paper  was  originally  de- 
livered as  a  lecture  before  the  Brooklyn  In- 
stitute, on  February  28,  18S9.  "  The  Prin- 
ciples of  Museum  Administration."  Annual 
Report  of  the  Museums  Association,  1895, 
reprinted  as  an  octavo  pamphlet  of  73  pages. 

In  addition  to  the  foregoing,  Doctor  Goode 
published  the  following  papers  on  Museum 


Administration  :  "  Museum  History  and  Mu- 
seums of  History,"  "  Papers  of  the  American 
Historical  Association,"  Volume  II,  1889, 
page  251  (495);  "Genesis  of  the  National 
Museum."  Report  of  the  United  States 
National  Museum,  1S91,  page  273.  In  this 
connection  it  is  also  proper  to  mention  his 
"  Annual  Reports  "  as  director  of  the  United 
States  National  Museum,  beginning  with  the 
year  18S1. 


504  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

of  the  importance  of  such  work  is  characteristically  shown  in 
his  dedication  of  an  interesting  genus  of  deep-sea  fishes  to 
"  Ulysses  Aldrovandi,  of  Bologna,  the  founder  of  the  first 
natural  history  museum." 

His  interest  in  museum  administration  caused  a  large 
amount  of  "exposition  work"  to  be  entrusted  to  his  hands. 
An  exposition  is  a  temporary  museum  with  a  distinctly  edu- 
cational purpose.  It  can  be  made  a  mere  public  fair  on  a 
large  scale,  or  it  can  be  made  a  source  of  public  education. 
In  Doctor  Goode's  hands  an  exhibition  of  material  was 
always  made  to  teach  some  lesson.  He  had  charge,  under 
Professor  Baird,  of  the  Smithsonian  exhibits  in  the  Centennial 
Exhibition  of  1876,  in  Philadelphia.  He  served  as  United 
States  Commissioner  in  the  Fisheries  Exhibition  held  in  Ber- 
lin in  1880,  and  in  London  in  1883.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  Board  of  Management  of  the  government  exhibit  in  the 
World's  Columbian  Exposition  of  1893,  and  also  prepared 
the  general  plan  of  classification  adopted  for  the  Exposition.^ 
He  was  equally  active  in  minor  expositions  held  in  New 
Orleans,  Cincinnati,  Louisville,  Atlanta,  and  elsewhere.  He 
was  also  concerned  in  the  Columbian  Historical  Exposition 
held  in  Madrid  1892-93,  and  for  part  of  the  time  acted  as 
Commissioner-General  for  the  United  States.^  His  services 
in  that  connection  were  recognized  by  the  conferment  of  the 
order  of  Isabella  the  Catholic,  with  the  rank  of  Commander. 
From  the  Fisheries  Exposition  in  London  he  received  a 
medal  in  honor  of  his  services  to  the  science  of  ichthyology. 

Doctor  Goode  was  always  deeply  interested  in  the  histori- 
cal and  biographical  side  of  science,  and  in  the  personality, 

1 "  First  Draft  of  a  System  of  Classificalion  2  «'  The  Report  of  the  United  Stales  Com- 

for  the  World's  Columbian  Exposition,"  sub-  mission  to  the  Columbian  Historical  Exposi- 

mitted  to  the  President  of  the  World's  Co-  tion  at  Madrid,  1892-93,  with  Special  Papers," 

lumbian  Commission.     Report  of  the  United  Washington,     1895,    was    prepared     under 

States  National  Museum,  1891,  page  649.  Doctor  Goode's  direction. 


Biographical  Sketch  of  George  Brown  Goode  505 

the  hopes,  and  the  sorrows  of  those  who  preceded  him  in  the 
study  of  fishes  and  other  animals.  This  showed  itself  in 
sympathetic  sketches  of  those  who  had  to  do  with  the  begin- 
nings of  American  science  as  well  as  with  the  dedication  of 
new  genera  to  those  who  had  done  honor  to  themselves  by 
honest  work  in  times  when  good  work  was  not  easy,  and  was 
not  valued  by  the  world.  Among  those  thus  recognized  by 
him  was  Thomas  Harriott,  of  Roanoke  (an  associate  of 
Raleigh),  who  published  the  first  work  in  English  on  Amer- 
ican natural  history. 

His  interest  in  the  biographical  side  of  science  led  him  to 
the  scientific  side  of  biography.  From  boyhood  he  was  in- 
terested in  genealogy.  His  own  family  records  were  pub- 
lished by  him  under  the  title  of  "  Virginia  Cousins."  ^  This  has 
been  regarded  as  a  model  genealogical  monograph.  Doctor 
Goode  believed  that  the  way  to  do  any  piece  of  work  is  to  do 
it  thoroughly.     Nothing  crude  or  incoherent  ever  left  his  pen. 

Doctor  Goode  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  American 
Historical  Association,  and  a  member  of  its  executive  council 
from  1889  till  his  death.  He  contributed  to  its  proceedings 
in  1889  his  valuable  paper  on  the  "Origin  of  the  National 
Scientific  and  Educational  Institutions  of  the  United  States." 
He  was  also  a  member  of  the  "  Southern  Historical  Society," 
organized  in  1896.  Much  of  his  leisure  during  his  last  two 
summers  was  given  to  the  preparation  of  the  material  that 
is  used  in  the  present  volume,  which  was  his  project,  and 
which  when  published  will  be  a  monument  to  his  knowledge 
of  science  in  this  country  during  the  first  half-century  of  the 
existence  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution. 

1  "Virginia  Cousins.     A  study  of  the  an-  or  Good,  from  1148  to  1887.     By  G.  Brown 

cestry  and  posterity  of  John  Goode,  of  Whit-  Goode,  with  a  preface  by  R.  A.  Brock,  secre- 

by,a  Virginia  colonist  of  the  Seventeenth  Cen-  tary  of  the  Virginia  and  Southern  Historical 

tury,  with  notes  upon  related  families.     A  Societies."    Richmond,  Virginia:  J.  W.  Ran- 

key  to  Southern  Genealogy,  and  a  history  of  dolph  &  English,  MDCCCLX.XXVII.     [Quarto, 

the  English   surname  Gode,  Goud,  Goode,  xxxvi  +  526  pages,  54  plates.] 

33 


5o6  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

Doctor  Goode  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Society  of 
the  Sons  of  the  American  Revokition  in  the  District  of  Co- 
lumbia, and  a-fter  filHng  various  offices  was,  in  1894,  made 
President.  He  was  also  Vice-President  of  the  Society  of 
the  Sons  of  the  Revolution,  and  Lieutenant-Governor  of 
the  Society  of  Colonial  Wars  in  the  District  of  Columbia. 

He  was  very  prominent  in  the  organization  and  conduct 
of  scientific  societies,  which  he  regarded  as  valuable  agencies 
in  the  spread  of  scientific  knowledge.  He  had  been  Presi- 
dent both  of  the  Philosophical  Society  and  the  Biological 
Society  of  Washington.  He  was  elected  to  the  American  As- 
sociation for  the  Advancement  of  Science  in  1873,  ^"*^  to  the 
National  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1888.  He  was  also  a 
member  of  the  Zoological  Society  of  London.  His  work  in 
science  was  recognized  in  1886  by  the  degree  of  Ph.D.  from 
the  University  of  Indiana,  his  native  State.  It  was  the  for- 
tune of  the  present  writer  to  accept  as  a  thesis  from  him  the 
"Catalogue  of  the  Fishes  of  the  Bermudas,"  and  to  move  the 
granting  of  this  degree.  His  relation  to  general  culture  and 
executive  work  was  recognized  by  Wesleyan  University  by 
the  degree  of  LL.  D.  conferred  in  1888. 

The  writer  first  met  Doctor  Goode  in  1874,  while  he  was 
engaged  in  work  for  the  United  States  Fish  Commission  in 
Noank,  Connecticut.  He  was  then  a  young  man  of  schol- 
arly appearance,  winning  manners,  and  a  very  enthusiastic 
student  of  fishes.  In  body  he  was  of  medium  height,  rather 
slender,  and  very  active.  His  countenance  was  intellectual, 
and  he  seemed  always  to  have  a  very  definite  idea  of  what 
he  wished  to  do. 

Our  first  meeting  was  in  connection  with  an  effort  on  his 
part  to  find  the  difference  between  the  two  genera  of  fishes 
called  Ceratacanthus  and  Alutera.  At  this  time  I  was 
greatly  impressed  with   the    accuracy   and    neatness    of  his 


Biographical  Sketch  of  George  Brown  Goode  507 

work,  and  especially  with  his  love  of  what  may  be  called  the 
literary  side  of  science, —  a  side  too  often  neglected  by  scien- 
tific men.  He  detested  an  inaccuracy,  a  misspelled  name,  or 
a  slovenly  record,  as  he  would  have  despised  any  other  vice. 
Indeed,  in  all  his  work  and  relations  moral  purity  and  scien- 
tific accuracy  were  one  and  the  same  thing.  He  had  inher- 
ited or  acquired  "the  Puritan  conscience,"  and  applied  it  not 
only  to  lapses  of  personal  integrity,  but  to  weaknesses  and 
slovenliness  of  all  sorts.  Hence  he  became  in  Washing-ton 
not  only  a  power  in  scientific  matters,  but  a  source  of  moral 
strength  to  the  community.  His  influence  is  felt  in  the  Mu- 
seum not  only  in  the  wisdom  of  its  organization,  but  in  the 
personal  character  of  its  body  of  curators.  The  irresponsible 
life  of  Bohemia  is  not  favorable  to  good  work  in  science,  and 
the  men  he  chose  as  associates  belong  to  another  order. 

As  to  Doctor  Goode's  moral  influence  and  youthful  char- 
acteristics, the  following  extracts  from  a  private  letter  of 
Professor  Otis  T.  Mason,  Curator  of  Ethnology  in  the 
United  States  National  Museum,  will  be  found  valuable: 

"Two  characteristics  of  the  man  fixed  themselves  upon  my 
mind  indelibly:  I  found  him  to  be  intensely  conscientious,  and 
I  could  see  that  he  was  a  young  man  who  not  only  wished  to 
live  a  correct  life  himself,  but  abhorred  the  association  ot 
evil  men. 

"Another  characteristic  which  forced  itself  upon  me  was 
his  devotion  to  the  museum  side  of  scientific  investigation. 
He  wrote  a  beautiful  hand,  and  on  one  occasion  he  told  me 
that  it  was  just  as  much  the  duty  of  a  scientific  investigator 
to  write  a  good  hand  and  spell  his  names  correctly,  so  that 
there  would  be  no  mistake  in  the  label,  as  it  was  for  him  to 
make  his  investigations  accurately.  You  will  find,  if  you  will 
look  over  some  of  the  specimens  which  he  marked  at  that 
time,  beautiful  numerals,  clear  and  distinct,  so  that  there  is 
no  mistaking  one  from  the  other. 


5o8 


The  Smithsonian  Institution 


"Again,  I  discovered  the  pedagogic  feeling  to  be  very 
strong  in  him,  and  the  interests  of  the  public  no  less  than  of 
the  investigator  were  constantly  before  his  mind.  Indeed, 
there  was  nothing  about  Doctor  Goode  in  his  admirable 
management  of  the  Museum  in  later  years  that  did  not  make 
its  appearance  to  some  extent  when  he  had  the  work  to  do 
with  his  own  hands.  The  germ  of  our  present  discipline 
manifested  itself  in  the  discipline  which  he  exerted  over  his 
own  conduct  when  he  was  junior  assistant  instead  of  director. 

"About  the  time  that  Doctor  Goode  came  to  the  Museum, 
I  undertook  to  arrange  the  ethnological  collections.  I  can 
remember  the  delight  which  it  gave  him  to  consider  a  classi- 
fication in  which  the  activities  of  mankind  were  divided  into 
genera  and  species  subject  to  the  laws  of  natural  history,  of 
evolution,  and  geographic  surroundings.  The  development 
of  the  Department  of  Arts  and  Industries  has  been  the  result 
of  these  early  studies." 


Doctor  Goode  had  a  wonderful  power  of  analyzing  the  re- 
lations or  contents  of  any  group  of  activities,  or  of  any  objects 
of  study.  This  showed  itself  notably  in  his  two  catalogues  ^ 
of  collections  illustrating  the  animal  resources  of  the  United 
States.  These  catalogues  were  written  with  reference  to  the 
arrangement  of  material  for  the  exhibits  of  the  Smithsonian 
Institution  and  the  United  States  Fish  Commission  at  the 
Centennial  Exhibition  at  Philadelphia.  "  It  was,"  says  Doc- 
tor Gill,  in  his  admirable  biographical  sketch,^  "the  ability 
that  was  manifested  in  these  catalogues  and  the  work  inci- 
dental to  their  preparation  that  especially  arrested  the  atten- 


1  "Classification  of  the  Collection  to  Illus- 
trate the  Animal  Resources  of  the  United 
States.  A  list  of  substances  derived  from 
the  animal  kingdom,  with  synopsis  of  the 
useful  and  injurious  animals  and  a  classifica- 
tion of  the  methods  of  capture  and  util- 
ization." Washington,  1876.  "  Bulletin 
Number  6,  United  States  National  Museum." 

"  Catalogue  of  the  Collection  to  Illustrate 


the  Animal  Resources  and  the  Fisheries  of 
the  United  States,  exhibited  at  Philadelphia 
in  1876  by  the  Smithsonian  Institution  and 
the  United  St.ites  Fish  Commission,  and  form- 
ing a  part  of  the  United  States  National 
Museum."  Washington,  1879.  "Bulletin 
No.  14,  United  States  National  Museum." 

'•i  Science,  New  Series,  Volume  iv,  1896, 
page  665. 


Biographical  Sketch  of  George  Brown  Goode  509 

tion  of  Professor  Baird  and  marked  the  author  as  one  well 
adapted  for  the  direction  of  a  great  museum.  For  signal 
success  in  such  direction  special  qualifications  are  requisite. 
Only  some  of  them  are  a  mind  well  trained  in  analytical  as 
well  as  synthetic  methods,  an  artistic  sense,  critical  ability, 
and  multifarious  knowledge,  but  above  all  the  knowledge  of 
men  and  how  to  deal  with  them.  Perhaps  no  one  has  ever 
combined,  in  more  harmonious  proportions,  such  qualifica- 
tions than  G.  Brown  Goode.  In  him  the  National  Museum 
of  the  United  States,  and  the  world  at  large  have  lost  one 
of  the  greatest  of  museum  administrators." 

The  most  striking  character  of  Doctor  Goode's  scientific 
papers  was  perhaps  their  scholarly  accuracy  and  good  taste. 
He  never  wrote  a  paper  carelessly.  He  was  never  engaged 
in  any  controversy,  and  he  rarely  made  a  statement  which 
had  later  to  be  withdrawn.  Yet  no  one  was  more  ready  to 
acknowledge  an  error,  if  one  were  made,  and  none  showed 
greater  willingness  to  recognize  the  good  work  of  others. 
The  literature  even  of  the  most  out-of-the-way  branch  of 
zoological  research  had  a  great  fascination  for  him,  and  he 
found  in  bibliography  and  in  the  records  of  the  past  workers 
in  science  a  charm  scarcely  inferior  to  that  of  original  obser- 
vation and  research.  In  his  later  years  administrative  duties 
occupied  more  and  more  of  his  time,  restricting  the  opportu- 
nities for  his  own  studies.  He  seemed,  however,  to  have  as 
great  delight  in  the  encouragement  he  could  give  to  the  work 
of  others. 

The  great  work  of  his  life — "  Oceanic  Ichthyology  " — was, 
however,  written  during  the  period  of  his  directorship  of  the 
National  Museum,  and  was  published  but  a  month  before 
his  death.  Almost  simultaneous  with  this  were  other  im- 
portant publications  of  the  National  Museum,  wliich  were  his 
also  in  a  sense,  for  they  would  never  have  been  undertaken 

0 


5IO  The  Sinifhsonian  Instifufion 

except  for  his  urgent  wish  and  encouragement.  If  a  per- 
sonal word  may  be  pardoned,  "The  Fishes  of  North  and 
Middle  America,"  which  closely  followed  "  Oceanic  Ichthy- 
ology," would  never  have  been  written  except  for  my  friend's 
repeated  insistence  and  generous  help. 

In  the  earlier  days  of  the  scientific  activities  of  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution,  there  was  scarcely  a  young  naturalist  of 
serious  purposes  in  the  land  who  had  not  in  some  way  re- 
ceived help  and  encouragement  from  Professor  Baird.  With 
equally  unselfish  effectiveness  and  lack  of  ostentation,  Doctor 
Goode  was  also  in  different  ways  a  source  of  aid  and  inspir- 
ation to  all  of  his  scientific  contemporaries.  The  influence  of 
the  National  Museum  for  good  in  the  United  States  has  been 
great  in  a  degree  far  out  of  proportion  to  the  sums  of  money 
it  has  had  to  expend.  It  has  not  been  a  Washington  institu- 
tion, but  its  influence  has  been  national. 

The  first  recorded  scientific  paper  of  Doctor  Goode  is  a 
note  ^  on  the  occurrence  of  the  bill-fish  in  fresh  water  in  the 
Connecticut  River.  The  next  is  a  critical  discussion  of  the 
answers  to  the  question  "Do  snakes  swallow  their  young?" 
In  this  paper  he  shows  that  there  is  good  reason  to  believe 
that  in  certain  viviparous  snakes,  the  young  seek  refuge  in 
the  stomach  of  the  mother  when  frightened,  and  that  they 
come  out  when  the  reason  for  their  retreat  has  passed. 

The  first  of  the  many  technical  and  descriptive  papers  on 
fishes  was  the  "  Catalogue  of  the  Fishes  of  the  Bermudas,"^ 
published  in  1876.  This  is  a  model  record  of  field  observa- 
tions and  is  one  of  the  best  of  local  catalogues.  Doctor 
Goode  retained  his  interest  in  this  outpost  of  the  great  West 
Indian  fauna,  and  from  time  to  time  recorded  the  various 
additions  made  to  his  first  Bermudan  catalogue. 

1  The  American  Nahtralist,  Volume  v,  page  487. 
2 "Bulletin  Number  5,  United  States  National  Museum." 


BiograpJiical  Sketch  of  George  Brown  Goode  5 1  ^ 

After  this  followed  a  large  number  of  papers  on  fishes, 
chiefly  descriptions  of  species  or  monographs  of  groups.  The 
descriptive  papers  were  nearly  all  written  in  association  with 
his  excellent  friend,  Doctor  Tarleton  H.  Bean,  then  Curator 
of  Fishes  in  the  National  Museum. 

In  monographic  work  Doctor  Goode  took  the  deepest  in- 
terest, and  he  delighted  especially  in  the  collection  of  historic 
data  concerning  groups  of  species.  The  quaint  or  poetical 
features  of  such  work  were  never  overlooked  by  him.  No- 
table among  these  monographs  are  those  of  the  Menhaden, 
the  Trunk-fishes,  and  the  Sword-fishes. 

The  economic  side  of  science  also  interested  him  more  and 
more.  That  scientific  knowledge  could  add  to  human  wealth 
or  comfort  was  no  reproach  in  his  eyes.  In  his  notable 
monograph  of  the  Menhaden,^  the  economic  value  as  food  or 
manure  of  this  plebeian  fish  received  the  careful  attention 
which  he  had  given  to  the  problems  of  pure  science. 

Doctor  Goode's  power  in  organizing  and  coordinating  prac- 
tical investigations  was  shown  in  his  monumental  work"  on 
the  American  fisheries  for  the  tenth  Census  in  1880.  The 
preparation  of  the  record  of  the  fisheries  and  associated 
aquatic  industries  was  placed  in  his  hands  by  Francis  A. 
Walker,  Superintendent  of  the  Census.  Under  Doctor 
Goode's  direction  skilled  investigators  were  sent  to  every 
part  of  the  coast  and  inland  waters  of  the  country.  A  gen- 
eral survey  of  the  aquatic  resources,  actual  and  possible,  of 
the  United  States  was  attempted,  and  statistics  of  every  kind 
were  secured  on  a  grand  scale.  His  directions  to  field 
agents,  still  unpublished,  were  models  in  their  way,  and  no 

1  "  The  Natural  and  Economical  History  2  "  The  Fisheries  and  Fishery  Industry  of 

of  the  American  Menhaden."     Contained  in  the  United  States."     Prepared  through  the 

Appendix  A  of  Part  5  of  "  Report  of  United  cooperation  of  the  Commissioner  of  Fisheries 

States  Commission  of  Fish  and  Fisheries,"  and  the  Superintendent  of  the  Tenth  Census, 

for  1877,  Washington,  1879.  Washington,  1884. 


512  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

possible  source  of  information  was  neglected  by  him.  The 
results  of  all  these  special  reports  were  received  and  con- 
densed by  Doctor  Goode  into  seven  large  quarto  volumes, 
with  a  great  number  of  plates.  The  first  section  of  the 
"Natural  History  of  Aquatic  Animals"  was  a  contribution 
of  the  greatest  value.  Although  the  information  it  gives 
was  obtained  from  many  sources,  through  various  hands,  it 
was  so  coordinated  and  unified  that  it  forms  a  harmonious 
treatise,  while  at  the  same  time  the  individual  helpers  are 
fully  recognized. 

All  these  works,  according  to  Doctor  Goode,  belong  to 
Lamb's  category  of  "books  which  are  not  books."  His  ex- 
pressed ambition  to  write  a  book  not  of  this  kind,  one  that 
people  would  buy  and  read,  found  actuality  at  last.  In  1888 
appeared  his  "American  Fishes,"  a  popular  treatise  on  the 
game  and  food  fishes  of  North  America,^  a  work  without  a 
rival  because  of  its  readableness,  its  scientific  accuracy,  and 
the  excellence  of  its  text.  The  work  is  notable  for  its  quota- 
tions, which  include  almost  all  the  bright  things  which  have 
been  said  about  fishes  by  poets  and  anglers  and  philosophers 
from  the  time  of  Aristotle  to  that  of  Izaak  Walton  and 
Thoreau.  In  this  book  more  than  in  any  other  Doctor 
Goode  shows  himself  a  literary  artist.  The  love  of  fine 
expression  which  might  have  made  a  poet  of  him  was  devel- 
oped rather  in  the  collection  of  the  bright  words  and  charm- 
ing verse  of  others  than  in  the  production  of  poetry  of  his 
own.  While  limiting  himself  in  this  volume  to  fragments  of 
prose  and  verse  in  praise  of  fishes  and  their  haunts,  it  is  evi- 
dent that  these  treasures  were  brought  forth  from  a  mind 
well  stored  with  riches  of  many  fields  of  literature. 


1"  American  Fishes."  A  popular  treatise  and  methods  of  capture.  With  numerous 
upon  the  Game  and  Food  Fishes  of  North  illustrations  including  a  colored  frontispiece. 
America,  with  especial  reference   to  habits       New  York,  1888. 


Biographical  Sketch  of  George  Brown  Goode  5 1 3 

The  most  important  of  Doctor  Goode's  scientific  studies 
have  relation  to  the  fishes  of  the  deep  sea.  In  all  this  work 
he  was  associated  with  Doctor  Bean,  and  the  studies  of  many 
years  were  brought  together  in  the  splendid  summary  of  all 
that  is  known  of  the  fishes  of  the  ocean  depths  and  the  open 
sea.  This  forms  two  large  quarto  volumes, —  text  and  atlas, 
—  published  shortly  before  Doctor  Goode's  death  under  the 
name  of  "Oceanic  Ichthyology."^  The  exploration  of  the 
deep  sea  has  been  mostly  undertaken  within  the  last  twenty 
years.  The  monumental  work  of  the  Challenger,  under  the 
direction  of  the  British  government,  has  laid  the  founda- 
tion of  our  knowledge  of  its  fauna.  The  Travailleur  and 
the  Talisman,  under  French  auspices,  and  the  Investi- 
gator, under  direction  of  the  government  of  India,  have 
added  greatly  to  our  stock  of  information.  The  great  work 
of  Goode  and  Bean  includes  the  results  of  these  and  of 
various  minor  expeditions,  while  through  the  collections  of 
the  Albatross,  the  Blake  and  the  Fish  Hawk  they  have 
made  great  additions  to  the  knowledge  of  the  subject.  In- 
deed, the  work  of  the  Albatross  in  deep-sea  exploration 
is  second  in  importance  only  to  that  of  the  Challenger. 
In  the  work  of  the  exact  discrimination  of  genera  and  species, 
this  work  shows  a  distinct  advance  over  all  other  treatises 
on  the  abyssal  fishes.  The  fact  of  the  existence  of  definite 
though  large  faunal  areas  in  the  deep  seas  was  first  recog- 
nized by  Doctor  Goode,  and  has  been  carefully  worked  out 
in  a  memoir  still  unpublished.  In  "Oceanic  Ichthyology" 
and  the  minor  papers  preceding  it,  Goode  and  Bean  have 
made  known  numerous  new  forms  of  deep-sea  fishes,  naming 
in  the  last-mentioned  work  alone  one  hundred  and  fifty-six 

1"  Oceanic   Ichthyology.      A  treatise  on  Fish   Hawk    in    the    Northwestern    Atlan- 

the   Deep-Sea    and    Pelagic   Fishes   of    the  tic,  with  an  Atlas  containing  417  figures." 

World,  based   chiefly   upon    the   collections  2   volumes,   I.,   553   pages,   II.,  123   plates, 

made  by  the  steamers  Blake,  Albatwss,  and  Washington,  1895.  , 


5H  The  Smithsonian  Instittttion 

new  species  and  fifty-five  new  genera  belonging  to  the  abyssal 
fauna  of  the  Atlantic. 

But  Doctor  Goode's  interest  and  sympathy  were  not  con- 
fined to  the  branch  of  science  in  which  he  was  a  master. 
He  had  a  broad  acquaintance  with  general  natural  history, 
with  crustaceans,  reptiles,  birds,  and  mammals.  On  all  these 
groups  he  published  occasional  notes.  Doctor  Gill  tells  us 
that  "the  flowering  plants  also  enlisted  much  of  his  atten- 
tion, and  his  excursions  into  the  fields  and  woods  were  enliv- 
ened by  a  knowledge  of  the  objects  he  met  with."  "An- 
thropology," Doctor  Gill  continues,  "  naturally  secured  a  due 
proportion  of  his  regards,  and,  indeed,  his  catalogues  truly 
embraced  the  outlines  of  a  system  of  the  science." 

Doctor  Goode  was,  as  already  stated,  always  very  greatly 
interested  in  bibliography.  No  work  to  him  was  ever  tedi- 
ous, if  it  were  possible  to  make  it  accurate.  He  had  well 
under  way  the  catalogues  of  the  writings  of  many  American 
naturalists,  among  others  those  of  Doctor  Gill  and  the  pres- 
ent writer.  Two  of  these  are  already  published  under  the 
Smithsonian  Institution  as  Bulletins  of  the  United  States 
National  Museum,  being  numbers  of  a  series  of  "  Bibliogra- 
phies of  American  Naturalists."  The  first  contains  the  writ- 
ings of  Spencer  Fullerton  Baird  (1883).  Another  is  devoted 
to  Charles  Girard  (1891),  who  was  an  associate  of  Professor 
Baird,  though  for  his  later  years  resident  in  Paris.  A  bibli- 
ography of  the  English  ornithologist,  Philip  Lutley  Sclater 
(1896),  has  been  issued  since  Doctor  Goode's  death. 

Doctor  Gill  tells  us  that  "a  gigantic  work  in  the  same 
line  had  been  projected  by  him  and  most  of  the  material 
collected ;  it  was  no  less  than  a  complete  bibliography  of  Ich- 
thyology, including  the  names  of  all  genera  and  species  pub- 
lished as  new.  Whether  this  can  be  completed  by  another 
hand  remains  to  be  seen.     While  the  work  is  a  great  desid- 


Biographical  Sketch  of  George  Brown  Goode   5 1 5 

eratum  very  few  would  be  willing  to  undertake  it  or  even 
arrange  the  matter  already  collected  for  publication.  In  no 
way  may  Ichthyology,  at  least,  more  feel  the  loss  of  Goode 
than  in  the  loss  of  the  complete  bibliography." 

Doctor  Goode  was  married  on  November  27,  1877,  to 
Sarah  Lamson  Ford  Judd,  daughter  of  Orange  Judd,  the  well- 
known  publisher,  and  the  founder  of  Orange  Judd  Hall  at 
Wesleyan  University  in  which  Doctor  Goode's  career  as  a 
museum  administrator  began.  The  married  life  of  Doctor 
and  Mrs.  Goode  was  a  very  happy  one.  The  wife  and  four 
children  are  still  living. 

As  to  the  personal  qualities  of  Doctor  Goode,  I  cannot  do 
better  than  to  quote  the  following  words  of  two  of  his  warm- 
est friends.  Doctor  S.  P.  Langley  wrote:  "I  have  never 
known  a  more  perfectly  true,  sincere  and  loyal  character  than 
Doctor  Goode's ;  or  a  man  who  with  a  better  judgment  of 
other  men,  or  greater  ability  in  moulding  their  purposes  to 
his  own,  used  these  powers  to  such  uniformly  disinterested 
ends,  so  that  he  could  maintain  the  discipline  of  a  great 
establishment  like  the  National  Museum,  while  retaining  the 
personal  affection  of  every  subordinate."  "  His  disposition," 
says  Doctor  Theodore  Gill,  "  was  a  bright  and  sunny  one, 
and  he  inoratiated  himself  in  the  affections  of  his  friends  in  a 
marked  degree.  He  had  a  hearty  way  of  meeting  intimates, 
and  a  caressing  cast  of  the  arm  over  the  shoulder  of  such  an 
one  often  followed  sympathetic  intercourse.  But  in  spite  of 
his  gentleness,  firmness  and  vigor  in  action  became  manifest 
when  occasion  called  for  them." 

Of  all  American  naturalists  Doctor  Goode  was  the  most 
methodical,  the  most  conscientious  and  the  most  artistic. 
And  of  them  all  no  one  was  more  beloved  by  his  fellows. 
Neither  in  his  life  nor  after  his  death  was  ever  an  unkind 
word  said  of  him. 


APPRECIATIONS   OF  THE   WORK   OF 
THE   SMITHSONIAN    INSTITUTION 


PHYSICS 
By  Thomas  Corwin  Mendenhall, 

President  of  the  Worcester  Polytechnic  Institute 


j^HE  half-century  during  which  the  Smithsonian 
Institution  has  existed  will  always  be  distin- 
guished by  reason  of  the  extraordinary  devel- 
opment of  the  physical  sciences  which  has 
■!^:*2^  occurred  during  that  period.  It  is  undoubtedly 
true  that  at  no  other  time  in  the  history  of  the  world  have 
the  conditions  of  life  been  so  seriously  affected  by  the  appli- 
cations of  scientific  discovery.  These  are  years  that  have 
witnessed  the  perfected  use  of  steam  and  steel,  at  sea  and 
on  land,  revolutionizing  the  methods  of  transportation  of  men 
and  merchandise.  During  the  passage  of  these  years  the 
various  phenomena  related  to  electricity  have  been  magnified, 
controlled,  and  directed  in  the  interests  of  man,  until  the 
results  are  little  short  of  marvelous;  and  thus,  by  the  use  of 
new  forms  of  energy  and  material  hitherto  unavailable,  all 
nations  and  races  are  suddenly  brought  into  relations  with 
each  other  of  such  unavoidable  intimacy  as  to  give  rise  to  an 
entirely  new  set  of  social  and  economical  problems,  the  solu- 
tion of  which  will  demand  the  best  efforts  of  the  present  and 
future  generations.     In  justice  to  the  early  half  of  the  nine- 

SX9 


520  The  Smithso7tian  Institution 

teenth  century,  and  to  the  centuries  that  have  preceded  it,  it 
must  be  admitted  that  these  great  and  significant  changes  are 
to  be  attributed  to  a  remarkable  and  successfijl  activity  along 
the  lines  of  applied  science,  rather  than  to  a  relatively  greater 
number  of  scientific  discoveries  of  the  first  class.  Indeed,  the 
present  is  the  era  of  applied  science,  the  foundations  of  which 
were,  in  general,  laid  in  the  scientific  discovery  of  fifty  and 
more  years  ago. 

In  view  of  this  fact,  it  might  be  assumed  that  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution,  whose  function  it  is,  and  has  been,  rather  to 
restrict  its  interest  to  what  is  generally  known  as  "pure" 
science  (believing  that  applied  science  will  not  lack  support 
from  other  sources),  has  not  been  an  important  factor  in  the 
establishment  of  the  dominion  of  physical  science  which  char- 
acterizes the  close  of  the  present  century.  Such  a  conclusion, 
however,  would  be  quite  out  of  harmony  with  the  facts,  an  ex- 
amination of  which  will  show  that  the  name  and  fame  of  the 
Institution  will  be  forever  inseparably  linkecf  with  some  of 
the  most  important  conquests  of  original  research  or  ingenious 
and  far-reaching  practical  applications  of  scientific  principles 
for  which  the  period  is  famous. 

There  might  naturally  have  been  created,  in  the  early  his- 
tory of  the  Institution,  through  its  first  Secretary,  who  more 
than  any  one  else,  or  perhaps  all  others,  determined  its  char- 
acter and  plan  of  organization,  and  who  was  himself  one  of 
the  most  distinguished  physicists  of  his  time,  a  noticeable  dis- 
crimination in  favor  of  physical  science.  Indeed,  there  are 
occasional  sentences  in  his  early  reports  which  show  how 
strongly  his  thoughts  tended  in  that  direction.  In  his  first 
report  to  the  Board  of  Regents,  submitted  December  8,  1847, 
in  speaking  of  the  fact  that  many  important  suggestions  as  to 
the  organization  of  the  Institution  had  been  offered  by  differ- 
ent persons  independently  of  each  other,  he  says:   "Indeed 


Physics  521 

the  general  plan  of  the  increase  and  diffusion  of  knowledge, 
as  adopted  by  the  Board,  is  such  as  would  naturally  rise  in 
the  mind  of  any  person  conversant  with  the  history  of  phys- 
ical science  and  with  the  means  usually  employed  for  its  ex- 
tension and  diffusion."  But  this  unconscious  leaningr  toward 
that  department  of  human  knowledge  with  which  he  was 
most  conversant,  and  in  which  he  had  already  won  distinc- 
tion, did  not  influence  him  in  the  slightest  degree  in  drawing 
up  the  program  of  organization  which  he  submitted  to  the 
Regents  on  the  same  date  as  above,  or  in  his  administrative 
execution  of  that  program  during  the  many  years  of  his 
secretaryship.  In  the  introduction  to  the  plan  submitted  to, 
and  approved  by,  the  Regents,  he  says:  "The  will  makes  no 
restriction  in  favor  of  any  particular  kind  of  knowledge ; 
hence  all  branches  are  entitled  to  a  share  of  attention."  It  is 
to  this  broad  and  catholic  spirit  by  which  Joseph  Henry  was 
controlled  that  the  world  is  indebted  for  an  instrumentality 
for  the  general  good  which  has  no  likeness  among  all  the 
many  scientific,  educational,  or  charitable  establishments  of 
the  Old  World  or  the  New. 

In  attempting  to  review  the  operations  of  the  Smithsonian 
Institution  in  any  special  field,  it  is  of  first  importance  that 
the  above  considerations  should  be  kept  in  mind.  The  will 
of  the  man  who  had  made  the  peculiar  bequest  was  law  to 
the  man  who,  most  fortunately,  had  been  selected  as  its  first 
administrator.  The  Institution  was  to  have  two  distinct,  but 
closely-related,  functions :  to  increase  knowledge  and  to  dif- 
fuse it  among  men.  Henry  proposed  to  increase  knowledge 
by  stimulating  original  research  through  suitable  rewards 
and  pecuniary  assistance,  where  it  was  necessary  or  desir- 
able ;  he  would  diffuse  it  by  the  publication  of  periodical 
reports  and  occasional  monographs  or  separate  treatises. 
But  all  of  this  was  to  be  controlled  bv  the  Qreneral  and  most 
34 


522 


The  Smithsonian  Institution 


pregnant  principle  that  the  Institution  should  do  nothing  which 
can  be  equally  well  done  through  other  agencies.  It  is  to  the 
adoption  of  this  rule,  the  farsighted  wisdom  of  which  cannot 
be  questioned,  that  we  must  attribute  an  apparent  lack  of  con- 
tinuity in  its  operations  in  physical  science,  which  is  probably 
equally  noticeable  elsewhere ;  for  its  policy  has  been  to  do 
what  could  not  be  done  otherwise ;  to  help  only  when  help 
was  absolutely  necessary. 

In  takinpf  account  of  the  contributions  to  the  various  de- 
partments  of  physics  which  the  cooperation  of  the  Smithso- 
nian Institution  has  made  possible,  or  with  which  it  has  been 
conspicuously  related  or  associated,  one  must  necessarily 
begin  with  the  splendid  discoveries  of  its  first  distinguished 
head.  It  is  true  that  many  of  the  most  important  of  these 
were  actually  made  during  that  eventful  period  of  his  life 
which  preceded  his  appointment  as  Secretary  of  the  In- 
stitution, but  it  is  also  true  that  many  of  them  did  not  find 
their  full  development  until  after  that  date,  and,  indeed,  it  is 
only  during  the  last  decade  that  some  of  the  most  important 
have  received  recognition  at  their  proper  value. 

Henry's  contributions  to  physics  covered  a  wide  range,  but 
they  are  most  numerous  along  the  line  of  electricity,  magnet- 
ism, acoustics,  and  meteorology.  They  were  originally  pub- 
lished, for  the  most  part,  in  the  earlier  volumes  of  the 
Atnerican  yournal  of  Science,  but  much  of  his  later  work 
was,  until  recently,  to  be  found  only  by  searching  the  pages 
of  various  government  publications,  or  in  the  transactions 
of  several  of  the  learned  societies.  In  1886,  however,  by  di- 
rection of  the  Regents  of  the  Institution,  the  then  Secretary, 
Professor  Baird,  published  a  collection  of  his  "  Scientific 
Writings "  in  two  large  and  handsome  volumes,  which  are 
among  the  most  important  of  the  Smithsonian  contributions 
to  physics.     As  already  stated,  within  a  few  years  there  has 


Physics  523 

been  a  great  revival  of  interest  in  Henry's  work,  and  the 
appearance  of  these  volumes  was  most  timely. 

Most  physicists  are  well  informed  concerning  his  discov- 
eries in  electricity  and  magnetism  especially,  but  the  interests 
of  the  general  reader  demand  at  least  brief  reference  to  them 
in  this  place. 

The  work  of  an  able,  successful  man  is  so  mixed  up  with 
his  personality  that  it  is  often  difficult  to  properly  describe 
the  former  without  some  reference  to  the  latter.  Of  Henry 
the  man  this  is  not  the  appropriate  place  to  speak  at 
length,  but  his  relation  to  contemporary  discovery  cannot  be 
fully  understood  without  remembering  that  his  leading  per- 
sonal characteristics  were  modesty,  great  patience,  untiring 
industry,  and  an  attention  to  the  minutest  detail  which  is 
rarely  found  among  men  of  his  class  in  intellectual  power. 
He  was  conscientious,  almost  to  excess,  in  the  performance 
of  any  duty  that  came  to  him.  He  was  educated  in  the 
Albany  Academy,  in  which,  almost  immediately  after  gradua- 
tion, he  was  employed  as  a  teacher.  By  one  of  his  pupils 
of  that  time  he  is  referred  to  as  one  "who  rose  with  the  sun 
to  instruct  his  pupil,  eager  after  knowledge,"  and  as  "  giving 
his  heart  and  soul  to  the  duties  of  the  school."  Notwith- 
standing the  fact  that  his  duties  demanded  nearly  his  entire 
time  during  the  daylight  hours,  he  found  leisure  to  begin  and 
carry  on  a  series  of  investigations  that  were  destined  to 
render  both  him  and  the  otherwise  little-known  Academy 
famous  for  all  time.  His  first  important  work  was  the  de- 
velopment and  perfecting  of  the  electro-magnet.  With  this 
now  commonplace  but  most  important  electrical  device  three 
names  will  always  be  associated.  Shortly  after  the  announce- 
ment of  Oersted's  brilliant  discovery,  which  furnished  the 
first  connecting  link  between  electricity  and  magnetism,  Arago 
had  announced  the  interesting   fact  that  if  rods  of  steel  or 


524  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

iron  were  placed  in  a  glass  tube  around  which  a  wire  was 
coiled  so  that  the  adjacent  rings  did  not  touch  each  other, 
they  would  become  magnetic  on  the  passage  of  a  current 
of  electricity  through  the  wire.  Thus  Oersted's  discovery, 
that  an  electrical  current  would  influence  a  magnet,  was  sup- 
plemented by  Arago's,  that  it  would  ■dX^.o  produce  a  magnet. 
Three  or  four  years  later  another  notable  step  in  advance  was 
made  by  Sturgeon,  in  England,  who  produced  for  the  first 
time  what  has  since  been  known  as  an  "  electro-mao-net." 
He  bent  a  bar  of  soft  iron  into  the  shape  of  a  horseshoe,  thus 
bringing  the  poles  into  the  same  plane  for  greater  conve- 
nience ;  and  he  dispensed  with  the  glass  tube  used  by  Arago 
by  varnishing  his  iron  core,  thus  insulating  the  coils  of  naked 
wire,  which  he  wound  in  a  spiral  about  it.  But  the  most 
powerful  electro-magnets  made  by  Sturgeon's  method  were 
insignificant  compared  with  what  Henry  was  able  to  produce 
a  few  years  later.  Instead  of  varnishing  the  iron  core  and 
using  naked  wire,  he  insulated  the  copper-wire  itself  by  cover- 
ing it  with  silk,  and  this  enabled  him  to  coil  the  wire  closely 
and  to  make  two  or  more  layers  about  the  core.  This  had 
the  effect  of  enormously  increasing  the  strength  of  the  mag- 
nets produced,  and  Henry  at  once  recognized  the  importance 
of  the  discovery.  But  he  carried  the  investigation  much  fur- 
ther, examining  into  the  relation  of  the  battery  to  the  mag- 
net, developing  two  forms  of  the  latter,  which  he  called 
"quantity"  and  "intensity"  magnets,  and  by  the  aid  of  the 
latter  succeeded  in  making  visible  and  audible  signals  at  the 
end  of  a  long  line,  which  had  been  declared  to  be  impossible 
by  Barlow.  He  actually  set  up  in  the  hall  of  the  Albany 
Academy  a  line  more  than  a  mile  in  length,  through  which 
signals  were  transmitted  without  difficulty,  and  the  principles 
involved  were  so  well  understood  by  Henry  that  even  then, 
in  1832,  he  confidently  declared  that  transmission  through  any 


Physics  525 

reasonable  distance  was  possible.  This  system  was  the  germ 
of  all  modern  telegraphy.  At  about  the  same  time  its  devel- 
opment in  Europe  began,  but  at  first  and  for  many  years  all 
European  systems  were  based  on  the  phenomena  discovered 
by  Oersted, —  the  deviation  of  a  needle  on  the  passage  of  an 
electric  current  through  a  conductor  near  and  parallel  to  it. 
While  Henry  was  exhibiting  his  perfectly-conceived  and  well- 
executed  scheme  for  electric  transmission  to  visiting  friends, 
Baron  Schilling,  a  Russian  Councillor  of  State,  set  up  a 
model  of  his  proposed  electric  telegraph  before  the  Emperors 
Alexander  and  Nicholas,  the  first  of  the  many  "needle"  sys- 
tems which  prevailed  in  Europe  for  many  years,  but  which 
were  finally  driven  out  by  the  superior  merits  of  the  American 
system.  Schilling's  telegraph  required  thirty- six  needles  for 
its  operation,  besides  a  complicated  device  for  an  audible 
signal,  to  attract  the  attention  of  the  operator. 

In  connection  with  his  study  of  magnets,  Henry  also  de- 
vised what  is  now  generally  known  as  a  "relay,"  which  is  an 
arrangement  by  means  of  which  an  electro-magnet  operated 
by  one  current  is  made  to  close  the  circuit  of  another  bat- 
tery, thus  enabling  a  feeble  magnet,  requiring  only  a  feeble 
current,  to  set  into  operation  another,  at  any  point  in  the 
circuit.  Thus  he  had  evolved  all  the  essentials  of  a  complete 
telegraph  system,  lacking  only  mechanical  details  which  en- 
gineering skill  and  ingenuity  might  easily  have  supplied. 

Had  Henry  been  less  a  lover  of  pure  science,  or  had  his 
commercial  instinct  been  more  highly  developed,  the  Albany 
Academy  mile  of  wire  would  have  grown  into  the  telegraph 
system  of  America,  instead  of  furnishing,  as  it  unquestionably 
did  ten  years  later,  the  principle  upon  which  that  system  was 
founded.  It  has  required  a  good  many  years  to  dispel  certain 
illusions  concerning  the  electric  telegraph  to  which  Ameri- 
cans were  inclined  to  cling,  but  it  is  now  tolerably  well  known 

34* 


526  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

among  intelligent  people  that  the  first  commercially  suc- 
cessful electric  telegraph  line  was  7iot  erected  in  this  country ; 
that  the  telegraph  can  in  no  sense  be  called  an  American  in- 
vention, although  the  American  system  has  proved  to  be  so 
superior  that  it  has  long  ago  practically  superseded  all  others  ; 
and  that  by  far  the  larger  share  of  the  credit  for  the  success 
of  this  system  is  due  to  Joseph  Henry  for  his  discovery  of 
the  scientific  principles  upon  which  that  success  depended. 

In  the  mean  time  Henry  was  engaged  in  further  researches 
of  the  very  highest  importance.  He  sought  to  use  the  power- 
ful magnets  which  he  was  now  able  to  construct  in  the  solu- 
tion of  a  problem  which  had  thus  far  baffled  the  efforts  of  the 
ablest  electricians  in  Europe.  Having  succeeded  beyond  all 
others  in  producing  niagnetisnt  by  using  elechncity,  he  hoped 
to  be  able  to  successfully  attack  the  inverse  problem,  the 
production  of  electricity  from  inagnetisfn.  All  ph}'sicists  be- 
lieved that  this  must  be  possible,  but  no  one  had  hit  upon 
the  method  of  doing  it.  Curiously  enough,  another  great  ex- 
perimental philosopher,  also  a  young  man,  had  set  for  himself 
the  same  problem  and  worked  persistently  upon  it  during 
the  month  of  August,  183 1.  During  the  same  month  Henry 
began  a  carefully-planned  series  of  experiments,  which,  un- 
fortunately, owing  to  his  duties  in  the  Academy,  he  was 
obliged  to  give  up,  not  being  able  to  return  to  them  for  nearly 
a  year.  Entirely  ignorant  of  Henry's  plans.  Faraday,  on  the 
30th  of  August,  1 83 1, — a  memorable  day  in  the  history  of 
electricity, —  made  the  capital  discovery  of  induction,  on  which 
practically  all  modern  electrical  development  is  based.  En- 
tirely ignorant  of  what  Faraday  had  done,  Henry  again  took 
up  the  subject  and  had  the  good  fortune  to  discover  the  iden- 
tical phenomenon  in  another  aspect,  in  which  it  is  known  as 
self-induction.  In  the  more  recent  advances  in  applied  elec- 
tricity, self-induction  has  come  to  be  a  matter  of  primary  im- 


Physics  527 

portance,  and  time  has  served  only  to  magnify  the  value  of 
Henry's  discovery.  Learning  of  Faraday's  experiments,  he 
was  led,  through  their  verification,  to  discover  induction  by 
induced  currents,  concerning  which  he  made  a  most  interest- 
ing and  valuable  investigation.  Of  his  many  other  important 
discoveries  in  electricity  there  is  one  that  must  not  be  passed 
without  mention.  It  was,  that  the  discharge  of  a  Leyden  jar 
was  oscillatory  in  character,  in  which  he  anticipated  Helm- 
holtz  and  Lord  Kelvin  in  the  recognition  of  a  phenomenon 
which  has,  within  a  very  few  years,  come  to  have  a  deep  im- 
port. The  present  estimate  of  the  value  of  Henry's  work  in 
electricity  is  reflected  in  the  following  remarks,  made  not  long 
ago  by  one  of  England's  leading  electricians:  "At  the  head 
of  this  long  line  of  illustrious  investigators  stand  the  names 
of  Faraday  and  Henry.  On  the  foundation-stones  of  truth 
laid  down  by  them  all  subsequent  builders  have  been  content 
to  rest.  ...  In  them  [the  scientific  writings  of  Henry]  we 
have  not  only  the  lucid  explanations  of  the  discoverer,  but 
the  suggestions  and  ideas  of  a  most  profound  and  inventive 
mind,  and  which  indicate  that  Henry  had  early  touched  levels 
of  discovery  only  just  recently  becoming  fully  worked." 

Most  of  Henry's  electrical  investigations  were  carried  on  at 
Albany,  and  afterward  at  Princeton,  whither  he  was  called,  in 
1832,  as  professor  of  natural  philosophy  in  the  College  of 
New  Jersey.  From  Princeton  he  removed  to  Washington  in 
1846,  to  become  first  Secretary  of  the  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tution, then  just  established.  During  his  more  than  thirty 
years  of  service  in  this  capacity,  administrative  duties  pre- 
vented, in  a  large  measure,  a  continuation  of  the  scientific 
investigations  for  which  he  was  now  famous,  but  they  did  not 
diminish  his  interest  in  research,  nor  prevent  his  doing  a 
good  deal  of  it  during  the  remainder  of  his  life.  It  must  be 
admitted,  however,  that  he  was  no  longer  master  of  his  own 


528  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

time  and  energies  in  this  respect.  He  could  not  follow  his 
own  inclinations,  and  while  the  quantity  of  his  scientific  work 
was  by  no  means  small,  and  much  of  it  was  of  great  importance, 
it  was  to  a  large  extent  such  as  came  to  him  through  the  sev- 
eral official  positions  of  great  trust  and  responsibility  which  he 
was  induced  to  accept.  It  will  be  considered,  in  this  review, 
under  various  appropriate  heads  along  with  other  products 
of  the  great  Institution  to  which  he  gave  the  best  energies 
of  his  life,  and  where,  after  all,  his  services  have  doubtless 
been  more  widely  useful,  and  the  total  integral  of  their  value 
to  mankind  greater  than  if  he  had  devoted  himself  exclusively 
to  scientific  investigation. 

Following  the  general  principles  already  referred  to,  the 
Smithsonian  Institution  has  promoted  the  science  of  physics 
in  two  ways.  Original  research  has  been  stimulated  by  the 
occasional  offer  and  award  of  prizes  for  accomplished  work, 
or  pecuniary  aid  has  been  rendered  those  engaged  in  inves- 
tigation, usually  to  the  extent  of  assisting  in  the  purchase  of 
necessary  apparatus  or  appliances.  Knowledge  resulting 
from  investigation  thus  forwarded  by  the  Institution  or  f7'om 
other  soiirces  has  been  diffused  by  publication  and  extensive 
distribution  among  libraries,  learned  societies,  and  scientific 
men.  The  most  tangible  results  are  shown  in  its  publications, 
as,  indeed,  they  often  stand  for  the  activity  of  the  Institution 
along  the  lines  of  both  increase  and  diffusion  of  knowledge. 
It  is  to  them,  therefore,  that  especial  attention  will  be  given 
in  this  review  ;  and,  for  convenience,  they  will  be  classified 
under  the  several  well-known  subdivisions  of  the  subject  of 
physics.  The  limitation  of  time  and  space  will  not  allow  of 
anything  like  an  exhaustive  presentation,  even  in  abstract, 
of  all  publications  bearing  the  Smithsonian  imprint,  but  the 
most  important  will  be  briefly  referred  to  in  approximately 
chronological  order. 


Physics  529 


ELECTRICITY    AND    MAGNETISM 

The  first  paper  under  this  head  which  the  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tution brought  out  was  one  on  terrestrial  magnetism,  the 
first  of  a  long  and  valuable  series  of  publications  on  that  sub- 
ject. It  appeared  in  1852,  in  the  "  Smithsonian  Contributions 
to  Knowledge."^  The  paper  consisted  of  a  series  of  obser- 
vations made  in  the  years  i845-'46-'47  to  determine  the  "dip 
inclination  and  intensity  "  of  magnetic  force  in  various  parts 
of  the  United  States.  Its  author  was  Doctor  John  Locke, 
of  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  a  well-known  pioneer  in  Western  sci- 
ence. Doctor  Locke  was  the  inventor  of  the  chronograph, 
which  was  first  used  in  astronomical  observations  at  Cin- 
cinnati. The  method  of  observing  transits  by  its  use  rap- 
idly came  into  favor,  was  adopted  by  the  United  States 
Coast  Survey,  and  came  to  be  universally  known  as  the 
"  American  Method."  Doctor  Locke's  observations  on  ter- 
restrial magnetism  were  highly  esteemed  by  Sabine,  who 
made  use  of  them  in   his  contributions  to  that  subject. 

The  same  volume  of  "Contributions"  contained  another 
paper  of  great  interest  and  theoretical  importance  on  "  Elec- 
trical Rheometry,"  by  Father  Secchi,  then  recently  made  pro- 
fessor of  astronomy  and  director  of  the  Observatory  in  Rome, 
after  having  served  for  a  few  years  as  professor  of  physics  in 
the  Georgetown  College,  District  of  Columbia.  His  astro- 
physical  work  in  later  years  brought  him  great  fame.  The 
memoir  is  a  mathematical  solution,  with  experimental  verifica- 
tion of  the  problem,  "  to  find  the  action  of  a  closed  current 
on  a  magnetic  needle,  whatever  be  its  position  relative  to 
that  of  the  current,"  and  Secchi's  treatment  of  the  problem 
is  of  much  interest,  even  to  electricians  of  to-day. 

1  Volume  III,  page  5. 


530  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

Among  earlier  papers  of  great  historical  interest  must  be 
included  a  lecture  printed  in  the  Smithsonian  Report  for 
1854  on  "The  Fire  Alarm  Telegraph,"  by  Doctor  F.  W. 
Channing,  who,  with  Moses  E.  Farmer,  was  the  pioneer  in 
this  most  useful  application  of  electricity.  The  lecture  was 
one  of  a  course  maintained  during  the  years  1853-54  by 
authority  of  Congress,  in  which  a  wide  variety  of  topics  re- 
ceived popular  treatment  at  the  hands  of  distinguished 
specialists.  That  of  Doctor  Channing  was  experimentally 
illustrated,  and  furnished  an  excellent  account  of  the  be- 
ginnings of  electrical   fire-protection. 

The  most  notable  contribution  to  physics  during  the  next 
two  or  three  years  is  to  be  found  in  the  translation  and  publi- 
cation of  a  series  of  reports  on  "  Recent  Progress  in  Physics," 
by  Doctor  Miiller,  the  famous  professor  of  physics  and  tech- 
nology in  Freiburg.  These  reports  refer  almost  entirely  to 
progress  in  electricity,  and  the  first,  printed  in  the  Smithsonian 
Report  for  1855,  has  to  do  with  what  was  then  almost  uni- 
versally known  as  "  Galvanism."  It  fills  one  hundred  and 
fifteen  pages,  and  furnishes  an  excellent  summary  of  the 
knowledge  of  the  subject,  based  on  theory  and  experiment, 
at  the  date  of  its  publication.  It  was  followed  by  another  on 
the  subject  of  "  Electricity  "  (statical)  in  the  Report  for  1856, 
and  still  others  in  1857  and  1858.  These  summaries  are  val- 
uable possessions  in  any  physical  library,  even  to-day,  and  at 
the  time  of  their  publication  they  must  have  been  a  boon  to 
all  American  students  of  the  subject,  for  original  sources  of 
information  were  not  as  common  then  as  now.  In  1859  ap- 
peared another  contribution  to  terrestrial  magnetism,  in  a 
series  of  observations  made  by  Elisha  Kent  Kane,  the  Arctic 
explorer,  while  on  his  second  expedition  in  search  of  Sir  John 
Franklin.  These  were  published  in  Volume  x  of  the  "  Con- 
tributions."    Indeed,  for  a  long  time  the  vSmithsonian  Insti- 


Physics  531 

tution  especially  charged  itself  with  operations  in  terrestrial 
magnetism  in  the  United  States.  In  the  same  year,  in  Vol- 
ume XI  of  the  "  Contributions,"  the  publication  of  the  very 
extensive  series  of  Girard  College  Magnetic  Observations, 
made  by  Professor  Bache,  begins,  the  discussion  of  the  results 
being  largely  due  to  Mr.  Schott,  of  the  Coast  Survey.  These 
continued  through  several  volumes  and  years,  and  there  were 
also  included  many  other  studies  of  terrestrial  magnetism 
made  in  different  parts  of  the  country.  For  a  long  time  the 
Institution  aided  in  the  development  of  the  subject,  both  by 
grants  of  funds  and  by  publication  ;  the  National  Academy 
also  contributed  largely  from  the  Bache  Fund,  bequeathed 
to  it  for  the  encouragement  of  original  research,  until  a 
comparatively  recent  time,  since  which  the  work  has  been 
under  government  direction,  in  the  United  States  Coast  and 
Geodetic  Survey.  The  latter  bureau  shared  with  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution  in  the  expense  of  the  construction  and 
erection  of  a  complete  magnetic  observatory,  giving  photo- 
graphic registration  of  variations  in  the  magnetic  elements. 
It  was  first  placed  on  the  grounds  of  the  Institution,  but  in 
i860  it  was  removed  to  Key  West,  Florida.  The  Smithso- 
nian Reports  about  this  time  contain  papers  on  magnetic 
storms,  by  Sabine  ;  on  "  Observations  on  Terrestrial  Magnet- 
ism in  Mexico,"  by  Sonntag,  and  others  of  a  similar  character. 
Interesting  and  valuable  recent  contributions  to  the  same 
subject  will  be  found  in  the  Reports  for  1892  and  1893,  ^'^^ 
former  containing  a  reprint  of  Ewing's  important  Royal  In- 
stitution lecture  on  "  Magnetic  Induction,"  and  the  latter  Pro- 
fessor Dewar's  interesting  discourse,  at  the  same  place,  on  the 
"Magnetic  Properties  of  Liquefied  Oxygen." 

The  publications  of  the  Institution  naturally  contain  much 
important  matter  concerning  the  electric  telegraph.  Henry's 
relation  to  its  development  has  already  been  referred  to,  and 


532  The  Sniithsonian  Institittiofi 

in  the  Smithsonian  Report  for  1857  an  invaluable  contribution 
to  its  history  will  be  found.  It  includes  his  deposition  taken 
in  Boston  in  1849,  as  it  appears  in  the  record  of  the  Su- 
preme Court  of  the  United  States,  which  is  itself  a  concise 
history  of  the  invention.  In  consequence  of  its  appearance, 
Professor  Morse  was  induced  to  publish  certain  statements 
reflecting  upon  the  integrity  and  scientific  repute  of  Henry, 
and  this  led  to  an  investigation  of  the  whole  subject,  at 
Henry's  request,  by  the  Board  of  Regents,  resulting  in  the 
unanimous  adoption  of  resolutions  exonerating  him  from  any 
charge  made  by  Morse. 

Henry's  continued  interest  in  meteorology  led  him  to  pay 
much  attention  to  thunder-storms,  the  effects  of  lightning,  the 
aurora,  studies  of  atmospheric  electricity,  earth-currents,  etc., 
all  of  which  found  recognition  in  the  earlier  publications  of  the 
Institution.  Among  others  were  papers  on  "Atmospheric 
Electricity,"  by  Duprez;  on  "Earth  Currents,"  by  Matteucci ; 
on  "The  Aurora,"  by  Loomis  ;  and  many  reports  upon  the  effect 
of  lightning.  Henry  himself  prepared  a  very  valuable  circular 
on  "  Lightning  Rods,"  giving  rules  for  their  erection  and 
proper  care.  Mention  should  also  be  made  of  another  paper 
of  great  interest  to  students  of  electricity  a  generation  and 
more  ago,  on  "  The  Use  of  the  Galvanometer  as  a  Measuring 
Instrument,"  by  J.  C.  Poggendorff.  One  of  the  earliest 
methods  of  "  calibrating "  a  galvanometer  is  here  explained 
and  much  information  is  given  relating  to  what  was  then  in 
large  measure  an  unexplored  field. 

Two  of  the  most  important  papers  relating  to  electricity 
which  the  Institution  has  published  are  those  of  Helmholtz 
and  Maxwell  in  the  Smithsonian  Report  for  1873,  presenting 
the  (at  that  time)  latest  notions  regarding  its  nature,  and 
Tunzelmann's  account  of  Hertz's  researches,  which  will  be 
found   in    the    Report   for    1889.      In   reprinting   monographs 


Physics  533 

such  as  these,  the  Institution  is  discharging  one  of  its  most 
useful  functions  by  diffusing  knowledge  not  easily  accessible 
among  a  large  number  of  intelligent  people  who  are  gener- 
ally cut  off  from  original  sources. 

The  Report  for  1894  includes  several  interesting  papers 
relating  to  electrical  subjects.  These  include  one  on  "  Light 
and  Electricity,"  by  Poincare  ;  another  on  "  The  Henry,"  by 
Mendenhall ;  and  one  on  "  The  Age  of  Electricity,"  by  Mascart, 
together  with  Professor  Rucker's  address  at  the  Oxford 
meeting  of  the  British  Association  for  the  Advancement  of 
Science,  on  "Terrestrial  Magnetism."  There  is  also  an  im- 
portant paper,  "On  Atmospheric  Electricity,"  by  Professor 
Arthur  Schuster,  in  the  Report  for  1895. 


RADIANT    ENERGY— LIGHT   AND    HEAT 

In  1855  there  appeared  as  a  part  of  Volume  ix  of  the 
"Contributions"  a  memoir  by  L.  W.  Meech,  "On  the  Rel- 
ative Intensity  of  the  Heat  and  Light  of  the  Sun  upon 
Different  Latitudes  of  the  Earth."  A  preliminary  investiga- 
tion, suggested  by  an  inspection  of  monthly  temperatures,  had 
been  published  in  1850  in  \k\Q.  American  Jour7ial  of  Scie7icc. 
The  present  investigation  was  intended  to  resolve  the  problem 
of  solar  heat  and  light  upon  the  single  hypothesis  that  the 
intensity  of  the  sun's  rays  varies  inversely  as  the  square  of  the 
distance.  It  is  essentially  a  mathematical  treatment  on  this 
assumption,  and  an  attempt  is  made  to  show  that  the  conclu- 
sions reached  are  in  general  accord  with  physical  phenomena. 
The  effect  of  secular  change  in  celestial  constants  is  exam- 
ined, and  some  interesting  consequences  are  deduced.  The 
Smithsonian  Reports  during  the  several  years  following  the 
publication  of  Mr.  Meech's  memoir  show  that   much  interest 


534  T^^^  Suiithsonian  Institution 

was  manifested  and  that  he  received  assistance  in  continuing 
his  investigations. 

In  the  same  year,  1859,  the  Smithsonian  Report  contains  a 
reprint  of  the  highest  importance  on  the  subject  of  "  Radiant 
Heat."  It  included  three  reports  on  the  "  State  of  Knowledge 
of  Radiant  Heat,"  made  at  the  meetings  of  the  British  Asso- 
ciation for  the  Advancement  of  Science  in  1832,  1840,  and 
1854,  by  Professor  Baden  Powell.  New  ideas  on  the  nature 
of  heat,  based  on  the  work  of  Joule,  Helmholtz,  Thomson, 
and  others,  were  just  then  beginning  to  prevail  abroad,  and 
they  were  well  known  among  a  few  in  this  country.  The 
reports  of  Powell,  while  dealing  much  more  with  experi- 
mental results  than  with  theory,  were  very  suggestive.  Full 
accounts  of  Melloni's  experiments  were  given,  and  some  of 
the  early  notions  of  Sir  William  Thomson  about  the  origin  of 
the  sun's  heat.  Nine  years  later,  in  the  annual  Report  for 
1868,  the  now  well-established  mechanical  theory  of  heat  was 
fully  exploited  in  three  very  important  papers.  The  first  is 
on  the  "  Recent  Progress  in  Relation  to  the  Theory  of  Heat," 
by  A.  Cazin,  and  it  covers  about  fifteen  pages  of  the  Report. 
In  the  second,  which  is  on  the  "  Principles  of  the  Mechanical 
Theory  of  Heat,"  by  Doctor  Miiller,  of  Freiburg,  the  new 
doctrines  are  fully  gone  into,  and  its  thirty-five  pages  consti- 
tute not  only  a  strictly  scientific,  but  an  exceedingly  attrac- 
tive, exposition  of  the  dynamical  theory.  The  third  paper  is 
Tyndall's  celebrated  Rede  Lecture  on  "  Radiation,"  delivered 
in  1865,  in  which,  as  every  one  knows,  the  mechanical  theory 
has  full  sway. 

A  large  part  of  the  Report  for  1862  is  devoted  to  a  series  of 
lectures  on  the  "  Undulating  Theory  of  Light,"  by  President 
F.  A.  P.  Barnard.  They  constitute  a  tolerably  exhaustive 
treatise  on  the  subject,  largely  mathematical,  and  including 
a   discussion   of  double   refraction,    polarization,    interference 


Physics  535 

and  diffraction,  the  solar  spectrum,  etc.,  with  a  good  account 
of  different  theories  of  Hght.  The  Report  for  1864  contains 
Delaunay's  classical  essay  on  the  "Velocity  of  Light,"  the 
translation  having  been  made  by  Professor  A.  M.  Mayer, 
then  professor  of  physics  in  Pennsylvania  College,  Gettys- 
burg. The  experiments  originally  projected  by  Arago  to 
determine  the  velocity  of  light,  and  to  settle  some  controver- 
sies regarding  the  undulating  theory,  realized  so  completely 
by  Fizeau  and  Foucault,  are  here  set  forth  so  perfectly,  in  a 
translation  so  vigorous,  that  no  physicist  can  fail  to  acknow- 
ledge an  indebtedness  to  the  Institution  for  such  an  admirable 
reproduction.  In  1866  there  appeared  an  important  lecture  by 
Mr.  Huggins,  on  the  "  Results  of  Spectrum  Analysis  Applied 
to  the  Heavenly  Bodies."  This  was,  in  a  sense,  the  beginning 
of  the  New  Astronomy,  in  the  promotion  of  which  the  Institu- 
tion has  been  so  active  in  recent  years.  Mr.  Muggins's  lec- 
ture is  a  clear  presentation  of  the  wonderful  discoveries  which 
so  rapidly  followed  the  beautiful  researches  of  Kirchhoff  and 
Bunsen.  He  refers  to  the  assumption,  based  on  a  single 
analogy  only,  that  the  fixed  stars  are  essentially  similar  to 
the  sun,  and  explains  that  the  new  analysis  furnishes,  for  the 
first  time,  some  decisive  proof  of  this.  The  principal  conclu- 
sions reached  regarding  the  structure,  material  elements,  color, 
brightness,  etc.,  of  the  stars,  the  nature  of  nebulae  and  comets, 
and  the  possible  cause  of  variable  stars,  are  summarized  in  a 
series  of  propositions  which  make  one  marvel  at  the  rapidity 
with  which  the  new  science  had  grown.  The  Report  for  1877 
contains  an  exhaustive  and  most  timely  article  on  "  Color 
Blindness  in  its  Relations  to  Accidents  by  Rail  and  Sea," 
translated  and  somewhat  abridged  from  the  French  transla- 
tion of  the  original  paper  by  F,  Holmgren,  of  the  University 
of  Upsala,  Sweden.  There  is  also  an  article  on  the  same 
subject  by  Professor   Henry. 


53^  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

Little  of  moment  in  reference  to  light  or  heat  appeared 
in  the  publications  of  the  Institution  for  more  than  a  decade 
after  this  date,  but  in  1889  the  great  advance  made  during 
that  time  found  expression  in  a  reprint  of  Oliver  Lodge's 
excellent  lecture  on  the  "  Modern  Theory  of  Light,"  which  is 
a  clear  and  forcible  exposition  of  the  electro-magnetic  theory 
of  Clerk  Maxwell,  and  of  its  beautiful  verification  by  the  bril- 
liant experiments  of  Hertz.  It  is  here  distinctly  recognized 
that  light  is  only  a  specially-restricted  group  out  of  a  great 
variety  of  waves  emitted  by  the  sun  ;  the  importance  of  devis- 
ing some  means  for  selective  production  is  emphasized,  and 
it  is  plainly  intimated  that  the  direction  along  which  the  next 
advance  is  to  be  made  is  likely  to  be  "  to  beat  about  for  some 
mode  of  exciting  and  maintaining  an  electrical  vibration  of  any 
required  degree  of  rapidity."  A  fit  accompaniment  of  Lodge's 
essay  is  an  address  of  Professor  Joseph  Lovering  before  the 
American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences  at  its  meeting  of 
April  10,  1889,  on  the  occasion  of  the  presentation  of  the 
Rumford  medals  to  Professor  A.  A.  Michelson.  Naturally, 
the  address  is  a  summary  of  Michelson's  principal  researches 
in  optics,  beginning  with  his  first  determination  of  the  veloc- 
ity of  light,  by  his  modified  Foucault  method,  at  the  Naval 
Academy  about  1878.  Professor  Lovering's  address  is  not 
only  an  account  of  Michelson's  work  (up  to  the  date  of  its 
delivery),  but  a  very  careful  examination  and  presentation 
of  the  most  important  experiments  looking  to  the  determina- 
tion of  light-velocity,  either  in  a  vacuum  or  in  some  transpar- 
ent medium,  together  with  a  statement  of  the  principal  results, 
especially  as  affecting  the  solar  parallax,  and  with  some  refer- 
ence to  theories  of  light.  It  is  a  most  admirable  and  useful 
contribution. 

The  first  part  of  Volume  xxix  of  the  "  Smithsonian  Con- 
tributions "  is  a  memoir  by  Michelson  "  On  the  Application  of 


EOBEET  DALE   OWEK 

REGENT  OF  THE  SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION, 

1846-1847. 


53^  TJlC  .'^rnv 

or  L . 
^^^le  tha'" 
mao 

j;e's 
is 
heory 
.v-i'.ii  by  ^^■'^-'  ^ril- 
-  acre  aistinctly  recognized 
-restricted  group  out  of  a  great 
itted  by  th  the  imj  is- 

selective 
plainly  intimated  that  the  directi^.i  c^.w^^  v^.ll^.l  lii>"  "'""-♦^ 
'■■■■'     made  islik  ^         '      "  ■     '      '    ' 
d  maintaini  I  vibr 


■  c- 


)3.\  researches 
ith  his  first  determinatior 
J,    his  modified  Foiicault  i. ,-,,.. .wv,,  c,^  ll.v.  ^^cvai 
y   auout  1878.      ^  -■    .-      '  ■      ' 

accoi'  eison's 

■lelivery),  1  examination    and   preser 

the  mos.        ^  experiments  looking-  to  the  cK 

of  Hght-velocity,  either  in  a 
ledium,  t'        '  :;r  with  a  statemt 

ially  as  ;  -  solar  para  iie  refer- 

ei:  ories  of  light.     It  is  a  and  useful 

conti 

'^h':-  lie  v,i  Volume  .  .lI.w. Ionian  ^^v^,.- 

.T^8I- 8:^81 


Physics  537 

Interference  Methods  to  Spectroscopic  Measurements,"  pub- 
lished in  1892,  an  investigation  which  had  been  aided  by  a 
grant  from  the  Institution.  In  this  work  Professor  Michel- 
son  made  use  of  his  well-known  interference  method,  which 
proved  to  be  very  powerful  in  attacking  problems  usually 
given  to  the  grating  and  prism.  He  found  it  "easy  to  sepa- 
rate lines  whose  distance  apart  is  only  a  thousandth  of  that 
between  D^  Dg,  and  even  to  determine  the  distribution  of  light 
in  the  separate  components,"  and  whenever  the  width  of  the 
lines  themselves  is  less  than  their  distance  apart  there  is  no 
limit  to  their  resolvability. 

The  Smithsonian  Report  for  1893  includes  a  short,  but 
thoughtful,  paper  on  the  "  Luminiferous  Ether,"  by  Sir 
George  G.  Stokes,  in  which  the  difficulties  of  the  problem 
are  well  put  and  some  hints  given  as  to  their  possible 
solution. 

No  account  of  the  relation  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  to 
the  increase  and  diffusion  of  our  knowledge  of  radiant  energy 
would  be  approximately  complete  without  reference  to  the 
splendid  investigations  of  the  present  Secretary,  Doctor  S.  P. 
Langley.  Begun  originally  by  him  in  the  Allegheny  Ob- 
servatory, he  has  not  allowed  the  burden  of  administrative 
duties  to  prevent  their  being  continued  in  the  new  Astro- 
physical  Observatory,  where  they  are  still  in  progress.  The 
remarkable  results  of  his  use  of  the  bolometer  in  the  study  of 
the  infra-red  end  of  the  solar  spectrum  hav^e  revolutionized 
our  ideas  of  the  radiations  from  the  sun.  A  more  complete 
account  of  this  work  will  be  found  elsewhere  in  this  volume. 

SOUND 

Although  the  number  of  papers  published  on  acoustics  is 
not  large,  some  of  them  represent  extremely  important  work. 

35 


53^  The  Smithsonian  Instittition 

One  of  these  is  a  paper  read  by  Henry  before  the  American 
Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science  in  1856.  Its  title 
was  "  On  Acoustics  AppHed  to  PubHc  Buildings."  He  had 
been  required  by  act  of  Congress  to  build  a  lecture  hall  in 
the  building:  which  was  erected  for  the  home  of  the  Smith- 
sonian  Institution,  and  he  desired  to  make  it  acoustically 
perfect  if  possible.  He  had  also  been  consulted,  along  with 
Professor  Bache,  of  the  Coast  Survey,  as  to  the  hall  of  the 
House  of  Representatives,  which  was  about  to  be  constructed 
in  the  new  wing  of  the  Capitol  building.  With  characteristic 
thoroughness  he  took  hold  of  the  problem,  and  in  its  study 
combined  both  observation  and  experiment.  He  visited  the 
principal  halls  and  churches  of  Philadelphia,  New  York,  and 
Boston,  and  also  made  an  extensive  series  of  experiments 
upon  reflection,  resonance,  and  refraction  of  sound  in  rooms 
and  halls  of  various  forms  and  sizes. 

The  results  of  these  investigations  were  utilized  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  Smithsonian  hall,  which  proved  to  be  entirely 
satisfactory.  The  paper  in  which  they  are  embodied  is  one 
of  the  few  important  and  valuable  contributions  toward  the 
solution  of  a  problem  which  is  still  perplexing. 

The  Report  for  1875  contains  a  very  interesting  discussion 
of  the  laws  of  refraction  of  sound,  by  Doctor  William  B. 
Taylor.  It  is  first  shown  that  the  velocity  of  a  sound-wave 
in  passing  through  a  gaseous  medium  may  be  disturbed  by 
variation  in  the  density  of  the  medium,  or  in  its  elasticity  or 
temperattire,  and  also  by  relative  motion  of  the  parts  of  the 
medium ;  that  is,  by  the  existence  of  currents.  Whatever 
produces  variations  of  velocity  in  different  parts  of  the  wave- 
front  will  cause  refj^actioii,  as  the  direction  of  a  sound  at 
any  point  is  perpendicular  to  the  wave-front  at  that  point. 
Refraction  due  to  variations  of  density  is  explained,  and  the 
experiments  by  which  Sondhauss  demonstrated  the  existence 


Physics  539 

of  this  refraction  in  1852  are  described.  There  is  a  clear 
presentation  of  Stokes's  theory  of  sound-refraction  due  to 
wind,  abstracted  for  the  most  part  from  his  paper  in  the  re- 
port of  the  British  Association  for  1857.  He  was  tlie  first  to 
show  that  on  the  side  of  the  source  of  sound  toward  the  point 
from  which  the  wind  was  blowing,  the  sound-waves  would  be 
flattened  and  the  sound  "ray"  reflected  upward,  so  that 
sounds  would  not  be  heard  at  distances  as  great  as  on  the 
other  side,  where  the  effect  is  to  make  the  wave  more  con- 
vex and  to  deflect  the  "ray"  downward.  This  explanation  is 
in  harmony  with  many  observed  facts,  and  especially  one 
noticed  by  Henry  in  1865  —  namely,  that  a  sound  moving 
against  the  wind,  and  inaudible  to  the  ear  on  the  deck  of  a 
schooner,  became  audible  on  ascending  to  the  mast-head. 
This  observation  had  suggested  the  idea  that  sound  was  more 
readily  conveyed  by  the  upper  current  of  air  than  by  the 
lower.  Some  very  important  practical  conclusions  came  from 
this  principle  of  wind  refraction,  one  being  that  a  continuous 
sound,  as  from  a  horn  or  whistle,  would  be  less  likel)-  to  be 
lost  by  refraction  due  to  adverse  winds  than  sounds  of  prac- 
tically a  single  impulse,  as  from  a  bell  or  gun  ;  also  that  it  is 
more  probable  that  sounds  of  a  high  pitch  will  be  more  inter- 
fered with  by  refraction  than  those  of  medium  tones  or  lower 
pitch. 

Refraction  from  inequality  of  the  temperature  of  horizontal 
layers  is  also  explained  at  length.  This  may  be  of  a  nature 
to  deflect  sound  rays  up  or  down,  according  as  the  lower  or 
upper  stratum  of  air  involved  is  at  the  highest  temperature. 
Variations  of  temperature  in  the  atmosphere  along  vertical 
lines  are  shown  to  be  sufficient  to  account  for  many  acoustic 
phenomena  with  which  all  observing  people  are  more  or  less 
familiar.  Among  them  may  be  mentioned  the  extraordinary 
distance  at  which  sounds  may  be  sometimes  heard,  especially 


540  The  Smithsonian  Institntion 

at  night,  and  also  the  remarkable  observations  made  by  Arctic 
explorers,  notably  Captain  Parry,  who  was  able  to  carry  on  a 
conversation  with  a  man  a  mile  and  a  quarter  away.  The 
clearness  of  sound  "  over  water,"  which  is  so  generally  recog- 
nized, is  accounted  for  on  the  same  principles. 

This  interesting  paper  is  a  fitting  prelude  to  the  extended 
and  elaborate  summary  in  the  Report  for  1878  of  Henry's  re- 
searches in  sound,  conducted  in  the  service  of  the  United  States 
Lighthouse  Board  during  the  years  1865  to  1877.  Henry's 
long  service  as  chairman  of  the  Lighthouse  Board  consti- 
tutes by  no  means  the  least  important  of  his  labors  in  the 
interests  of  the  general  public.  In  this  service  he  found 
opportunity  to  utilize  and  apply  his  knowledge  of  physical 
principles  and  the  universally  recognized  high  efficiency  of 
the  Lighthouse  establishment  is  due  more  to  his  intelligent 
administration  of  its  affairs  than  to  any  other  single  cause. 
His  researches  in  sound  were  among  the  most  valuable  of 
his  contributions  toward  the  betterment  of  the  service.  As 
every  one  knows,  the  presence  of  fog  along  the  coast  renders 
the  use  of  sound  signals  necessary;  and  for  this  purpose  bells, 
horns,  trumpets,  guns,  etc.,  have  long  been  in  use.  Many 
curious  and  often  contradictory  phenomena  have  been  noted, 
especially  in  regard  to  variations  in  audibility  under  different 
conditions,  and  the  subject  is  one  that  has  received  much 
attention  among  maritime  nations.  Generally  under  the  direc- 
tion of  Professor  Henry,  the  Lighthouse  Board  conducted  an 
extensive  series  of  experiments  during  the  years  mentioned 
above,  the  results  of  which  were  submitted  as  reports  to  the 
Board  and  published  by  it,  or,  in  some  instances,  read  before 
the  Washington  Philosophical  Society,  of  which  Henry  was 
President.  On  one  of  these  occasions  Professor  Tyndall, 
who  was  then  in  the  country  engaged  in  lecturing  in  the 
principal   cities,    was   present,    being   interested   through   his 


Physics  54 1 

connection  with  the  Lighthouse  service  in  England  and  by 
reason  of  his  own  experiments  on  the  absorption  of  sound. 
A  very  decided  difference  of  opinion  was  developed  at  a  later 
date  between  these  two  distinguished  physicists,  Professor 
Henry  disagreeing  with  Tyndall  in  the  matter  of  the  influ- 
ence of  fog,  rain,  snow,  hail,  etc.,  on  the  audibility  of  sounds. 
Tyndall  attributed  many  of  the  observed  abnormal  phenomena 
"to  the  existence  of  acoustic  clouds,  consisting  of  portions  of 
the  atmosphere  in  a  flocculent  or  mottled  condition,  due  to 
the  unequal  distribution  of  heat  and  moisture  which,  absorb- 
ing and  reflecting  the  sound,  produce  an  atmosphere  of 
acoustic  opacity."  Henry,  on  the  contrary,  while  not  deny- 
ing the  possible  existence  of  such  a  condition,  was  inclined  to 
attribute  such  phenomena  to  the  effect  of  the  wind,  in  accord 
with  the  hypothesis  of  Stokes,  referred  to  in  the  remarks  on 
the  paper  by  Doctor  Taylor.  The  discussion  growing  out  of 
this  difference  of  views  was  of  such  a  nature,  unfortunately, 
as  to  give  rise  to  some  irritation,  at  least  among  the  friends  of 
the  two  distinguished  physicists,  but  it  is  generally  believed 
that  subsequent  observations  have  tended  rather  to  confirm 
the  position  taken  by  Henry. 

Among  the  valuable  practical  results  of  these  researches  in 
sound  the  development  of  the  use  of  the  siren  as  an  instru- 
ment for  producing  sounds  of  great  intensity  must  be  men- 
tioned. 

In  his  last  report  to  the  Lighthouse  Board,  not  long 
before  his  death,  Henry  summarized  the  results  of  all  experi- 
ments conducted  by  the  Board  up  to  that  time,  a  few  of  the 
more  important  conclusions  being  as  follows :  The  audibility 
of  a  sound  at  a  distance  (the  state  of  the  atmosphere  being- 
constant)  depends  on  the  character  of  the  sound  :  to  secure 
audibility  at  a  distance,  the  pitch  of  the  sound  should  be 
"medium";  the  loudness,  depending  on  the  amplitude  of  vibra- 


542  TJie  Sniithsojiiau  Institution 

tion  of  the  sounding  body,  should  be  as  great  as  possible;  and 
the  "quantity"  of  sound,  depending  on  the  magnitude  of  the 
vibrating  surface,  should  also  be  great. 

The  audibility  also  depends  on  the  state  of  the  atmosphere, 
the  best  condition  being  that  of  perfect  stillness  and  uniformity 
of  density  and  temperature.  The  most  efficient  cause  of  the 
loss  of  audibility  is  the  direct  effect  produced  by  the  wind. 
While,  as  a  general  rule,  the  audibility  of  a  sound  is  greater 
on  the  side  toward  which  the  wind  "blows,"  this  is  due  to 
downward  refraction,  rather  than  to  the  simple  "  carrying 
effect "  of  the  wind,  which  would  hardly  be  sensible.  Further- 
more, there  are  instances  of  a  greater  audibility  on  the  wind- 
ward side,  which  is  to  be  explained  by  reference  to  a  domi- 
nant upper  wind,  opposite  in  direction  to  that  near  the  earth's 
surface. 

There  is  not  much  utility  in  concave  reflectors  or  other  de- 
vices for  "directing"  the  sound  along  certain  lines,  for  the 
tendency  of  the  wave  is  to  spread  with  great  rapidity,  so  that 
within  a  distance  of  three  or  four  miles  of  the  source  it  fills 
the  whole  space  of  air  within  the  circuit  of  the  horizon  and 
is  heard  nearly,  if  not  quite,  as  well  behind  the  trumpet  as 
before  it.  Neither  fog,  snow,  rain,  nor  hail  materially  inter- 
feres with  the  transmission  of  loud  sounds,  the  siren  having 
been  heard  at  a  greater  distance  during  the  prevalence  of  a 
dense  and  widely- extended  fog  than  during  any  other  condi- 
tion of  the  atmosphere.  Projecting  portions  of  the  land  or 
buildings  may  produce  sound  shadows,  so  that  a  sound  easily 
heard  at  a  distance  may  be  inaudible  on  nearer  approach. 
The  existence  of  an  "  aerial  echo  "  was  established,  the  ex- 
planation of  which  was  not  easy  to  see,  although  it  is  probably 
due  to  reflection  from  the  surface  of  the  sea. 

Investigations  of  a  similar  character  have  been  prosecuted 
in  a  more  or  less  irregular  fashion  by  the  Lighthouse  Board 


Physics  543 

since  the  death  of  Henry,  but  their  importance  would  appear 
to  justify  a  more  vigorous  treatment  of  the  subject. 

Of  a  less  technical  and  more  strictly  scientific  character  is 
the  reprint  in  the  Report  for  1890  of  Professor  Sylvanus  P. 
Thompson's  presentation  of  Koenig's  researches  on  "The 
Physical  Basis  of  Musical  Harmony  and  Timbre."  This  is 
the  address  made  by  Professor  Thompson  on  the  occasion  of 
Doctor  Rudolph  Koenig's  exhibition  before  the  London  Phys- 
ical Society  of  the  experimental  demonstration  and  illustration 
of  his  theory  of  harmony.  Professor  Thompson  proved  him- 
self to  be  a  charming  interpreter  and  exponent  of  one  of  the 
most  accomplished  experimentalists  and  profound  students  of 
acoustics  of  the  present  generation.  Few  have  done  as  much 
as  he  to  advance  the  science  of  acoustics,  ard  this  paper, 
which  embodies  his  advance  beyond,  and  departure  from, 
the  theory  of  Von  Helmholtz,  is  a  most  valuable  contribution 
to  science. 


METROLOGICAL 

A  NUMBER  of  the  publications  of  the  Institution  are  purely 
metrological  in  their  character.  Among  these  might,  indeed, 
be  included  the  extensive  "  reduction  tables,"  begun  under  the 
direction  of  Professor  A.  Guyot,  and  continued  in  various 
revisions  and  additions,  under  other  editors,  up  to  the  pres- 
ent time.  They  are  mostly  7neteorological  in  character,  and 
doubtless  will  receive  more  extensive  consideration  under 
that  head.  They  have  been  of  inestimable  value  to  physi- 
cists, however,  and  in  their  original  issue  and  maintenance 
the  Institution  aptly  illustrated  one  of  its  most  important 
functions. 

The  early  interest  felt  in  systems  of  measurement  is  shown 
in  a  paper  by   Professor  Guyot,  in  the  third  annual  Report 


544  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  now  quite  inaccessible.  It  was 
on  the  "Advantages  of  the  Metric  System  in  Scientific  In- 
vestigation," and  it  doubtless  did  efficient  duty  in  bringing 
the  system  to  the  attention  of  Americans  at  that  early  day, 
a  half  century  ago. 

The  Smithsonian  Report  for  1863  contains  two  pages 
of  "Tables  of  Weights  and  Measures,"  and  there  is  nothing 
to  show  by  whom  they  were  prepared.  They  are  mostly  de- 
voted to  showing  the  English  equivalents  of  the  various  units 
and  denominations  of  the  metric  system,  although  there  is 
also  a  partial  table  of  English  measures.  While  the  Report 
for  1865  was  passing  through  the  press,  Congress  passed  the 
"metric  law "  of  1866,  the  conversion  tables  in  which  had 
been  prepared  by  Professor  H.  A.  Newton,  of  New  Haven. 
This  law  and  these  tables  were  added  to  the  Report  for  1865 
as  an  appendix.  As  is  well  known,  the  fundamental  metric 
value  of  the  yard  as  then  adopted  is  now  the  recognized 
best  approximation.  It  is  worthy  of  note  that  in  the  print- 
ing of  these  tables,  as  well  as  those  of  1863,  the  spelling 
of  "metre,"  "litre,"  etc.,  and  their  derivatives  is  that  of  the 
French,  and  also  that  in  universal  use  among  the  English  ; 
and  it  is  to  be  regretted  that  the  Institution  has  in  later 
years  departed  from  an  orthography  which  has  everything 
to  recommend  it,  in  order  to  adopt  one  to  which  there  are 
many  serious  objections. 

Two  brief  papers,  metrological  in  character,  will  be  found 
in  the  Reports  for  1889  and  1891.  They  refer  to  time  meas- 
urement, the  first  being  on  "  Time-Keeping  in  Greece  and 
Rome,"  by  F.  A.  Seely ;  and  the  second,  "  Modes  of  Keeping 
Time  Known  Among  the  Chinese,"  by  Doctor  D.  J.  Magowan. 
Mr.  Seely  traces  the  origin  of  time  keeping  apparatus,  of 
which  the  sun-dial  and  water-clock,  or  clepsydra,  are  among 
the  earlier  forms,  and  both  probably  originated  in  the  Orient. 


Physics  545 

Doctor  Magowan  shows  that  at  a  very  early  period  the  Chinese 
possessed  time-keeping  devices  of  considerable  complexity, 
and  that  the  subject  of  time  division  and  measurement  re- 
ceived much  attention  at  their  hands  many  centuries  before 
the  Christian  Era. 

Professor  Harkness,  in  his  presidential  address  before  the 
Philosophical  Society  of  Washington,  has  given  an  interesting 
study  of  the  "  Progress  of  Science  as  Exemplified  in  the  Art 
of  Weighing  and  Measuring,"  and  a  reprint  of  it  appears  in 
the  Report  for  1888.  It  contains  much  matter  of  historical 
value,  especially  the  carefully  prepared  appendixes  showing 
the  principal  comparisons  of  early  English  and  other  impor- 
tant standards  of  lenorth  and  mass. 

The  Smithsonian  Report  for  1893  contains  an  article  on 
"Fundamental  Units  of  Measure,"  by  T.  C.  Mendenhall,  be- 
ing a  reprint  from  the  Transaciiojis  of  the  American  Society 
of  Civil  Engi7teers,  of  a  paper  read  before  the  International 
Engineering  Congress  of  the  Columbian  Exposition.  This  is 
a  brief  sketch  of  the  general  principles  of  metrology,  followed 
by  an  account  of  the  origin  of  the  English  system  of  weights 
and  measures,  and  a  statement  in  some  detail  of  the  actual  con- 
dition of  the  question  of  "  standards  "  in  the  United  States. 
The  official  announcement  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury 
is  there  given  of  the  adoption  of  the  national  prototype  meter 
No,  27  and  kilogram  No.  20  as  fundamental  standards  of 
length  and  mass,  the  yard  and  pound  to  be  defined  in  the 
future  in  terms  of  these  units.  The  article  concludes  with 
the  formal  announcement  of  the  Superintendent  of  Standard 
Weights  and  Measures,  with  the  approval  of  the  Secretary 
of  the  Treasury,  of  the  adoption  of  the  units  of  electrical 
measure,  with  their  definitions  as  formulated  and  agreed 
upon  by  the  International  Electrical  Congress  held  in  Chi- 
cago in  1S93. 


54^  The  Smithsonian  Institntion 

It  is  a  matter  of  interest  to  all  metrologists  to  know  that 
through  the  generosity  of  Doctor  Henry  Morton,  President 
of  the  Stevens  Institute  of  Technology  at  Hoboken,  the 
Ramsden  dividing  engine  has  recently  been  deposited  in  the 
National  Museum.  The  engine  was  built  about  1775,  and 
for  its  construction  Ramsden  received  a  reward  from  the 
English  Board  of  Longitude.  In  an  extremely  interesting 
paper  printed  in  the  Smithsonian  Report  for  1890,  Mr.  J. 
Elfreth  Watkins  gives  an  account  of  this  valuable  relic,  to 
which  he  has  added  much  important  information  regarding 
the  early  history  of  the  division  of  the  circle.  There  are 
also  some  details  of  the  methods  of  circle  graduation  by  lead- 
ing artists  of  a  century  ago,  and  the  whole  forms  an  impor- 
tant contribution  to  the  literature  of  the  subject. 

Under  this  head  should  also  be  mentioned  the  recent 
publication  (1896)  of  a  set  of  physical  tables  prepared  by 
Professor  Thomas  Gray.  These  give  evidence  of  great 
care  in  preparation,  excellent  judgment  in  selection,  and  a 
broad  knowledge  of  authorities  and  literature.  Their  ap- 
pearance is  very  welcome  to  physicists  and  all  students  of 
exact  science. 


TERRESTRIAL,   DYNAMICAL,  AND    MOLECULAR   PHYSICS 

It  has  already  been  intimated,  and,  in  fact,  every  one  familiar 
with  its  work  knows  —  that  the  Smithsonian  Institution  was, 
especially  during  the  first  quarter  of  a  century  of  its  exist- 
ence, very  active  in  the  promotion  of  terrestrial  physics.  It 
originated,  cultivated,  and  maintained  a  wide- spread  interest 
in  the  subject  of  meteorology,  organizing  a  remarkably  large 
and  enthusiastic  corps  of  volunteer  observers  and  collecting 
and   discussing  data   from   all   reliable  sources.      In  the  first 


Physics  547 

Smithsonian  Report  were  papers  by  Professors  Espy  and 
Loomis,  two  of  the  great  pioneers  in  meteorological  investiga- 
tion in  this  country.  Much  attention  was  given  to  the  study 
and  description  of  American  storms,  and  also  to  the  devis- 
ing of  suitable  instruments  for  meteorological  observers.  In 
accordance  with  its  traditional  policy,  however,  the  whole  me- 
teorological system,  which  had  been  developed  with  so  much 
care,  was  turned  over  to  the  War  Department  on  the  organi- 
zation of  the  Signal  Corps  as  a  weather  service,  about  twenty- 
five  years  ago.  The  work  of  the  Institution  in  furthering  the 
interests  of  meteorological  science  during  the  first  quarter  of 
a  century  of  its  existence  will  be  considered  in  another  part 
of  this  volume,  and  further  reference  to  it  here  is  unnecessary. 
In  the  Report  of  1855  is  printed  a  "  Circular  Relative  to 
Earthquakes,"  which  Professor  Henry  had  drawn  up  for  dis- 
tribution after  the  occurrence  of  a  shock.  He  submitted  nine 
questions  to  be  answered  by  any  one  who  had  been  disturbed 
by  it,  none  of  them  requiring  any  special  technical  knowledge. 
He  makes  a  single  suggestion  as  to  a  "  seismoscope  "  in  ob- 
serving that  the  direction  of  the  impulse  may  be  ascertained 
by  noting  the  direction  in  which  molasses,  or  any  viscid  liquid, 
was  upthrown  against  the  side  of  a  bowl.  Frequent  commu- 
nications descriptive  of  earthquake  phenomena  were  received 
and  mostly  published  in  the  Reports,  from  time  to  time.  In 
that  for  1859,  one  of  Mallet's  important  papers,  "  On  the  Ob- 
servation of  Earthquake  Phenomena,"  was  published.  This 
is  a  well-known  treatment  of  the  subject,  adniirable  in  its  day, 
but  in  large  measure  obsolete  now,  especially  that  part  of  it 
which  treats  of  instrumental  seismology.  An  advance  along 
that  line  is  shown  in  the  publication  in  the  Report  of  i8;o  of 
Palmieri's  description  of  his  electro-magnetic  seismograph, 
and  the  rapid  growth  of  this  science  is  again  reflected  in  the 
appearance  for  three  years,  beginning  in  1884,  of  special  Re- 


548  The  Sniithsonian  Institutiojt 

ports  on  the  progress  of  vulcanology  and  seismology,  prepared 
by  Professor  C.  G.  Rockwood,  Jr.,  of  Princeton  University. 
Modern  seismology  is  now  represented  in  the  collections  of 
the  Smithsonian  Institution  by  a  very  complete  suite  of  seis- 
mological  apparatus,  devised  by  Milne,  Gray,  Ewing,  and 
others,  and  mostly  used  in  the  investigation  of  seismic  phe- 
nomena in  Japan. 

Other  phases  of  terrestrial  physics  are  represented  in  a 
paper  published  in  i860  in  the  "Contributions,"  on  the 
"  Fluctuations  in  the  Level  of  North  American  Lakes,"  by 
Whittlesey,  and  one  on  "  Tidal  OBservations  in  the  Arctic 
Seas,"  published  at  the  same  time,  in  the  same  place.  To 
these  should  be  added  a  very  valuable  paper,  which  appeared 
in  the  Report  for  1874,  on  "Tides  and  Tidal  Action  in  Har- 
bors," by  J.  E.  Hilgard.  Closely  related  to  these  are  the 
monographs  by  General  J.  G.  Barnard,  of  the  United  States 
Engineers,  the  earliest  being  on  the  "  Problems  of  Rotary 
Motion  presented  by  the  Gyroscope,  the  Precession  of  the 
Equinoxes  and  the  Pendulum,"  which  was  published  in  the 
"Contributions"  in  1871.  It  consists,  properly,  of  three 
papers,  which  were  separately  read  before  the  National 
Academy  of  Sciences.  The  object  of  the  first  was  to  deduce 
the  analytical  expression  of  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes 
directly  from  the  theory  of  the  gyroscope,  a  suggestion  of 
which  the  author  had  made  as  early  as  1857  in  an  article  in 
the  American  Jotirnal  of  Science.  The  second  part  was  a 
mathematical  examination  and  analysis  of  the  "  Motions  of 
Freely  Suspended  and  Gyroscopic  Pendulums,"  and  "  On  the 
Pendulum  and  Gyroscope  as  Exhibiting  the  Rotation  of  the 
Earth,"  and  is  an  elaborate  discussion  of  the  very  interesting 
methods  of  proving  the  earth's  rotation  first  suggested  by 
Foucault.  The  third  part  is  "  On  the  Internal  Structure  of 
the   Earth   as   Affecting   the   Phenomena  of  Precession    and 


Physics  549 

Nutation."  In  this  General  Barnard  attacked  mathematically 
one  of  the  most  important  problems  of  recent  years,  and  his 
conclusion  was,  essentially  in  his  own  words,  as  follows : 
"  Regarding  the  crust  as  rigid,  I  incline  to  the  opinion  of  M. 
Delaunay,  that  the  consideration  of  the  phenomena  of  preces- 
sion and  nutation  can  furnish  no  datum  for  estimating  the 
greater  or  less  thickness  of  the  solid  crust  of  the  earth."  The 
second  monograph  referred  to  above,  published  among  the 
"Smithsonian  Contributions"  six  years  later,  is,  in  fact,  only 
supplementary  to  the  third  part  of  the  first.  In  the  mean 
time,  much  had  been  said  upon  the  subject,  especially  by  Sir 
William  Thomson,  and  General  Barnard  very  carefully  and 
conscientiously  reviews  his  own  work,  and  in  his  conclusion 
says  that  "  the  correction  of  grave  errors  of  conclusion  in 
papers  of  mine  published  under  the  sanction  of  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution,  and  ostensibly  deserving  the  ascription  of 
*  Contributions  to  Knowledge,'  is  a  peremptory  motive  for 
this  memoir."  But  he  further  desires  to  show  that  in  these 
papers  are  to  be  found  essential  elements  of  the  correct  solu- 
tion of  the  "  full  problem  of  precession  and  nutation,  and 
what  is  now  necessarily  included  in  it,  the  tides,  for  a  contin- 
uous revolving,  liquid  spheroid,  whether  heterogeneous  or 
homogeneous." 

The  question  is  again  taken  up  in  a  reprint  from  the 
Philosophical  Magazine,  of  an  article  by  Henry  Hennessy, 
who  had,  in  1878,  published  a  paper  on  the  same  subject  in 
the  same  journal.  His  attitude  in  the  controversy  may  be 
suspected  from  the  statement  that  "  geologists  are  the  ultimate 
judges  of  the  matter,  and  not  mathematicians."  In  his  final 
sentence  he  says  that  the  earth  cannot  consist  of  an  entirely 
solid  mass  composed  of  equi-elliptic  strata,  and  that  it  is, 
therefore,  partly  composed  of  a  solid  shell  .  .  .  with  an  in- 
terior mass  of  viscid  lic^uid,  such  as  is  seen   flowing  from  the 


550  The  Sniithsonian  Institution 

volcanic  openings  of  the  shell,  arranged  in  strata  conforming 
to  the  laws  of  hydrostatics ;  or,  in  other  words,  with  strata 
of  equal  density  decreasing  in  ellipticity  toward  the  earth's 
center."  The  same  Report  contains  Professor  R.  S.  Wood- 
ward's vice-presidential  address  before  the  Section  of  Mathe- 
matics and  Astronomy  of  the  American  Association  for  the 
Advancement  of  Science  at  the  Toronto  meeting  in  1889. 
This  is  a  historical  summary,  under  the  title  of  "  Mathematical 
Theories  of  the  Earth,"  of  the  principal  propositions  which 
have  been  from  time  to  time  advanced  in  reference  to  the 
same  subject,  and  is  an  extremely  satisfactory  performance. 
Closely  related  to  these  papers  are  Clarence  King's  "Age 
of  the  Earth,"  reprinted  in  the  Smithsonian  Report  for  1893; 
and  Sir  Robert  Ball's  article  on  "The  Wanderino-s  of  the 
North  Pole,"  in  the  same  volume.  The  former  is  a  valuable 
contribution  to  physical  geology,  the  author  being,  for  the 
most  part,  in  harmony  with  Kelvin,  Von  Helmholtz,  New- 
comb,  and  other  mathematical  physicists,  who  have  insisted 
on  a  much  shorter  period  of  past  life  for  the  earth,  in  any- 
thing like  its  present  condition,  than  is  usually  claimed  by 
geological  writers.  The  article  of  Sir  Robert  Ball,  reprinted 
from  the  Fortnightly  Review,  is  a  popular  exposition  of  the 
recent  investigations  regarding  variation  of  latitude,  in  which 
Doctor  S.  C.  Chandler  has  been  the  leader. 

At  an  early  period  in  its  history  the  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion recognized  the  importance  of  the  art  and  science  of 
aeronautics.  In  the  Report  for  i860  is  an  interesting  letter 
from  "distinguished  citizens  of  Philadelphia,"  requesting  the 
Institution  to  interest  itself  in  a  projected  passage  across  the 
Atlantic  "by  aeronautic  machinery,"  evidently  meaning  a 
balloon  as  the  principal,  if  not  sole,  feature.  To  this  Profes- 
sor Henry  replied,  giving  information  regarding  some  winds 
which  might  be  depended  upon  for  steadiness,  and  expressing 


Physics 


:)D 


a  lack  of  confidence  in  the  feasibility  of  extensive  aerial  navi- 
gation by  any  of  the  methods  then  proposed,  except  by  float- 
ing with  the  air  current  in  a  balloon  of  sufficient  size  and 
of  sufficient  impermeability  to  gas  to  enable  it  to  maintain 
a  high  elevation  for  some  time.  As  might  be  expected,  he 
counseled  more  extensive  experimentation  on  land  before 
crossing  the  ocean  was  attempted. 

The  Report  for  1863  contains  an  elaborate  account  by 
Arago  of  several  balloon  ascensions  made  in  the  interest  of 
the  advancement  of  science,  and  also  a  brief  sketch  of  some 
of  Mr.  Glaisher's  ascents.  The  subject  is  continued  in  subse- 
quent Reports,  one  paper,  "  On  the  Various  Modes  of  Flight," 
in  1867,  deserving  especial  mention,  on  account  of  the  great 
amount  of  information  it  contains  and  its  clear  enunciation  of 
fundamental  principles.  It  is  a  reprint  from  the  Proceedings 
of  the  Royal  Institution  of  a  lecture  given  by  Doctor  James 
Bell  Pettigrew.  A  careful  study  of  the  flight  of  birds,  bats, 
and  insects  is  followed  by  a  discussion  of  the  possibility  of 
human  flight,  and  the  importance  of  a  "screw"  in  aerial  navi- 
gation is  enlarged  upon. 

In  the  Report  for  1869  the  matter  of  flight  in  the  animal 
kingdom  receives  attention  in  the  publication  of  Marey's 
celebrated  lectures  on  that  subject.  In  the  Report  for  18S9 
there  is  a  reprint  of  a  very  able  discussion  of  the  subject 
of  aerial  locomotion  by  Y .  H.  Wenham,  first  read  before  the 
Aeronautical  Society  of  Great  Britain,  and  published  in  the 
annual  report  of  that  society  for  the  year  1866. 

In  the  mean  time  the  study  of  the  whole  question  of 
aerial  navigation,  whether  by  animals  or  by  men.  was  destined 
shortly  to  receive  a  new  impulse  through  the  labors  of  a  small 
number  of  scientific  investigators  who,  undismayed  by  the 
prevailing  belief  in  the  absurdity  of  the  thought  of  practical 
flying  machines,  had  attacked  the  problem   in    a   manner  in 


552  The  Sniithsonimi  Institution 

keeping  with  the  present  knowledge  of  physics  and  en- 
gineering. Of  these  none  has  pursued  the  subject  more 
assiduously,  or  made  more  valuable  contributions  toward  the 
solution  of  the  problem,  than  the  distinguished  Secretary  of 
the  Institution,  Doctor  Langley.  The  work  is  still  in  active 
progress,  but  it  is  proper  to  say  here  that  the  foundation  for 
it  was  laid,  in  a  large  measure,  in  a  series  of  experiments 
in  aerodynamics,  principally  carried  on  in  the  grounds  of 
the  Allegheny  Observatory,  Allegheny,  Pennsylvania.  They 
are  to  a  great  extent  a  study  of  the  aeroplane,  and  Doctor 
Langley's  report  of  the  work  was  published  among  the  "  Con- 
tributions" of  1 89 1.  A  portion  of  the  work  done  in  Alle- 
gheny, supplemented  by  additional  studies  made  later  at  the 
Smithsonian  Institution  in  Washington,  gave  rise  to  another 
very  important  memoir  by  the  same  author,  published  in  the 
same  series  in  1893.  Its  title  is  "The  Internal  Work  of  the 
Wind."  The  principal  conclusions  reached  in  the  investigation 
are  as  follows:  "That  the  wind  is  not  even  an  approximately 
uniform  moving  mass  of  air,  but  consists  of  a  succession  of 
very  brief  pulsations  of  varying  amplitude,  and  that,  relatively 
to  the  mean  movement  of  the  wind,  these  are  of  varying 
direction."  From  this  fundamental  proposition,  established 
by  experiment,  it  is  inferred  that  there  is  a  potentiality  of  "in- 
ternal work  "  in  the  wind  which  is  probably  large ;  that  it  is 
no  contradiction  to  known  principles  of  dynamics  to  declare 
that  an  inclined  plane  or  properly-curved  surface,  heavier 
than  the  air  and  immersed  in  it,  may  be  supported,  or  even 
rise,  indefinitely  without  expenditure  of  energy  other  than 
that  necessary  to  change  the  aspect  of  its  inclination  at  each 
pulsation  ;  also  that  the  possibility  of  such  a  surface  making 
advance  against  the  direction  of  the  wind  follows  not  only 
relatively  to  the  wind,  but  absolutely  in  reference  to  a  fixed 
point.      It  is  hardly  necessary  to  say  that  these  conclusions 


Physics  553 

are  of  the  utmost  importance  in  the  development  of  practical 
aeronautics.  In  the  same  year  the  Smithsonian  Report  con- 
tains a  paper  on  "  Problems  in  Flying,"  by  Otto  Lilienthal, 
and  another  on  "  Practical  Experiments  in  Soaring,"  by  the 
same  author.  The  interesting  performances  of  this  indefatig- 
able experimenter  are  well  known,  and  these  short  papers, 
taken  in  connection  with  the  monographs  of  Langley,  consti- 
tute a  striking  illustration  of  the  tremendous  advances  made 
in  this  subject  during  the  past  few  years. 

In  studies  of  molecular  physics  nothing  has  appeared  in  re- 
cent years  more  interesting  than  the  work  of  Plateau  on 
"  Liquid  Films  and  Figures  of  Equilibrium  in  Liquid  Masses," 
the  first  of  which  appeared  in  the  Smithsonian  Report  for 
1863.  Few  investigations  have  exhibited  more  experimental 
skill  than  these,  and  the  exquisite  illustrations  of  the  laws  that 
determine  the  equilibrium  of  liquid  films  which  Plateau  de- 
vised and  described  render  his  work  classical.  The  wide 
publications  of  these  important  papers,  which  were  continued 
from  year  to  year  in  Smithsonian  Reports  up  to  that  for  1866, 
constitute  almost  an  era  in  the  development  of  our  knowledge 
of  surface  tension,  liquid  equilibrium,  and  capillarity.  Among 
other  papers  on  molecular  physics  which  are  to  be  found 
in  the  publications  of  the  Institution,  one  on  "  Boscovich's 
Theory,"  by  Lord  Kelvin,  in  the  Report  for  1887;  another  on 
the  "  Molecular  Structure  of  Matter,"  by  William  Anderson, 
and  still  another  on  "  Phenomena  Connected  with  Cloud 
Condensation,"  by  John  Aitken,  should  have  special  mention. 
In  the  volume  for  1893  there  is  a  reprint  from  the  Fort- 
iiightly  Review  of  Sir  Robert  Ball's  article  on  "  Atoms  and 
Sunbeams,"  which  is  a  popular  presentation  of  the  molecular 
theory  of  gases,  with  an  application  to  the  maintenance  of  the 
sun's  heat.  The  Report  for  1892  reproduces  two  papers  on 
"  Solution,"  one  by  Professor  Ramsay,  and  the  other  by  Pro- 
36 


554  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

tessor  Orme  Masson;  and  that  for  1891  contains  an  interesting 
paper  by  Professor  Hallock,  on  the  "Flow  of  Solids,"  orig- 
inally published  as  a  bulletin  by  the  United  States  Geological 
Survey.  Under  the  same  general  class  is  the  memoir  by 
Professor  Edward  W.  Morley  on  "  The  Densities  of  Oxygen 
and  Hydrogen  and  the  Ratio  of  their  Atomic  Weights,"  which 
appeared  as  one  of  the  "  Smithsonian  Contributions"  in  1895. 
In  this  elaborate  research  Professor  Morley  was  assisted  by 
grants  from  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  and  he  was  thus  en- 
abled to  make  by  far  the  most  exhaustive  study  of  the  subject 
that  has  yet  appeared,  and  his  results  are  everywhere  acknow- 
ledged to  possess  a  degree  of  accuracy  hitherto  unapproached. 
Reference  must  not  be  omitted  to  a  few  papers  of  no  great 
length,  but  of  extreme  interest  and  value,  more  fully  related 
to  dynamical  problems,  and  especially  to  the  theory  and 
measurement  of  the  force  of  o-ravitation.  Among:  them  is 
one  on  the  "  Nature  and  Origin  of  Force,"  by  Doctor  William 
B.  Taylor,  printed  in  the  Smithsonian  Report  for  1870,  and 
another  by  the  same  author,  on  "  Kinetic  Theories  of  Gravi- 
tation," published  in  1876.  The  last  is  a  particularly  valuable 
critical  history  of  the  most  important  theories  regarding 
gravitation  from  Newton  to  Clerk  Maxwell.  In  the  Report 
for  1888  there  is  a  somewhat  condensed  account  of  Wilsing's 
determination  of  the  density  of  the  earth  by  his  ingenious 
"pendulum  balance"  method.  It  is  worth  while  remarking, 
in  reference  to  this,  that  the  Smithsonian  Institution  has  for 
many  years  rendered  cooperative  assistance  to  scientific  men 
engaged  in  the  determination  of  the  value  of  the  force  of 
gravity.  A  special  room  in  the  basement  of  the  building, 
particularly  adapted  to  this  work,  was  long  ago  set  aside  for 
use  as  a  pendulum  room,  and  it  was  for  many  years  regarded 
as  the  "base  station"  for  the  extensive  gravity  work  of  the 
United  States  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey. 


Physics  555 


MISCELLANEOUS  AND   TECHNICAL 

The  publications  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  include  a  large 
number  of  papers  more  closely  related  to  physics  than  to  any 
other  science,  but  yet  of  a  miscellaneous  or  technical  nature. 
Brief  reference  to  a  few  of  these  will  be  desirable.  One  of  the 
earliest  is  a  "  Syllabus  of  a  Course  of  Lectures  in  Physics," 
prepared  by  Joseph  Henry  and  published  in  the  Smithson- 
ian Report  for  1856.  It  was  originally  intended  to  continue 
this  syllabus  in  subsequent  reports,  but  this  was  not  done. 
As  published,  it  is  restricted  to  a  general  outline  of  the  course, 
with  an  abstract  of  the  general  properties  of  matter  and  a 
beginning  in  mechanics.  Although  prepared  forty  years  ago, 
any  instructor  in  physics  will  do  well  to  examine  it  carefully. 
In  the  same  volume  there  is  a  paper  on  the  "Mode  of  Testing 
Building  Material,"  also  by  Henry,  originally  read  before  the 
American  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science.  It  is 
essentially  a  report  of  the  most  important  results  obtained  by 
a  commission  appointed  by  the  President  of  the  United  States 
for  the  purpose  of  examining  the  marble  used  in  the  extension 
of  the  United  States  Capitol,  of  which  commission  Henry  was 
a  member.  The  paper  contains  a  number  of  interesting  con- 
clusions based  on  the  experimental  work  of  the  commission, 
notably  those  relating  to  the  use  of  lead  plates  in  crushing 
cubes  of  stone ;  the  composition  of  the  marbles  used  in  the 
wings  of  the  Capitol  is  given,  and  there  are  some  thoughtful 
remarks  on  the  general  subject  of  molecular  cohesion,  as  illus- 
trated in  the  use  of  the  testing-machine.  In  the  Reports  for 
i860  and  1 86 1  will  be  found  a  course  of  five  lectures  on 
"  Roads  and  Bridges,"  by  Fairman  Rogers,  then  professor  of 
civil  engineering  in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania.  They 
contain  much  extremely  valuable  material  for  a  people  among 


556  The  Sinithsoiiian  Institution 

whom  even  now,  a  generation  later,  road-building  has  hardly 
passed  the  temporary  stage. 

Important  technical  papers  are  printed  in  the  Smithsonian 
Report  for  1864,  including  an  extract  from  the  memoir  on 
the  **  Preservation  of  Copper  and  Iron  in  Salt  Water,"  by 
Becquerel,  the  translation  of  which  was  furnished  by  Admiral 
C.  H.  Davis,  then  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Navigation  of  the 
Navy  Department.  This  is  followed  by  an  equally  impor- 
tant paper  on  the  preservation  of  wood,  in  which  the  principal 
mechanical  and  chemical  methods  of  treatment  are  discussed. 
There  is  also  an  interesting  paper  on  "  Caoutchouc  and  Gutta- 
percha," and  also  one  on  the  "  Products  of  the  Combustion 
of  Gun-cotton  and  Gun-powder,"  thus  illustrating  the  mar- 
velous parallel  growth  of  the  arts  of  peace  and  of  war  in  the 
United  States  during  these  years.  In  the  Report  for  1870 
there  is  an  almost  prophetic  letter  by  Henry,  to  an  unknown 
correspondent,  in  reference  to  the  character  and  importance 
of  a  "physical  observatory."  He  refers  to  his  interest  in  the 
examination  of  several  European  institutions  of  this  class 
during  a  recent  visit  abroad,  of  the  very  interesting  and  im- 
portant work  which  they  may  accomplish,  and  gives  some 
excellent  advice  as  to  their  organization  and  management. 
There  is  one  sentence  which  cannot  be  too  frequently  quoted, 
in  which  he  says,  "  It  is,  therefore,  in  the  highest  degree  in- 
judicious in  the  founding  of  an  establishment  to  exhaust  the 
source  of  its  power  by  architectural  display  not  absolutely 
required,  and  which  may  forever  involve  a  continual  expense 
from  the  remaining  funds  to  keep  them  in  repair."  He  speaks 
of  findinor  in  Encjland  "  observations  which  have  challenged 
the  admiration  of  the  world,"  carried  on  in  a  temporary 
structure  made  of  rough  boards,  unplastered,  and  hardly  more 
than  fifteen  feet  square.  This  condition  of  things  the  Institu- 
tion has  itself  practically  repeated  after  a  score  of  years. 


Physics  557 

In  1873  there  was  issued  among  the  "Miscellaneous  Con- 
tributions "  the  beginning  of  a  very  important  series  of  statis- 
tical publications,  under  the  general  title  of  "  The  Constants 
of  Nature,"  by  Professor  F.  W.  Clarke.  Part  i  of  the  series  con- 
sists of  a  table  of  specific  gravities,  boiling  and  melting  points 
for  solids  and  liquids,  and  chemical  formula;.  It  has  been 
supplemented  and  revised  from  time  to  time,  the  latest  addi- 
tion bearing  date  of  1888.  Other  volumes  contained  tables 
of  specific  heats,  coefficients  of  expansion,  etc.,  and  that  con- 
taining atomic  weights  was  compiled  by  Mr.  G.  F.  Becker. 
The  whole  series,  to  which  additions  are  being  continually 
made,  has  hardly  a  rival  in  any  language,  and  its  issue  well 
illustrates  the  usefulness  of  the  publication  feature  of  the 
Smithsonian  Institution.  The  Smithsonian  Reports  for  1873 
and  1874  contain  a  technical  paper  of  considerable  length  and 
great  value  "  On  Warming  and  Ventilating  Occupied  Build- 
ings," by  the  well-known  French  engineer  and  technologist, 
Morin.  Its  reproduction  was  most  timely,  for  little  consider- 
ation was  given  this  important  matter  by  architects  and 
builders  a  quarter  of  a  century  ago.  The  Report  for  1880 
contains  a  reprint  from  the  report  of  the  United  States  Light- 
house Board  for  1875  of  Henry's  "Investigations  Relative  to 
Illuminating  Material,"  made  in  the  interest  of  the  Lighthouse 
establishment.  This  is  a  detailed  account  of  the  earlier 
stages  of  the  study  of  illuminants  carried  on  by  the  Board 
during  the  past  thirty  years,  which  has  resulted  in  the  exclu- 
sive use  of  petroleum  oils  in  the  Lighthouse  service.  Pro- 
fessor Henry's  report  brings  the  work  down  to  the  begiiiniiig 
of  this  use. 

With  the  Report  for  1880  there  was  begun  a  series  of  an- 
nual "  Reports  of  Progress  "  in  the  various  branches  of  sci- 
ence, prepared  by  well-known  specialists.  This  series  was 
discontinued  in  1888,  for  reasons  given  in  the  Smithsonian 
36* 


55^  The  Smithsonian  Instittition 

Report  for  that  year.  The  editing  of  the  "  Progress  in  Phys- 
ics "  was  during  these  years  assigned  to  Professor  George  F. 
Barker,  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  and  no  one  else  so 
well  fitted  for  the  work  could  have  been  found.  The  series 
of  "  Reports  of  Progress,"  which  appeared  from  1880  to  1887, 
as  far  as  it  relates  to  the  science  of  physics  leaves  nothing  to 
be  desired ;  the  references  to  original  sources  are  very  com- 
plete, and  both  the  busy  specialist  and  the  intelligent  student 
of  general  physics  willingly  acknowledge  their  indebtedness 
to  Professor  Barker  and  the  Institution.  It  is  not  yet  certain 
that  any  other  publication  exactly  fills  the  place  of  this. 

A  few  other  publications  of  a  miscellaneous  or  technical 
character  remain  to  be  noticed,  one  of  the  most  important 
being  Professor  Huxley's  famous  "Jubilee  Year  Address"  on 
the  "Advance  in  Science  in  the  Last  Half  Century,"  which 
will  always  stand  as  a  classical  contribution  to  the  scientific 
history  of  a  remarkable  period.  Emblematic  of  the  growth 
of  engineering  skill  during  the  same  period  are  the  carefully- 
prepared  papers  on  the  Eiffel  Tower  in  the  same  volume.  A 
technical  paper  of  much  interest  "  On  the  Absolute  Measure- 
ment of  Hardness,"  by  F.  Auerbach,  is  published  in  the  Re- 
port for  1 89 1,  the  English  translation  of  which  was  furnished 
by  Professor  Carl  Barus  ;  while  the  volumes  for  1890  and  1893 
contain  examples  of  splendid  experimental  skill,  in  two  papers 
by  Professor  Boys,  the  first  being  the  celebrated  Royal  Insti- 
tution lecture  on  "  Ouartz  Fibers,"  and  the  second  that  on 
"  Electric  Spark  Photographs  of  Flying  Bullets,"  delivered 
in  1892  at  the  Edinburgh  meeting  of  the  British  Associa- 
tion for  the  Advancement  of  Science.  The  "  Ouartz  P"ibers  " 
lecture  was  almost  epoch-making  in  character,  for  it  intro- 
duced to  general  use  a  simple  and  elegant  device  for  the  sus- 
pension of  light  bodies,  which  has  enormously  increased  the 
accuracy  of  a  large  and  important  class  of  physical  measure- 


Physics  559 

ments,  a  remarkable  example  of  which  is  to  be  seen  in  the 
work  of  Professor  Boys  himself  in  his  classical  determination 
of  the  constant  of  gravitation. 

By  no  means  the  least  important  publications  of  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution  have  been  the  series  of  memoirs,  eulogies, 
biographies,  and  autobiographies  of  distinguished  scientific 
men  which  have  been  printed  in  the  Smithsonian  Reports 
from  the  earlier  to  the  later  issues.  Great  interest  attaches 
to  the  personality  and  private  life  and  character  of  men  of 
distinction,  and  this  is  no  less  true  in  science  than  elsewhere. 
Besides,  these  memoirs  and  eulogies  often  furnish  the  most 
complete  and  concise  account  of  the  scientific  work  of  their 
subjects,  and  furnish  information  of  this  kind  not  elsewhere 
available.  The  Smithsonian  Reports  have  put  into  the  hands 
of  physicists  biographical  memoirs  of  such  men  as  Priestley, 
Delambre,  Faraday,  Eaton  Hodgkinson»  Thomas  Young, 
Herschel,  Laplace,  De  la  Rive,  \  olta,  and  Kirchhoff,  among 
others,  and  four  of  these  came  from  Arago,  whose  own  auto- 
biography, entitled  "The  History  of  My  Youth,"  published 
in  the  Report  for  1870,  is  one  of  the  most  charming  sketches 
to  be  found  in  any  language.  The  memoir  of  Kirchhoff,  by 
Von  Helmholtz,  is  full  of  interest  to  every  physicist,  and  the 
"  Historical  Sketch  of  Henry's  Relation  to  the  Telegraph," 
by  Doctor  W.  B.  Taylor,  published  in  the  Report  for  1879,  is 
a  document  of  great  scientific  value. 

Another  interesting  and  valuable  feature  of  the  Smithsonian 
Reports  is  the  publication  from  time  to  time  of  reports  on 
the  transactions  of  various  European  societies,  especially  the 
Society  of  Physics  and  Natural  History  of  Geneva,  abstracts 
of  whose  transactions  were  published  annually  for  nearly  a 
quarter  of  a  century. 

The  publication  of  prize  problems  and  of  medals  and 
prizes  offered  by  various  scientific  societies,  including  the  In- 


560  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

stitute  of  Bologna,  the  Holland  Society  of  Science,  the  Impe- 
rial Academies  of  Science  in  Bordeaux  and  Vienna,  the  Lon- 
don Institution  of  Civil  Engineers,  the  Royal  Academy  of 
Science  in  Brussels,  the  Royal  Prussian  Academy  of  Science, 
and  others,  was  a  matter  of  interest  to  men  of  science  in 
America,  and  was  greatly  helpful  in  directing  their  efforts. 
In  the  above  review  of  the  work  of  the  Institution  along 
the  line  of  physics,  it  has  been  impossible  to  look  much 
beyond  what  is  reflected  in  its  numerous  publications. 
Throughout  its  fifty  years  of  existence  there  has  been  some- 
thing besides  this,  however, —  less  tangible,  it  is  true,  but  often 
more  effective, —  in  the  ready  disposition  of  its  authorities 
to  render  assistance  to  every  man  engaged  in  original  inves- 
tigation which  was  likely  to  prove  of  value,  and  for  which 
support  was  not  easily  obtained  from  other  sources.  Many 
physicists,  in  America  and  elsewhere,  can  testify  to  the  valu- 
able cooperation  of  the  Institution,  To  the  general  public  it 
has  been  easy  of  access,  and  its  resources  in  the  way  of 
obtaining  information  have  always  been  at  their  command. 
The  Smithsonian  Reports  have  been  especially  valuable  as 
a  means  of  diffusing  a  knowledge  of  the  more  important 
advances  in  physical  sciente,  for  there  is  hardly  a  discovery 
of  moment,  or  a  notable  expression  of  opinion  on  the  part 
of  a  man  of  distinction,  that  has  not  found  a  place  in  this 
most  valuable  annual.  All  scholars  note  with  pleasure  its 
increase  in  size  from  year  to  year,  and  physicists  welcome 
the  increasing  recognition  of  their  science.  Under  the  wise 
direction  of  one  of  the  first  physicists  of  the  present  time,  it 
is  natural  to  indulge  in  the  hope  and  expectation  that  in  the 
years  to  come  the  Smithsonian  Institution  will  be,  even  more 
than  in  the  past,  the  center  of  intellectual  activity  of  the 
Western  Continent,  and  the  friendly  patron  of  original  re- 
search everywhere. 


MATHEMATICS 

By  Robert  Simpson  Woodward, 

Professor  of  Mechanics,  Columbia  University 

L'idee  du  progr^s,  dii  developpement,  me  parait  etre  I'idee  fondamentale  contenue 
sous  le  mot  de  civilisation. — GuizOT. 


M  ON  GST  the  causes  which  have  made  for 
civiUzation  during  the  past  half-century,  the 
progress  of  science,  it  would  seem,  must  be 
given  a  very  prominent,  if  not  the  first  place. 
Governmental,  commercial,  social,  ethical,  and 
religious  institutions  and  influences  have  each  played  an 
important  role  in  the  general  advance  of  humanity  ;  but  the 
pervading  thought,  the  points  of  view,  and  the  intellectual 
activities  have  been  predominantly  scientific.  To  the  world  at 
large  the  most  striking  results  of  this  progress  of  science  are 
found  in  material  benefits.  The  ease  of  intercommunication 
by  telegraph  and  telephone  ;  the  facility  of  transportation 
by  railway  and  steamship ;  the  prevention  of  disease  by  ra- 
tional sanitation,  and  the  mitigation  of  pain  by  rational 
surgery,  along  with  a  multitude  of  other  benefits,  appeal 
directly  and  forcibly  to  the  popular  sense.  To  the  student 
of  civilization,  on  the  other  hand,  the  most  important  results 

of  that    progress  are   found    in    the    development  of  a    dis- 

56. 


562  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

tinctively  scientific  method  of  investigation,  and  in  the  dis- 
covery of  two  far-reaching  laws  of  nature,  namely,  the  law 
of  conservation  of  energy  and  the  law  of  evolution  of  organic 
forms. 

The  scientific  method  is  not  new.  It  has  been  followed 
more  or  less  closely  throughout  the  history  of  modern  science. 
From  Galileo  to  Newton,  from  Newton  to  Laplace,  from 
Laplace  to  Darwin,  the  same  method  of  patient  observation, 
of  measuring,  of  weighing,  of  correlating,  is  discernible.  But 
it  has  now  reached  such  a  degree  of  definiteness,  and  its  effi- 
ciency in  the  search  for  truth  is  now  so  generally  recognized, 
that  it  has  come  to  be  known  by  common  consent  as  the 
scientific  method.  Subjects  as  diverse  as  philology  and  cos- 
mogony, substances  as  different  as  zinc  and  protoplasm, 
media  as  distinct  as  the  air  and  the  ether,  systems  as  widely 
separated  as  those  of  Sirius  and  Jupiter,  have  each  been  sub- 
jected to  the  observation,  the  experiment,  and  the  reasoning 
which  are  characteristic  of  this  method.  By  its  aid,  indeed, 
almost  every  field  of  inquiry  has  been  cultivated,  and  few 
fields  have  failed  to  yield  fresh  accessions  to  knowledge. 

In  the  domain  of  the  mathematico-physical  sciences  no 
generalization  of  the  period  in  question  is  comparable  in 
importance  with  that  of  the  doctrine  of  energy.  In  this  doc- 
trine the  earlier  conception  of  the  impossibility  of  perpetual 
motion  is  replaced  by  the  clearer  and  broader  conception  of 
the  impossibility  of  creating  or  destroying  energy.  All  me- 
chanical systems,  and  all  of  the  varied  mechanical  phenomena 
presented  by  the  universe,  are  thus  held  to  exhibit  the  com- 
mon property  of  conservation  of  energy.  It  is  to  the  recog- 
nition of  this  law  that  are  due  in  a  large  degree  the  recent 
remarkable  developments  in  the  useful  applications  of  ther- 
modynamics, electricity,  and  magnetism;  while  the  exigencies 
of  those  developments  have  stimulated  in  a  noteworthy  man- 


Mathematics  s  6  ^ 


0^0 


ner  numerous  researches  in  pure  mathematics.  As  a  corollary, 
almost,  has  resulted  also  a  more  or  less  complete  correlation 
of  the  sciences  of  heat,  light,  electricity,  and  magnetism  ;  and 
a  still  further  correlation,  if  not  a  complete  unification,  is  con- 
fidently expected.  In  the  rational  investigation  of  physical 
phenomena  the  question  of  the  energy  involved  is  everywhere 
uppermost;  and  no  such  investigation  meets  the  requirements 
of  the  present  day  unless  the  source,  the  transformations,  and 
the  resultant  form  of  the  energy  are  accounted  for. 

Along  with  the  rapid  growth  and  multiplication  of  the  sci- 
ences which  have  been  such  prominent  characteristics  of  the 
civilization  of  the  past  half-century,  there  is  noticeable  also  a 
rapid  growth  in  the  interrelations  of  those  sciences.  Chemis- 
try, for  example,  has  come  to  be  closely  allied  to  physics  ; 
physics  is  largely  applied  mechanics ;  geology  shades  off  by 
easy  gradations  into  physical  geodesy  ;  physical  geodesy  is 
only  a  branch  of  dynamical  astronomy  ;  while  mathematics 
is  an  indispensable  instrument  for  all  of  them,  and  biology 
must  evidently  in  the  near  future  draw  heavily  on  most  of 
them  for  the  solution  of  its  problems.  It  is  in  this  growth 
of  interrelations  that  one  may  discern  the  beginnings  of  cor- 
relations and  generalizations  which  will  simplify  and  unify  the 
appalling  aggregate  of  knowledge  now  presented  by  the 
sciences.  And  it  is  thus  that  the  evils  of  specialization,  which 
have  been  somewhat  deplored  of  late,  evils  necessary  to  the 
fact-gathering  stage  of  the  sciences,  will  find  their  proper 
correction. 

If  such  have  been  the  characteristic  features  of  the  progress 
of  science  in  general  during  the  past  fifty  years,  what  role  is 
to  be  assigned  to  the  mathematical  work  which  has  been  pro- 
moted directly  or  indirectly  by  the  Smithsonian  Institution  in 
the  fields  of  American  science  ?  To  the  casual  reader  of  the 
bulky  catalogue  of  the  "Contributions  to  Knowledge,"  "Mis- 


564  TJie  Smithsonian  Institnfion 

cellaneous  Collections,"  and  "Annual  Reports,"  issued  in 
1886,  it  might  appear  that  the  Institution  has  done  little 
toward  the  increase  and  diffusion  of  mathematical  knowledge. 
But  no  such  conclusion  can  be  justly  reached  in  the  light  of 
anything  like  a  comprehensive  view  of  the  work  of  the 
Smithsonian  Institution  in  the  advancement  of  science.  It  is, 
indeed,  essential,  first,  to  understand  this  work  as  a  whole  be- 
fore any  of  its  parts  can  be  duly  appreciated.  Relatively,  it  is 
clear  that  mathematics,  the  oldest  and  most  perfect  of  the  sci- 
ences, has  been  much  less  in  need  of  encouragement  during 
the  period  in  question  than  the  physical  and  natural  sciences. 
Moreover,  the  necessities  of  American  life  have  called,  until 
very  recently,  for  the  applications  rather  than  for  the  abstract 
theories  of  mathematics.  It  is  a  natural  and  logical  outcome, 
therefore,  of  the  conditions  of  science  and  of  American  life 
that  the  bulk  of  the  work  of  the  Institution  should  be  found 
in  the  physical  and  natural  sciences.  But  these,  in  the  aggre- 
gate, require  for  their  interpretation  the  whole  range  of 
mathematics ;  and  since  it  is  through  the  concrete  that  the 
abstract  is  approached,  the  diffusion  of  mathematical  know- 
ledge has  doubtless  been  greater  by  this  indirect  process 
than  it  could  have  been  by  any  direct  means.  Thus  the  en- 
couragement and  aid  given  by  the  Smithsonian  Institution 
to  astronomy,  geodesy,  meteorology,  and  physics,  especially, 
must  be  rated  as  of  great  importance ;  for  mathematical 
studies  in  this  country  have  been  cultivated  hitherto  chiefly 
as  a  means  to  the  attainment  of  the  objects  of  those  other 
sciences. 

The  history  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  is  practically 
coextensive  with  the  history  of  the  Naval  Observatory,  or- 
ganized in  1842,  and  with  that  of  the  Coast  and  Geodetic 
Survey  as  reorganized  in  1843.  ^^  these  governmental 
bureaus   which    make    extensive    use    of    pure    and    applied 


Mathematics  :;  6  ^ 


0^0 


mathematics  the  Institution  has  always  shown  a  Hvely  inter- 
est, and  much  of  the  success  of  their  earher  work  seems  to 
be  directly  traceable  to  the  wise  counsel  and  warm  support 
of  Joseph  Henry.  The  more  recent  governmental  organiza- 
tions, the  Weather  Bureau  and  the  Geological  Survey,  whose 
work  is  also  largely  dependent  on  mathematical  science, 
have  drawn  their  inspiration,  as  well  as  a  great  part  of  their 
working  data,  directly  from  the  Smithsonian  Institution. 

The  interest  taken  by  Joseph  Henry  in  the  progress  of  the 
more  abstruse  mathematical  theories  of  astronomy  and  geod- 
esy forms  a  noteworthy  feature  of  his  annual  reports.  These 
reports  show  that  the  Institution  was  in  touch  with  the  ablest 
mathematicians  of  the  country,  and  that  no  branch  of  their 
science  was  so  abstract  as  to  be  beyond  the  recognition  and 
aid  of  the  Secretary.  It  seems  strange  in  the  present  day 
of  open  avenues  to  the  publication  of  meritorious  works  that 
at  a  time  less  than  fifty  years  ago  there  could  have  been  diffi- 
culty in  finding  a  publisher  for  so  great  a  treatise  as  Pro- 
fessor Benjamin  Peirce's  "  Analytical  Mechanics."  Still  more 
strange  does  it  appear  that  the  cooperation  of  the  Smithsonian 
Institution  with  the  Navy  Department  should  have  been  es- 
sential to  secure  the  publication  of  so  important  a  work  as 
Davis's  translation  of  Gauss's  "Theoria  Motus  Corporum 
Coelestium."  But  publishers  in  those  days  found  little  demand 
for,  and  less  profit  in,  contributions  to  knowledge.  Science  as 
such  had  not  yet  been  recognized  by  the  colleges,  and  there 
were  only  a  few  men,  mostly  in  the  Eastern  States,  who  found 
in  their  surroundings  any  encouragement  of  their  devotion  to 
abstract  studies.  Even  the  orovernment  bureaus,  like  the 
Naval  Observatory,  the  Nautical  Almanac  Office,  and  the 
Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey,  had  not  yet  reached  an  indepen- 
dent footing  in  regard  to  the  publication  of  researches  indis- 
pensable to  the  progress  of  their  work.      It  is  only  in  the  light 


566  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

of  these  circumstances  that  one  can  appreciate  the  value 
of  the  services  rendered  by  the  Smithsonian  Institution  in  the 
encouragement  of  mathematical  research  in  this  country 
during  the  fifteen  years  preceding  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil 
War.  At  the  time  of  the  publication  of  Peirce's  "Analytical 
Mechanics,"  in  1855,  as  appears  from  the  list  of  subscribers, 
there  were  in  the  United  States  only  nine  institutions  or 
libraries  whose  authorities  or  patrons  evinced  any  desire  for 
such  a  work.  Of  these  institutions  the  Smithsonian  was  the 
leading  subscriber,  undertaking  the  distribution  of  twenty- 
five  copies  of  the  treatise,  while  its  merits  were  the  subject 
of  special  remark  by  the  Secretary  in  his  annual  report  of 
the  time.  A  little  later,  in  1857,  through  the  good  offices  of 
Joseph  Henry,  was  brought  out  Davis's  translation  of  the 
master-work  of  Gauss  already  referred  to.  It  was  in  this 
period,  likewise,  that  the  Smithsonian  Institution  extended 
its  aid  to  the  mathematical  monthly  founded  by  Professor  J. 
D.  Runkle  in  1858,  which  promised  to  give  an  important 
stimulus  to  mathematical  work  in  this  country,  but  which 
failed  to  secure  adequate  support  with  the  advent  of  the  ab- 
sorbing questions  of  the  Civil  War.  During  these  ante- 
bellum days,  also,  were  begun,  largely  through  the  influence 
of  Joseph  Henry  and  the  aid  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution, 
those  invaluable  researches  in  terrestrial  magnetism  which 
have  since  been  so  widely  extended  by  the  Coast  and  Geo- 
detic Survey  through  the  indefatigable  labors  of  Mr.  Charles 
A.  Schott.  In  the  laborious  and  refined  calculations  required 
by  such  researches  Henry  evinced,  as  shown  by  his  annual 
reports,  the  warmest  interest,  even  going  so  far  as  to  call 
conspicuous  attention  to  the  application  of  Peirce's  criterion 
for  the  rejection  of  doubtful  observations  in  the  discussion 
of  magnetic  and  meteorological  data.  In  later  years,  also,  he 
did  much  to  stimulate   mathematical   research   in  dynamical 


Mathematics  567 

astronomy,  physical  geodesy,  and  mechanical  meteorology, 
some  of  the  most  important  papers  of  the  century  on  these 
subjects  being  directly  due  to  his  suggestions  and  encourage- 
ment. Throughout  his  career  as  Secretary  he  was  in  close 
contact  with  the  most  profound  mathematical  thought  of  the 
day,  and  although  not  a  professed  mathematician,  few  men 
of  his  time  could  have  been  more  fertile  in  suggesting  sub- 
jects for  mathematical  research.  Science  knows  no  nation- 
ality, but  the  pride  of  Americans  may  be  excused  for  enter- 
taining a  regret  that  Henry  did  not  have  his  mathematician 
as  Faraday  had  his  Maxwell. 

Of  the  various  mathematical,  geographical,  magnetic,  me- 
teorological, and  physical  tables  giving  numerical  data  and 
rules  for  their  application,  published  by  the  Smithsonian  In- 
stitution, little  need  be  written  here.  Suffice  it  to  remark 
that  these  tables  have  been  widely  used,  and  are  of  great 
utility ;  while  their  educational  value  has  doubtless  been  of 
equal  importance  with  their  practical  usefulness.  Intimately 
related  to  these  tables,  and  in  many  cases  incorporated  with 
them,  is  the  information  which  the  Institution  has  dissem- 
inated with  regard  to  the  simplicity  and  advantages  of  the 
metric  system,  whose  adoption  by  our  country  seems  now 
near  realization.  Since  the  legalization  of  the  use  of  the 
metric  system  in  the  United  States  by  act  of  Congress  in 
1866,  the  Institution  has  published  many  tables  facilitating 
the  interconversion  of  English  and  metric  weights  and  mea- 
sures. The  most  elaborate  of  these  were  prepared  by  Pro- 
fessor H.  A.  Newton  in  1866.  The  importance  of  this  in- 
formation, freely  disseminated  by  the  Institution,  can  hardl\- 
be  overestimated  by  one  who  looks  beyond  his  own  day  and 
generation. 

As    an    indirect    means    for  promoting   the   cultivation   of 
mathematics,  the  numerous  memoirs  on  mathematico-physical 


568  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

subjects  published  by  the  Smithsonian  Institution  must  be 
rated  as  of  great  importance.  Among  these  may  be  cited  the 
astronomical  papers  of  Walker,  Gould,  Runkle,  Newcomb, 
and  Stockwell ;  the  papers  on  heat,  light,  electricity,  and 
magnetism,  by  Meech,  Bache,  Barnard,  Miiller,  De  La  Rive, 
Helmholtz,  Maxwell,  and  others ;  the  papers  on  meteorology 
of  Henry,  Schott,  Coffin,  and  Abbe ;  the  remarkable  re- 
searches of  Plateau  ;  and  the  more  recent  elaborate  summa- 
ries of  current  progress  in  astronomy,  geology,  meteorology, 
and  physics.  Falling,  as  these  papers  have,  under  the  eyes 
of  a  great  many  readers,  they  cannot  have  failed  to  produce 
a  wide-spread  interest  in  the  one  science  which  is  a  common 
necessity  to  all  sciences  that  have  to  deal  with  quantitative 
relations.  To  this  general  diffusion  of  mathematico-physical 
knowledge  by  the  Smithsonian  Institution  must  be  ascribed, 
in  a  large  measure,  the  noteworthy  impulse  which  mathemati- 
cal study  and  research  have  acquired  in  the  United  States 
during  the  past  two  decades. 

Another  indirect  means,  no  less  potent  than  that  just 
mentioned,  in  stimulating  mathematical  inquiry  is  found  in 
the  numerous  memoirs  on,  and  biographies  of,  distinguished 
devotees  to  the  mathematico-physical  sciences  published  in 
the  annual  Reports  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution.  Nothing 
is  more  interesting  and  inspiring,  for  example,  than  Arago's 
admirable  biographical  notices  of  Laplace,  Young,  Herschel, 
Ampere,  and  others,  which  have  been  translated  by  the  Insti- 
tution and  given  wide  publicity  through  those  annual  Reports. 
In  this  connection,  also,  mention  should  be  made  of  the  semi- 
popular  addresses  on  various  subjects  in  the  physical  sciences, 
which  have  likewise  reached  the  reading  public  through  the 
annual  Reports.  The  seeds  of  knowledge  and  inspiration 
sown  broadcast  in  this  manner  have  taken  root  in  many 
minds ;  and  it  is   doubtless  due  in   no  small   degree   to  the 


Mathematics  569 

general  enlightenment  thus  disseminated  that  something  like 
adequate  provision  has  been  recently  attained  in  our  colleges 
and  universities  for  the  pursuit  of  the  higher  branches  of 
mathematical  science. 

A  summary  comparison  of  the  status  of  mathematical 
science  in  our  country  at  the  time  of  the  foundation  of  the 
Smithsonian  Institution  with  the  present  status  shows  that 
great  progress  has  been  made  during  the  half-century  which 
has  since  elapsed.  At  the  beginning  of  this  period  a  few 
only  of  our  educational  institutions  afforded  opportunities  for 
the  pursuit  of  studies  in  mathematics  beyond  the  elements  of 
algebra  and  geometry.  Now  almost  every  State  in  the  Union 
has  a  college  or  technological  school  whose  curriculum  em- 
braces the  calculus,  with  its  applications  to  mechanics,  astron- 
omy, geodesy,  etc. ;  and  not  a  few  of  our  institutions  of  learn- 
ing are  provided  with  the  libraries  and  the  teaching  staff 
essential  to  the  prosecution  of  research  in  the  most  advanced 
fields  of  pure  and  applied  mathematics.  At  the  beginning 
of  this  period  there  was  no  journal  in  the  country  devoted  to 
purely  mathematical  work.  Now  there  are  three  such  jour- 
nals, while  many  others  offer  ready  publication  to  the  physi- 
cal and  technological  applications  of  mathematics.  During 
the  past  two  decades,  particularly,  there  has  been  a  note- 
worthy development  throughout  the  country  of  interest  in  all 
branches  of  pure  mathematics.  Quite  recently  our  mathe- 
maticians have  organized  an  association,  under  the  name  of 
the  American  Mathematical  Society,  for  the  special  purpose 
of  advancing  their  favorite  science  ;  and  the  reproach  of  Eu- 
ropeans that  we  have  hitherto  shown  little  capacity  for  cul- 
tivating the  more  abstract  domains  of  mathematics  seems 
destined  to  be  removed  in  the  near  future  by  the  formation 
of  a  distinctively  American  school  of  mathematicians.  Not 
less  striking  and  gratifying  than  these  advances  in  a  theo- 

Z1 


570  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

retical  and  educational  way  are  the  advances  made  in  the 
way  of  appHcations  in  the  mathematico-physical  sciences. 
Observational  and  dynamical  astronomy,  geophysics,  meteor- 
ology, thermodynamics,  and  engineering  in  all  its  branches 
have  nowhere  been  cultivated  more  diligently  and  success- 
fully during  the  past  fifty  years  than  in  the  United  States. 
Many  individuals  and  many  institutions,  of  course,  have  con- 
tributed to  bring  about  this  progress  ;  but  all  have  been  ani- 
mated by  the  same  desire  that  has  been  so  effectively  carried 
out  by  the  founder  and  the  administrators  of  the  Smithsonian 
Institution,  a  desire  to  increase  knowledge  and  to  diffuse 
knowledge  among  men. 


ASTRONOMY 


By  Edward  Singleton  Holden 

Director  of  the  Lick  Observatory 

[T  is  the  object  of  the  present  chapter  to  set  forth, 
with  such  fullness  as  is  permitted  by  the  neces- 
sary limitations    of  space,  the  services  of  the 
Smithsonian  Institution  to  astronomy  during  the 
half-century  of  its  existence,  from  1846  to  1896, 
In  this  department  of  science,  as  in  others,  the  Institution 
has  steadily  kept  in  view  the  two  high  ideals  formulated  by 
its  founder  —  namely,  the  increase  of  natural  knowledge  and 
its  wide  diffusion  amonof  men. 

In  the  prosecution  of  these  ideals  it  has  engaged  in  the 
most  diverse  investigations,  either  directly  or  indirectly. 
Directly — by  the  individual  researches  of  its  Secretaries  and 
other  officers:  indirectly — in  varied  ways;  by  personal  in- 
fluence upon  scientific  societies  and  individuals  and  with  Con- 
gress ;  by  service  upon  scientific  boards  and  councils ;  by 
advice  in  the  formation  of  scientific  programs ;  by  subsidies 
freely  granted  in  aid  of  research  ;  by  the  loan  of  its  halls  or 
apparatus  for  special  investigations  ;  by  opening  the  pages 
of  its  publications  to  the  printing  of  scientific  memoirs  and 

of  popular  summaries  and  bibliographies;  and  by  distributing 

571 


5/2  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

these  and  other  pubHcations,  without  cost,  to  thousands  of  its 
correspondents  all  over  the  civilized  globe. 

It  is  by  these  and  like  services  to  the  world  at  large  that 
the  Institution  is  known  and  valued  among  the  wide  commu- 
nity of  scientific  men. 

But  this  enumeration  does  not  in  itself  exhibit  the  im- 
mense influence  which  it  has  exerted  in  its  own  country. 
Up  to  the  beginning  of  the  war  of  the  Revolution  American 
science  was  in  leading-strings  as  the  child  of  British  learn- 
ing. It  was  not  until  the  first  third  of  the  present  century 
had  elapsed  that  any  considerable  part  of  the  energies  of 
our  young  country  could  be  turned  from  pressing  material 
needs  and  devoted  to  scientific  ends.  It  was  of  the  first  im- 
portance that  the  beginnings  of  independent  investigation 
among  Americans  should  be  directed  toward  right  ends,  and 
by  high  and  unselfish  aims.  In  the  formation  of  a  scientific 
standard  among  us,  a  few  names  will  ever  be  remembered, 
and  among  them  that  of  Professor  Henry,  the  first  Secre- 
tary of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  stands  preeminent.  The 
ardent  spirit  of  his  early  manhood  excited  his  contemporar- 
ies to  a  generous  emulation,  and  it  ripened  with  time  to  a 
broad,  grave,  and  kind  wisdom,  which  profoundly  influenced 
a  younger  generation  of  scholars,  his  successors  and  his  scien- 
tific children. 

It  is  not  unlikely  that  the  greatest  service  of  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution  to  the  country  has  been  the  constant  ex- 
hibition, in  its  general  policy  and  in  its  daily  relations  for 
half  a  century,  of  a  high  and  generous  ideal.  Its  influence  in 
this  direction  cannot  be  over-estimated  ;  and  the  source  of  this 
influence  was  in  the  character  of  its  organizer.  Any  sketch 
of  its  services  would  be  most  inadequate  which  failed  to  em- 
phasize this  fundamental  point. 

A  complete  list  of  all  the  publications  of  the  Smithsonian 


Astronomy  573 

Institution  during  the  fifty  years  of  its  existence  is  given 
elsewhere.  By  consuking  this  Hst  the  chronological  order  of 
its  contributions  to  astronomy  can  be  seen.  I  have  chosen 
to  arrange  the  present  chapter  not  chronologically,  but  by 
subjects,  so  as  to  bring  out  more  prominently  the  very  varied 
activities  of  the  Institution  and  its  unfailing  and  impartial 
sympathy  with  any  research  likely  to  increase  the  sum  of 
knowledge. 

SOLAR    ECLIPSES 

The  Institution  has  taken  an  active  part  in  researches  con- 
nected with  solar  eclipses  by  preparing  and  distributing  in- 
formation concerning  them,  and  by  subsidizing  expeditions  to 
observe  their  phenomena. 

In  1 85 1,  Doctor  Busch,  of  Konigsberg,  had  made  a  da- 
guerreotype of  an  eclipse.  The  annular  eclipse  of  May  26, 
1854,  was  observed  in  the  United  States,  according  to  instruc- 
tions sent  out  by  the  Institution,  and  was  photographed  by 
Professor  W.  H.  C.  Bartlett  in  West  Point,  and  by  Professor 
S.  Alexander  in  Princeton.  The  expense  of  these  experi- 
ments was  borne  by  the  Smithsonian  Institution. 

The  eclipse  of  September  7,  1858,  was  observed  by  Lieu- 
tenant J.  M.  Gilliss  at  Olmos,  in  Peru,  by  the  aid  of  a  subsidy 
from  the  Institution,  and  his  report  is  printed  in  \'olume  xi 
of  the  "Contributions  to  Knowledo-e" 

The  eclipse  of  July  18,  i860,  also  was  observed  by  expe- 
ditions sent  from  the  Smithsonian  Institution  under  Professor 
Alexander  (to  Labrador)  and  Lieutenant  Gilliss  (to  Washing- 
ton Territory). 

Among  the  collections  of  the  Institution  is  a  map  con- 
structed by  Professor  J.  H.  Coffin,  "on  which  are  delineated 
the  paths  of  all  the  great  solar  eclipses  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 


-.7* 


574  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

tury  which  traverse  the  United  States.  These  are  nine  in 
number.  Seven  of  them  have  passed  ;  the  first  of  the  remain- 
ing two  will  occur  in  October,  1865,  and  the  other  in  August, 
1869."  The  foregoing  quotation,  from  the  Report  for  1854, 
is  interesting  as  showing,  incidentally,  how  the  distribution  of 
the  population  in  the  United  States  has  changed  since  1854, 
for  besides  those  named  there  were  two  other  great  eclipses 
visible  within  our  territory  —  namely,  that  of  July,  1878,  from 
Wyoming  to  Texas;  and  that  of  January,  1889,  in  northern 
California  and  Nevada;  but  in  making  his  map  of  1854 
Professor  Coffin  did  not  think  it  worth  his  while  to  chart 
these  tracks  which  passed  through  unknown  wildernesses. 
They  were  both  well  observed,  however,  by  parties  who 
traveled  by  railway  from  the  Atlantic  seaboard,  bringing 
complete  equipments  in  photography  and  spectroscopy. 

The  Reports  of  1878  and  of  1879  refer  to  a  work  by  Pro- 
fessor D.  P.  Todd,  undertaken  under  the  auspices  of  the  In- 
stitution, relating  to  the  interpretation  of  the  observations  of 
ancient  eclipses  of  the  sun,  with  special  reference  to  the  de- 
termination of  the  moon's  secular  acceleration.  This  work 
has  not  yet  been  published. 

A  series  of  photographic  prints  of  the  corona  as  seen  at 
the  total  solar  eclipse  of  January,  1889,  was  issued  by  the 
Institution  under  the  editorship  of  Professor  D.  P.  Todd,  as  a 
separate  quarto,  but  was  not  included  in  the  regular  series  of 
"Contributions  to  Knowledge."  It  consisted  of  nine  pages 
of  text,  with  two  photographic  plates,  showing  nine  different 
views  of  the  solar  corona  during  the  total  eclipse. 

This  comprises  all  of  the  active  work  pertaining  to  solar 
eclipses  that  has  been  accomplished  by  the  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tution, although  the  United  States  National  Museum  has 
profited  greatly  by  collections  that  have  been  gathered  by 
the  different  parties  sent  out. 


Astronomy  575 


THE   SOLAR    CORONA    DISCUSSED    BY   SPHERICAL    HAR- 
MONICS, BY    PROFESSOR   FRANK   H.   BIGELOW 

The  structure  of  the  solar  corona,  as  exhibited  on  photo- 
graphs, consists  of  polar  rays,  four  "wings"  symmetrically  dis- 
posed on  two  axes,  and  extensive  equatorial  wings.  These 
appearances  seen  in  the  meridian  section  must  be  translated 
into  corresponding  zones  and  sectors  on  the  figure  of  revolu- 
tion of  the  sun.  The  paper  of  Professor  Bigelow  proposes  to 
make  this  interpretation  by  the  theory  of  spherical  harmonics, 
on  the  supposition  that  we  see  a  phenomenon  similar  to  that 
of  free  electricity,  the  rays  being  lines  of  force  and  the  coronal 
matter  being  discharged  from  the  body  of  the  sun,  or  arranged 
and  controlled  by  these  forces.  The  first  business  of  the  paper 
is  to  put  these  pre-suppositions  into  mathematical  form,  and 
to  construct  the  theoretical  lines  of  equipotential  and  of  force. 

This  theory  once  formulated,  the  next  step  is  to  test  it  by 
the  corona,  and  for  this  purpose  the  corona  of  January,  1889, 
is  chosen,  as  exhibited  on  the  photographs  made  by  the  par- 
ties of  the  Lick  Observatory  and  of  the  Harvard  College 
Observatory.  The  test  has  been  applied  by  the  author  to  the 
two  photographs,  and  his  conclusion  is  that  the  phenomena 
displayed  on  the  photographs  are  explained  by  the  theory. 
The  paper  is  admittedly  a  provisional  one.  and  it  forms  part 
of  a  much  wider  research  now  in  progress  on  the  problem  of 
the  transference  of  energy  from  the  sun  to  the  earth. 

This  paper  comprises  twenty-two  pages  and  is  illustrated 
with  four  diagrams,  and  one  phototype  plate.  It  was  published 
in  quarto  form  in  the  same  style  as  that  of  the  "  Smithsonian 
Contributions  to  Knowledge,"  but  was  not  included  in  the 
volumes  of  that  series.      It  was  given  to  the  public  in  1889. 


576  The  Smithsoniaii  Institution 


LIST   OF   OCCULTATIONS  VISIBLE   IN   THE 
UNITED    STATES,  AND    ELSEWHERE 

At  the  date  of  the  foundation  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution 
(1846)  the  vast  territory  west  of  the  Mississippi  River  was 
unmapped,  and,  in  a  large  measure,  unknown.  One  of  the 
first  practical  duties  of  astronomers  was  to  take  scientific 
possession  of  it  —  to  determine  the  latitude  and  longitude 
of  points  within  it  which  would  serve  as  origins  for  detailed 
surveys.^ 

The  great  precision  of  longitudes  determined  by  obser- 
vations of  occultations  was  early  recognized  by  American 
astronomers,^  and  from  the  year  1848  onwards,  lists  of  such 
phenomena  were  printed  and  distributed  by  the  Smithsonian 
Institution.  The  calculations  and  tables  were  made  by  Mr. 
John  Downes,  and  his  results  were  of  great  service  to  the 
officers  of  the  United  States  Coast  Survey,  to  the  topograph- 
ical engineers  of  the  Army,  and  to  other  explorers  and  sur- 
veyors. They  were  especially  useful  in  the  newly-acquired 
territory  on  the  Pacific  Coast. 

Faithful  to  its  general  and  wise  policy,  the  Institution 
carried  on  the  preparation  and  publication  of  these  tables 
until  the  establishment^  of  the  **  American  Ephemeris"  enabled 
a  transfer  of  this  responsibility  to  be  made  to  other  competent 
hands. 


1  "  When  we  consider  the  character  and  2  Occultations  were  regularly  observed  at 

condition   of  the  vast   Continent   of  North  Harvard    College   Observatory   during    the 

America,  which  it  belongs  to  us  chiefly  to  years  1846  to  1850.     See  "  Memoirs  of  Anier- 

reduce    to   a  habitable   and    civilized    state,  ican  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  Second 

we  shall   perceive  that  the  practical  scien-  series,"  Volume  iii,  1848. 

tific  explorer   has  no   higher  duty  than   to  3  The  preparation  of  the  "  American  Ephe- 

settle   the    geography,   the    magnetism,    the  meris  "  was  begun  in  1849,  and  the  theoreti- 

natural    history,   and    the   climate   of  these  cal  portion  of  the  work  w.as  placed  under  the 

regions." — "Smithsonian      Report,"     1852,  direction    of  Benjamin    Peirce,  of   Harvard 

page  237.  University. 


JAMES  ABEAM   GARFIELD. 

REGENT  OF  THE  SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION, 
1865-1873,  1878-1879. 


uized  by  ^\n 


t   l-l    C  »_1    L 


:S   pitjpciraLioii   acu    puuiiCc^iiuii   oi    uic- 
:.ablishrnen    '     '  '         "  merican  Ephemeris"  enai 
nsibility  to  be  mad.  her  c- 


■..it, 


ddSf^^^^  .^At 


OTP,  r_PTP.  t  rinp,  r 


>w': 


Astronomy  577 


LUNAR  PHOTOGRAPHY 

The  Report  for  1893  contains  the  following  paragraph  on 
this  subject,  written  by  Doctor  Langley,  explaining  the  plans 
of  the  Institution : 

"  I  have  been  interested  for  a  considerable  time  in  the 
possibility  of  preparing  a  chart  of  the  moon  by  photography^ 
which  would  enable  geologists  and  selenographers  to  study 
its  surface  in  their  cabinets  with  all  the  details  before  them 
which  astronomers  have  at  command  in  the  use  of  the  most 
powerful  telescopes.  Such  a  plan  would  have  seemed  chimer- 
ical a  few  years  ago,  and  it  is  still  surrounded  with  difficulties; 
but  it  is  probable  that  within  a  few  years  it  ma)-  be  success- 
fully carried  out. 

"  No  definite  scale  has  been  adopted,  but  it  is  desirable  that 
the  disk  thus  presented  should  approximate  in  size  one  two- 
millionth  of  the  lunar  diameter ;  but  while  photographs  have 
been  made  on  this  scale,  I  do  not  think  any  of  them  show 
detail  which  may  not  be  given  on  a  smaller  one.  I  have 
been  favored  with  the  cooperation  and  interest  in  this  work 
of  the  director  of  the  Harvard  College  Observatory,  of  the 
Lick  Observatory,  and  others,  who,  in  response  to  a  letter 
addressed  to  them  on  February  10,  1893,  have  obliged  me 
with  many  valuable  suggestions.  This  important  work  is 
still  under  advisement." 

In  aid  of  experiments  in  lunar  photography  at  the  Lick 
Observatory,  several  small  and  timely  grants  of  money  have 
been  made. 

The  present  state  of  the  research  at  Mount  Hamilton  is 
that  its  focal  negatives  (about  five  and  one  quarter  inches  in 
diameter)  are  being  enlarged  by  photography  to  a  scale  of  ten 
feet  to  the  diameter  by  Professor  L.  Weineck.  Director  of  the 
Observatory  in   Prague,  and  it  is  expected  that  a  complete 


578  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

atlas  of  the  whole  moon  will  soon  be  published  on  this  scale 
from  Lick  Observatory  negatives  chiefly  (a  few  sheets  from 
the  excellent  Paris  negatives)  by  the  aid  of  a  grant  from  the 
Vienna  Academy  of  Sciences. 

An  enlarging  lens  provided  by  the  Smithsonian  Institution 
allows  direct  enlargements  in  the  telescope  (5  diameters)  to  be 
made,  and  the  resulting  grain  of  the  plate  is  proportionally 
finer.  It  is  the  hope  of  the  Lick  Observatory  to  prepare  the 
plates  for  two  complete  maps  of  the  moon  from  these  direct 
enlargements, 

First :  To  a  scale  of  three  Paris  feet  to  the  diameter  (the 
scale  of  Madler's  map)  ; 

Second :  To  a  scale  of  six  Paris  feet  to  the  diameter  (the 
scale  of  Schmidt's  map). 

The  first  of  these  will  serve  for  most  observatory  purposes, 
and  for  a  general  portrayal  of  the  lunar  features.  Several 
sheets  of  this  map  have  already  been  published. 

The  second  will  be  especially  fitted  for  a  more  detailed 
exhibition  of  the  geologic  and  topographic  features  in  the 
manner  referred  to  by  Doctor  Langley.  Nothing  but  the 
great  expense  of  the  plates  prevents  the  immediate  prosecu- 
tion of  these  plans. 


THE    ORBIT   OF    NEPTUNE 

Neptune  was  discovered  in  1846  by  Professor  Galle  in  Berlin 
from  predictions  by  Leverrier,  and  the  announcement  of  this 
brilliant  achievement  was  received  with  enthusiasm  in  Europe 
and  in  America. 

It  was  essential  to  calculate  its  orbit  as  soon  and  as  com- 
pletely as  possible  from  the  short  arc  of  its  path  traversed 
since  the  first  observation  of  Galle.      If,  by  chance,  the  planet 


Astrono7ny  5  79 

had  been  previously  observed  as  a  fixed  star,  it  would  be  of 
f-reat  importance  to  recover  such  an  observation,  and  thus  to 
make  a  longer  arc  of  the  planet's  orbit  available. 

Professor  Sears  C.  Walker,  at  that  time  one  of  the  astron- 
omers of  the  United  States  Naval  Observatory,  undertook 
the  investigation,  utilizing  the  first  four  months  during  which 
the  planet  had  been  under  observation. 

He  first  computed  a  preliminary  orbit,  and  traced  the 
motion  of  the  planet  backwards  to  determine  in  what  portion 
of  the  sky  and  at  what  time  it  might  possibly  have  fallen 
among  the  fixed  stars  of  some  catalogue  and  have  been 
observed  as  one  of  them. 

His  methodical  manner  of  procedure  was  sure  to  detect 
such  an  observation  if  it  had  been  made,  so  that  it  was  by  no 
accident  that  he  discovered  an  ancient  determination  of  the 
position  of  the  planet  among  the  zone  observations  of  Lalande 
in  1795. 

In  this  way  a  position  of  the  planet  was  obtained  fifty  years 
earlier  than  the  date  of  its  discovery,  and  a  long  arc  of  its 
orbit  was  determined  by  observation  instead  of  a  very  short 
one.  With  the  data  thus  available  Walker  calculated  new 
elements  of  the  planet  and  prepared  ephemerides  of  its 
positions  each  year  from  1846  onwards.  Much  of  this 
computation  was  done  at  the  expense  of  the  Smithsonian 
Institution,  and  the  results  were  duly  printed  in  the  "Con- 
tributions to  Knowledge "  and  they  constitute  a  work  of 
sterling  value. 

The  orbit  of  Neptune  was  also  investigated  by  Professor 
Peirce,  of  Harvard  College,  and  the  principal  perturbations 
calculated,  so  that  the  pure  elliptic  orbit  of  Walker  could 
be  corrected  for  the  action  of  the  disturbing  planets,  and 
the  ephemeris  correspondingly  improved.  The  discovery  of 
Lalande's  early  observation,  and  the  prompt  utilization  of  it 


580  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

by  Walker,  was  a  genuine  service  to  science  by  American 
astronomy. 

A  perusal  of  this  and  other  works  of  Walker  —  and  of  those 
of  Coffin,  Gould,  Gilliss,  Hubbard,  Peirce,  and  others,  his  col- 
leagues and  contemporaries  —  will  go  far  to  exhibit  to  students 
of  the  present  generation  how  thoroughly  American  astron- 
omy of  fifty  years  ago  was  grounded  in  the  classic  methods 
of  Gauss,  Bessel,  and  Struve. 

A  very  complete  history  of  the  discovery  of  Neptune,  writ- 
ten by  Doctor  B.  A.  Gould,  was  printed  and  distributed  by 
the  Institution  in  1850  as  an  octavo  pamphlet. 

The  "Contributions  to  Knowledge"^  in  1866  contains 
an  investigation  of  the  orbit  of  Neptune  and  tables  of  its 
motion,  being  the  first  publication  of  the  long  series  of 
such  researches  which  are  owed  to  Professor  Newcomb. 

The  theory  of  Neptune  had  previously  been  investigated 
by  Peirce  and  Walker  in  America,  and  by  Kowalski  and 
Wackerbarth  in  Europe.  But  in  1863  the  difference  between 
observation  and  calculation  had  risen  to  ^2!'  ^^^  22"  in  the 
two  coordinates,  and  the  theory  evidently  required  revision 
in  order  to  perfect  the  tables,  on  the  one  hand,  to  see  if  the 
discrepancies  might  arise  from  a  trans- Neptunian  planet. 
This  is  one  of  the  four  main  problems  proposed  for  solution 
by  the  author,  the  others  being  a  new  determination  of  the 
elements  from  the  40°  already  traversed  by  the  planet  in 
its  orbit ;  a  new  determination  of  the  mass  of  Uranus  ;  and  the 
construction  of  tables  covering  the  dates  from  a.  d.  1600  to 
2000. 

The  formuLne  for  perturbations  are  developed  in  chapter 
II,  and  seven  normal  places  from  1846  to  1863  are  formed. 
Lalande's  observation  of  i  795  receives  a  new  and  careful  re- 
duction, which  shows  it  to  differ  from  the  adopted  theory  by 

1  Volume  x\%  first  paper. 


Astronomy  581 

only  2" .  3  in  longitude,  o".  7  in  latitude.  The  normals  formed 
from  modern  observations  differ  about  o".  3,  which  gives  no 
support  to  the  suspicion  of  a  trans-Neptunian  planet,  although 
nothing  is  definitely  settled,  as  a  planet  exterior  to  Neptune 
might  exist  and  yet  give  small  evidence  of  its  attractions  dur- 
ing the  years  i  795-1 863.  The  standard  system  of  star-places 
adopted  is  that  of  Gould.  The  mass  of  Uranus  resulting 
from  the  discussion  is  21000-  Observations  with  the  great 
telescope  in  Washington  (made  by  Newcomb  in  1874  and 
later)  give  2^0- 

New  elements  of  the  planet  are  deduced,  two  of  which 
may  well  be  quoted  here,  viz.  :  Mean  distance,  30.07055  ; 
periodic  time,  164.782  Julian  years. 


THE   ORBIT   OF   URANUS 

Professor  Newcomb's  "  Investigation  of  the  Orbit  of  Uranus," 
with  tables  of  its  motion,  was  published  as  No.  262  of  the 
"Contributions  to  Knowledge"  in  1873. 

The  work  was  undertaken  as  early  as  1859,  and  the  orbit 
of  Neptune,  just  referred  to,  was  a  part  of  the  general  re- 
search. 

The  first  chapter  of  the  work  is  devoted  to  a  method  of 
development  of  the  perturbations  which  is  novel  in  many 
respects,  and  is  especially  suited  to  the  particular  problem  in 
hand.  With  improved  elements  and  methods  the  research 
was  again  begun  in  1868,  and  carried  to  its  termination  in 
1873,  by  the  aid  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  and  of  the 
"American  Ephemeris." 

In  the  Report  for  1872  Professor  Newcomb  presents  some 
considerations  on  the  scope  of  his  researches,  from  which  the 
following  is  taken. 


582  The  Sniithsoiiimi  Instihition 

"  The  first  chapter  of  the  work  gives  an  exposition  of  the 
method  employed  in  calculating  the  action  of  the  disturb- 
ing planets  Jupiter,  Saturn,  and  Neptune  on  the  motion  of 
Uranus.  In  the  second  chapter  this  method  is  illustrated  by 
quite  a  detailed  calculation  of  the  perturbations  of  Uranus 
produced  by  Saturn,  including,  however,  only  those  which 
are  of  the  first  order  with  respect  to  the  disturbing  force.  In 
the  third,  the  perturbations  produced  by  Jupiter  and  Neptune 
are  given,  but  the  computations  are  not  presented  with  the 
same  detail.  The  fourth  chapter  opens  with  a  preliminary 
investigation  of  the  orbit  of  Saturn,  using  Hansen's  per- 
turbations and  the  Greenwich  observations,  the  object  being 
the  accurate  determination  of  the  terms  of  the  second  order. 
This  is  followed  by  the  computation  of  the  terms  of  the  second 
order  produced  by  Saturn,  which  includes  those  containing  as 
a  factor  either  the  square  of  the  mass  of  that  planet  or  the 
product  of  its  mass  by  that  of  Jupiter  or  by  that  of  Uranus. 
The  most  remarkable  of  these  terms  is  one  of  very  long  pe- 
riod, in  which  the  results  differ  materially  from  those  of  other 
authorities,  including  Leverrier,  Delaunay,  Adams,  and  Han- 
sen, who  all  agree  among  themselves.  I  cannot  find  any 
error  in  my  work,  and  so  must,  of  course,  retain  my  own  re- 
sult, leaving  it  to  future  investigators  to  find  the  cause  of  the 
discrepancy.  The  difference  is  of  such  a  nature  that  it  cannot 
affect  the  computed  position  of  the  planet  until  after  the  lapse 
of  more  than  a  century. 

"  The  sixth  chapter  gives  a  discussion  of  all  the  observations 
of  Uranus  which  have  been  published  and  reduced  in  such 
manner  as  to  be  made  use  of  The  entire  number  is  3763. 
The  correction  to  a  provisional  theory  given  by  each  series 
of  observations  is  deduced.  The  object  of  the  seventh  chap- 
ter is  to  apply  such  corrections  to  the  elements  of  Uranus  and 
the  mass  of  Neptune  that  the  observations  shall  be  repre- 
sented with  the  smallest  possible  outstanding  errors.  The 
mass  of  Neptune  comes  out  Y9TF0'  almost  exactly  the  same  as 
that  found  by  Professor  Peirce  more  than  twenty  years  ago.^ 

1  The  mass  of  Neptune  determined  by  Professor  Newcomb's  observations  with  the  great 
telescope  in  Washington  in  1874  and  subsequently  is  r^i?^.     E.  S.  H. 


Astronomy  583 

The  representation  of  the  observations  by  tne  concluded 
theory  will  probably  be  regarded  as  good.  The  mean  out- 
standing difference  during  each  five  years  since  the  discovery 
of  the  planet  only  exceeds  a  second  of  arc  in  a  single  in- 
stance—  namely,  during  the  years  1822-26,  when  it  amounts 
to  i".  \} 

"This  agreement  is  very  much  better  than  any  obtained 
before.  Still,  the  vast  number  of  observations  used,  and  the 
care  taken  to  reduce  them  to  a  uniform  standard,  led  me  to 
believe  a  better  representation  possible ;  and  the  outstand- 
ing differences,  minute  though  they  be,  follow  a  regular  law, 
thus  showing  that  they  do  not  arise  from  the  purely  accidental 
errors  of  observation.  How  far  they  arise  from  errors  in  my 
own  theoretical  computations,  how  far  from  the  reductions  of 
the  observations  themselves,  and  how  far  from  the  unavoid- 
able errors  of  the  instruments,  I  am  unable  to  say  without 
further  investigation.  It  would  be  desirable  to  learn  whether 
they  may  be  due  to  the  action  of  a  trans- Neptunian  planet, 
but  to  do  this  would  require  an  entire  re- reduction  of  all  the 
older  observations.  Such  a  work  is  on  many  accounts  an 
astronomical  desideratum ;  but  it  could  not  be  undertaken 
except  under  the  auspices  of  the  government. 

"  In  the  eighth  chapter  the  general  formulae  and  elements 
are  collected  and  expressed  in  the  form  most  convenient  for 
permanent  use. 

"The  ninth,  and  concluding,  chapter  gives  the  tables  by 
which  the  position  of  the  planet  may  be  computed  for  any 
time  between  the  Christian  era  and  the  year  2300."^ 

Professor  Newcomb's  later  works  on  planetary  theory  are 
mostly  printed  in  the  volumes  of  Memoirs  printed  by  the 
"American  Ephemeris."^ 

1  The  angular  diameter  of  Uranus  is  about  and  Nautical  Almanac  "  from  1857  till  1897. 

4".     E.  S.  H.  He  entered  the  United  States  Xa\-j'  in  the 

-  "Smithsonian  Report,"  1872,  page  25.  first  named  year  as  computer  on  the  Alma- 

3  It  is  interesting  to  mention  in  this  connec-  nac,  and  became  its  Superintendent  in  1877, 

tion  that  Professor  Newcomb  was  connected  in  which  capacity  he  continued  until  his  re- 

with  the  office  of  the  "  American  Ephemeris  lirement. 


584  The  Sniitksoman  Institution 


VARIATIONS   OF   THE    ORBITS   OF   EIGHT   PLANETS 

The  following  summaries  from  the  paper  ^  itself  will  give  an 
idea  of  its  scope  and  of  some  of  its  principal  results. 

The  reciprocal  gravitation  of  matter  produces  disturbances 
in  the  motion  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  causing  them  to  deviate 
from  the  elliptic  paths  they  would  follow  if  they  were  attracted 
only  by  the  sun. 

The  inequalities  in  the  motions  of  the  heavenly  bodies  are 
produced  in  two  distinct  ways.  The  first  is  a  direct  disturb- 
ance in  the  elliptic  motion  of  the  body,  and  the  second  is 
produced  by  reason  of  a  variation  of  the  elements  of  its  elliptic 
motion.  The  elements  of  the  elliptic  motion  of  a  planet  are 
six  in  number — viz.,  the  mean  motion  of  the  planet  and  its 
mean  distance  from  the  sun,  the  eccentricity  and  inclination 
of  its  orbit,  and  the  longitude  of  the  node  and  perihelion. 
The  first  two  are  invariable ;  the  other  four  are  subject  to 
both  periodic  and  secular  variations.  The  periodic  inequali- 
ties pass  through  a  complete  cycle  of  values  in  a  compara- 
tively short  period  of  time ;  while  the  secular  inequalities 
are  produced  with  extreme  slowness.  The  general  theory 
of  all  the  planetary  inequalities  was  completely  developed  by 
Lagrange  and  Laplace  nearly  a  century  ago.  Owing  to  the 
immediate  requirements  of  astronomy,  more  attention  has 
been  bestowed  upon  the  periodic  than  on  the  secular  inequali- 


1  Stockwell,  John  N.,"The  Secular  Vari-  and  right  ascension,"  1872,  in  Volume  xviii 
aliens  of  the  Elements  of  the  Orbits  of  tlie  of  the  "  Smithsonian  Contributions  to  Know- 
Eight  Principal  Planets,  Mercury,  Venus,  the  ledge."  The  expense  of  printing  this  paper 
Earth,  Mars,  Jupiter,  Saturn,  Uranus,  and  was  met  by  the  gift  of  $1200  from  Mr.  Leon- 
Neptune,  with  tables  of  the  same ;  together  hard  Case  of  Cleveland,  Ohio,  who  preferred 
with  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic  and  the  pre-  at  that  time  that  his  name  should  not  be 
cession  of  the  equinoxes  in  both  longitude  mentioned. 


Astronomy  585 

ties,  and  in  most  researches  it  is  sufficient  to  suppose  that  the 
latter  sort  vary  uniformly  with  the  time. 

The  demonstration  that  the  secular  inequalities  of  the 
planets  are  not  indefinitely  progressive,  but  are,  in  fact, 
themselves  periodic,  is  due  to  Laplace,  who  showed  that  the 
elements  of  the  planets  will  perpetually  oscillate  about  their 
mean  values,  provided  only  that  all  the  planets  revolve  round 
the  sun  in  the  same  direction  —  as  they  do. 

In  order  to  calculate  the  limits  of  the  variations  of  the 
elements  with  precision,  it  is  necessary  to  know  the  correct 
values  of  the  masses  of  all  the  planets. 

The  calculations  of  Lagrange  (on  the  six  planets  known  to 
him)  were  based  on  erroneous  values  of  their  masses.  Ponte- 
coulant's  investigations  (1834)  did  not  improve  our  knowledge 
in  this  respect.  Leverrier's  researches  (1839)  on  the  seven 
planets  then  known  are  far  from  being  exhaustive.  The  ob- 
ject of  the  present  paper  is  to  make  as  complete  a  determina- 
tion of  the  variations  of  the  elements  of  the  eight  planets  of 
the  system  as  is  possible. 

By  the  introduction  of  new  methods  of  research  the  author 
has  solved  the  problem  in  hand,  and  has  obtained  formulae 
which  will  determine  the  secular  variations  of  the  planetary 
elements  with  less  labor  than  would  be  necessary  for  the 
accurate  determination  of  a  comet's  orbit. 

Some  of  the  conclusions  derived  may  be  briefly  alluded  to. 
The  object  of  the  investigation  is  to  determine  the  numerical 
values  of  the  secular  orbits  —  namely,  of  the  eccentricities  and 
inclinations,  and  the  longitudes  of  the  nodes  and  perihelia, 
their  values  at  any  epoch,  their  rates  of  change,  etc.  A  table 
at  the  Tend  of  the  volume  covering  thirteen  quarto  pages  gives 
these  data,  so  far  as  they  may  be  required  by  the  astronomer 
in  the  prosecution  of  his  work. 

A  similar  tabulation  of  the  elements  of  the  earth's  orbit  of 
.;8 


586  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

sufficient  extent  to  be  useful  in  extended  geological  investi- 
gations does  not  come  within  the  scope  of  the  work.  The 
nature  of  the  results  arrived  at  may  be  illustrated  by  quoting 
a  paragraph  regarding  the  planet  Mercury. 

"  For  the  planet  Mercury,  we  find  that  the  eccentricity  is 
always  included  between  the  limits  0.124923  and  0.231 7185. 
The  mean  motion  of  its  perihelion  is  5". 463803  ;  and  it  per- 
forms a  complete  revolution  in  the  heavens  in  237,197  years. 
The  maximum  inclination  of  its  orbit  to  the  fixed  ecliptic  of 
1850  is  10°  36'  20",  and  its  minimum  inclination  is  3^  47'  8"  ; 
while  with  respect  to  the  invariable  plane  of  the  planetary 
system,  the  limits  of  inclination  are  9°  10'  41"  and  4°  44'  27". 
The  mean  motion  of  the  node  of  Mercury's  orbit  on  the 
ecliptic  of  1850  and  on  the  invariable  plane  is  in  both  cases 
the  same,  and  equal  to  5".  126 172,  making  a  complete  revolu- 
tion in  the  interval  of  252,823  years.  The  amount  by  which 
the  true  place  of  the  node  can  differ  from  its  mean  place  on 
the  ecliptic  of  1850  is  equal  to  30°  8',  while  on  the  invariable 
plane  this  limit  is  only  18°  31'." 

A  knowledge  of  the  elements  of  the  earth's  orbit  is  espe- 
cially interesting  and  important  on  account  of  the  recent 
attempts  to  establish  a  connection  between  geological  phe- 
nomena and  terrestrial  temperature,  in  so  far  as  the  latter 
is  modified  by  the  variable  eccentricity  of  her  orbit.  The 
amount  of  light  and  heat  received  from  the  sun  in  the  course 
of  a  year  depends  to  an  important  extent  on  the  eccentricity 
of  the  earth's  orbit;  but  the  distribution  of  the  same  over 
the  surface  of  the  earth  depends  on  the  relative  position  of 
the  perihelion  of  the  orbit  with  respect  to  the  equinoxes,  and 
on  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic  to  the  equator.  These  ele- 
ments are  subject  to  great  and  irregular  variations ;  but  their 
laws  can  now  be  determined  with  as  much  precision  as  the 
exigencies  of  science  may  require.     A  table  of  the  eccentricity 


Astronomy  587 

of  the  earth's  orbit  for  every  10,000  years  during  a  period  of 
2,000,000  years  is  given.  The  equinoxes  perform  a  revolution 
in  the  average  interval  of  25,694.8  years.  The  maximum 
variation  of  the  tropical  year  is  now  shorter  than  in  the  time 
of  Hipparchus  by  11.30  seconds.  The  mean  value  of  the 
obliquity  is  23°  1  7' i  7'',  and  the  limits  are  24°  35' 58"  and 
21°  58' 36".  A  paragraph  on  the  advantages  we  derive 
from  a  spheroidal  earth  contains  highly  interesting  conclu- 
sions too  long  to  be  quoted  here. 

The  duration  of  the  different  seasons  is  also  greatly  modi- 
fied by  the  eccentricities  of  the  earth's  orbit.  At  present  the 
sun  is  north  of  the  equator  scarcely  i86>^  days,  and  south 
of  it  178^  days. 

In  the  past  history  of  the  earth  these  periods  have  been 
changed  so  as  to  give  a  summer,  in  one  hemisphere,  of  198% 
days,  and  a  winter  of  only  i66>^  days.  The  variations  of 
the  sun's  distance  from  the  earth  in  the  course  of  a  year, 
at  such  times,  are  also  enormous,  amounting  to  almost  one- 
seventh  part  of  its  mean  distance  —  a  quantity  scarcely  less 
than  13,000,000  miles. 

The  foregoing  illustration  of  a  few  of  the  results  of  this 
memoir  will  show  the  far-reaching  nature  of  the  problems 
with  which  it  deals,  and  perhaps  of  others,  of  no  less  im- 
portance, which  it  suggests.  Its  introduction  of  eighteen 
pages  presents  these  problems  in  a  clear  light. 


HARMONIES   OF  THE   SOLAR   SYSTEM 

In  this  paper,^  which  is  printed  in  the  "Contributions,"  Pro- 
fessor Stephen  Alexander  seeks  to  set  forth  certain  numer- 
ical   relations    between    the    distances    of   the    planets    and 

1  "  Statement  and  Exposition  of  Certain  Harmonies  of  the  Solar  System,"  1875  ;  in 
Volume  XXI  of  the  "Smithsonian  Contributions  to  Knowledge,"  first  paper. 


588  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

satellites,  and  devotes  special  sections  to  a  modification 
of  the  nebular  hypothesis  of  Laplace,  and  to  a  modifica- 
tion of  Jones's  theory  of  the  zodiacal  light.  The  memoir  con- 
cludes with  a  summary  of  the  coincidences  between  theory 
and  fact. 


COMETS 

In  the  early  years  of  the  activity  of  the  Institution  the  dis- 
covery of  comets  was  rewarded,  or,  as  it  is  better  to  say,  com- 
memorated, by  the  award  of  a  gold  medal  founded  by  the 
King  of  Denmark. 

Miss  Maria  Mitchell,  of  Nantucket,^  discovered  a  comet 
on  October  i,  1847,  which  was  independently  discovered  in 
Europe  by  Da  Vico  (October  3),  Dawes  (October  7,)  Madame 
Rumker  (October  1 1),  and  which  was  known  as  Da  Vico's 
comet  for  some  time,  owing  to  the  slow  mails  of  those  days. 

To  mark  the  fact  of  her  discovery,  the  Institution  gallantly 
awarded  a  premium  to  Miss  Mitchell,  but  the  precedent  so 
set  was  not  followed  in  subsequent  discoveries  by  her  male 
rivals  —  Bond,  Van  Arsdale,  Tuttle,  and  others.  Miss  Mit- 
chell subsequently  became  a  computer  for  the  "American 
Ephemeris,"  and  the  gallantry  was  continued  by  assigning  to 
her  all  the  calculations  relating  to  the  planet  Venus.  The 
account  of  Miss  Mitchell's  discovery  is  given  in  the  second 
volume  of  the  "Contributions." 


COMET-ORBITS 

In  the  Report    for   1862   is    a    most    interesting   letter  from 
Professor  Hubbard,  of  the  Naval  Observatory,  describing  his 

1  Miss  Mitchell  was  professor  of  astronomy  in  Vassar  College  from  1865  till  1889. 


Astrono7ny  589 

researches  on  the  orbit  of  Biela's  comet  for  its  six  recorded 
appearances  from  1772  to  1852,  and  asking  for  the  aid 
of  the  Institution  in  calculating  the  perturbations  over  the 
whole  interval  from  1772  to  1865  (the  next  appearance), 
so  as  to  unite,  in  a  single  theory,  all  the  observed  places 
of  the  comet. 

Professor  Henry's  printed  note  on  this  letter  highly  com- 
mends the  project  of  Professor  Hubbard,  but  indicates  that 
the  assistance  desired  could  not  be  given  at  that  time.  Some 
assistance  was,  I  believe,  subsequently  given.  At  any  rate, 
astronomers  have  fully  appreciated  Hubbard's  work  on  this 
comet,  which  was  printed  in  the  early  volumes  of  the  Astro- 
nomical Journal. 

The  Report  for  1874  contains  a  notice  of  a  work  of  the 
same  sort  on  the  periodic  comet  of  Tuttle  (period  13.7  years), 
which  was  done  by  Professor  Ormond  Stone  and  assistants 
at  the  cost  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution.  A  careful  compu- 
tation of  the  perturbations  from  1871  to  1885  served  as  the 
basis  for  an  ephemeris  of  the  comet  during  its  appearance 
in  1885  (published  in  Circular  No.  i  of  the  McCormick 
Observatory),  and  the  orbit  is  now  in  charge  of  Doctor 
Rahts,  of  the  Observatory  of  Konigsberg. 

ORBIT   AND    PHENOMENA   OF  A  METEORIC    FIRE-BALL 

The  "Contributions  to  Knowledge"  contain  a  paper ^  by 
Professor  James  H.  Coffin  with  the  title  given  above.  This 
great  fire-ball  was  visible  about  10  r.  m.  from  Lake  Mich- 
igan to  a  point  at  sea  southeast  of  the  island  of  Nan- 
tucket,— a  distance  of  1300  miles.  The  observed  path  of  the 
meteor  was  its  orbit  with  respect  to  the  earth  as  a  center  of 

l"Tlie  Orbit  and  Phenomena  of  a  Meteoric  Fire-Bali  seen  July  20.  i860,"  in  Volume 
XVI  of  the  "Smithsonian  Contributions  to  Knowledge,  1869.'" 


590  The  Sinithsoniaii  Institution 

attraction.  The  velocity  in  the  (hyperbolic)  orbit  was  9^ 
miles  a  second,  approximately.  As  the  meteor  moved  in 
its  path,  successive  explosions  took  place,  and  it  was  found  to 
be  necessary  to  divide  the  orbit  into  three  parts  and  to  de- 
termine three  sets  of  elements  corresponding  to  the  parts. 
The  perigeal  distances  in  the  three  sections  were,  for  exam- 
ple:  40,007  miles,  3974  miles,  3995  miles,  respectively.  The 
meteor's  nearest  approach  to  the  earth's  surface  was  about  39 
miles,  which  point  corresponds  to  the  end  of  the  second  sec- 
tion of  its  path.  From  this  point  onwards  its  height  above 
sea  increased.  One  of  the  employees  of  the  United  States 
Lake  Survey  describes  the  meteor  (near  Lake  Huron)  to 
have  been  nearly  as  large  as  the  moon,  at  first.  In  a  moment 
it  had  burst  and  a  piece  "  fell  directly  to  the  ground  near  the 
place  of  observation,  setting  fire  to  the  vegetable  matter  around 
it ;  the  fire  was  put  out,  but  the  piece  could  not  be  found." 
In  Washington  City  the  meteor  was  observed  as  two  bodies 
near  together,  "each  as  bright  as  Venus  when  close  to  the 
earth."  Its  rate  of  motion  was  comparatively  slow,  so  that 
one  observer  in  New  Jersey  wrote:  "The  movement  of  the 
meteor  appeared  to  be  not  much  more  rapid  than  the  flight 
of  an  eagle  I  think  I  could  have  kept  sight  on  it  with  a  gun 
throughout  its  course." 

In  reading  the  various  reports  from  persons  scattered  over 
the  Middle  and  Western  States,  it  is  remarkable  to  note  the 
names  of  the  observers.  An  extraordinarily  large  proportion 
of  these  names  are  well  known  to  all  Americans.  All  the 
astronomers — Young,  Bond,  Peters,  Bartlett,  Mitchel,  Lyman, 
Newton,  Swift,  and  others — appear  to  have  seen  it;  there 
are  reports  from  many  professors  in  colleges;  and  a  great 
number  of  the  remainino-  observers  are  well  known  in  one 
way  or  another.  It  is  seldom  that  the  data  for  such  an 
orbit  are  derived  from  reporters  of  such  trained  intelligence. 


Astronomy  591 


METEORITES 

The  Institution  has  paid  great  attention  to  the  formation  of 
a  collection  of  meteorites  and  to  the  gathering  of  accurate 
information  regarding  the  circumstances  of  their  fall. 

It  is  an  instructive  proof  of  the  wide  influence  of  the  Insti- 
tution to  note  that  all  phenomena  of  this  kind  are  promptly 
reported  to  its  Secretary.  The  first  thought  of  observers  of 
all  classes  is  to  communicate  with  the  Smithsonian  Institution, 
and  this  is  also  an  excellent  witness  to  the  general  intelligence 
of  the  country,  as  has  been  remarked  by  all  who  have  had 
occasion  to  observe  how  widely  this  desire  is  spread  and  in 
what  unexpected  places  it  is  found. 

STAR- MAPS 

A  COMMITTEE  of  the  Connecticut  Academy  of  Sciences,  Pro- 
fessor H.  A.  Newton,  Chairman,  prepared  a  large  and  very 
convenient  star-map  of  the  north  polar  regions  to  aid  in  the 
observations  of  the  August  meteors,  which  was  widel)-  circu- 
lated at  the  expense  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  ;  as  well 
as  a  copy  of  the  smaller  map,  from  the  Toronto  observations, 
designed  for  observations  of  the  aurora.  Many  observers 
took  part  in  the  charting  of  meteors,  and  their  results  have 
been  discussed  and  published  by  Professor  Newton  and 
others  in  various  journals. 

TRANSLATION   OF   GAUSS'S   "THEORIA   MOTUS" 

Gauss's  monumental  work,  "Theoria  Motus  Corporum 
Ccelestium,"  was  printed,  in  Latin,  in  the  year  1809.  The 
first  German  translation  of  it  was  not  published  until  1865. 
In  the  hope  of  familiarizing  American  students  with  the  new 


592  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

methods,  Admiral  C.  H.  Davis,  then  Superintendent  of  the 
"American  Ephemeris,"  undertook  an  EngHsh  translation, 
which  was  finally  published  by  the  firm  of  Little  &  Brown, 
publishers,  of  Boston,   in    1857. 

The  expense  of  the  publication  was  shared  by  the  Institu- 
tion, and  a  number  of  copies  were  subscribed  for  as  exchanges 
and  distributed  in  exchange  for  other  books  among  foreign 
correspondents.  Without  this  aid,  the  work,  so  essential  to  the 
advance  of  practical  astronomy,  could  not  have  been  issued. 

TABLES  FOR  DETERMINING  PERTURBATIONS  OF  PLANETS 

In  determining  the  mutual  action  of  any  two  planets  in  the 
solar  system,  there  are  certain  quantities  depending  upon  the 
ratio  of  the  mean  distances  of  these  bodies  from  the  sun,  which 
must  first  be  computed.  The  number  of  these  quantities,  and 
the  labor  necessary  to  compute  each  one  of  them,  make  this 
first  step  in  the  reduction  of  the  mutual  action  of  the  two  plan- 
ets to  numbers  a  serious  work.  The  tables^  published  by  the 
Institution  and  calculated  by  Professor  J.  D.  Runkle,  accom- 
plish in  a  very  satisfactory  way  the  desired  end  of  shortening 
the  calculations  referred  to.  Their  use  gives  practically  the 
same  advantage  in  the  computations  to  which  they  are 
applied  that  is  afforded  in  arithmetical  operations  by  a  table 
of  logarithms.  The  tables  and  the  supplements  contain 
the  quantities  which  relate  to  the  major  planets  and  to  the 
asteroids  also. 

It  is  proper  to  add  that  the  general  theory,  thus  reduced 
to  numbers,  is  due  to  Leverrier ;  and  that  Walker  had  pre- 
viously printed  (in  an  appendix  to  the  "American  Ephemeris" 
for  1857)  a  tabulation  of  the  Leverrier  coefficients. 

1 "  New  Tables  for  Determining  the  Values  the  ratio  of  the  mean  distances,"  1856,  in  Vol- 
of  the  Coefficients  in  the  Perturbative  Func-  ume  ix  of  the  "  Smithsonian  Contributions 
tion  of  Planetary  Motion,  which  depend  upon       to  Knowledge,"  lifiii  paper. 


Astronomy  59; 


ON  THE  GENERAL  INTEGRALS  OF  PLANETARY  MOTION 

This  paper,^  on  mathematical  astronomy,  is,  in  part,  an  ex- 
tension and  generalization  of  two  former  papers  by  Profes- 
sor Newcomb,  and  is  too  strictly  technical  to  allow  of  any 
short  account  of  its  thesis  in  this  place. 

ASTRONOMICAL   EXPEDITION   TO   CHILE 

In  the  years  1849- 1852  an  expedition  under  Lieutenant  Gilliss, 
of  the  United  States  Navy,  was  resident  in  Chile,  engaged  in 
various  researches  which  required  the  cooperation  of  Northern 
and  Southern  observatories. 

The  Congress  of  the  United  States  appropriated  the  sum 
of  $5000  to  its  use,  but  this  amount  was  not  sufficient  to  pro- 
vide all  the  necessary  instruments.  Accordingly,  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution  stepped  forward  in  1849  to  supply  the 
need  with  the  gift  of  $2000  to  purchase  an  equatorial  tele- 
scope, and  in  1850  with  a  gift  to  supply  an  astronomical 
clock  and  chronograph. 

Congress  subsequently  appropriated  funds  to  cover  their 
cost,  but  the  prompt  action  of  the  Institution  saved  a  year 
to  the  observers.  It  is  interesting"  to  remark  that  the  in- 
struments  were  subsequently  purchased  by  Chile,  and  set 
up  in  Santiago  in  a  National  Observatory,  the  first  in  South 
America.  The  National  Observatory  of  the  Argentine  Re- 
public in  Cordoba  was  also  founded  by  an  American,  Doctor 
13.  A.  Gould,  in  1870. 

This  is  not  the  place  to  write  the  history  of  the  astronom- 
ical expedition  to  Chile,  honorable  as  it  was  to  the  country 
and  to  Gilliss  himself.      It  may  be  found  in  the  report  of  the 

1 "  On  the  General  Integrals  of  Planetary  Motion,"  1S74.     It  forms  the  second  paper 
in  Volume  xxi  of  the"  Smithsonian  Contributions  to  Knowledge." 


594  •       The  Smithsonian  Institution 

expedition,  and,  in  a  briefer  form,  in  the  eloge  of  Gilliss  pre- 
pared by  Gould  for  the  National  Academy  of  Sciences." 

Doctor  Gould  remarks  that  this  expedition  of  Lieutenant 
Gilliss  is  noteworthy  in  the  history  of  the  country  as  the 
first  instance  of  deference  by  the  legislative  and  executive 
authorities  of  the  nation  to  the  views  of  the  organized  repre- 
sentatives of  science  within  its  borders.  The  appropriation  by 
Congress  was  made  because  Gilliss's  plans  were  approved  by 
the  American  Philosophical  Society  and  by  the  American 
Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 

Again,  the  first  refracting  telescope  of  any  considerable 
size  made  in  America  was  constructed  for  use  in  Chile  — 
namely,  a  six-inch  telescope  by  Mr.  Henry  Fitz.  The  cost 
of  the  objective  was  $500. 

Gilliss's  assistants  were  officers  of  the  Navy —  Messrs.  Mac- 
Rae  and  Hunter,  and  subsequently  Mr.  Phelps. 

A  summary  of  the  work  accomplished  may  fittingly  termin- 
ate this  brief  notice. 

"Between  the  6th  of  December,  1849,  ^-^^^  the  13th  of 
September,  1852,  series  of  micrometric  comparisons  of  Mars 
were  made  on  forty-six  days  during  the  first  and  ninety-three 
days  during  the  second  apposition,  and  micrometric  compari- 
sons of  Venus  on  fifty-one  days  during  the  first  and  twenty- 
seven  days  during  the  second  inferior  conjunctions ;  the 
observations  on  each  day  being  continued  through  several 
hours,  whenever  the  sky  permitted."  By  a  woeful  lack  of 
cooperation  on  the  part  of  Northern  observatories,  this  work 
of  Gilliss's  was  rendered  useless. 

Fortunately  for  science,  and  happily  for  Gilliss,  his  obser- 
vations were  not  limited  to  those  which  it  was  his  special 
duty  to  make.  Even  these  on  Mars  and  Venus,  which  failed 
of  their  deserved  fruit  in  affording  those  data  they  were  in- 

1 "  Biographical  Memoirs,"  Washington,  1877,  Volume  i,  page  162. 


Astro)  10  my  595 

stituted  to  obtain,  are  yet  of  priceless  value  in  the  means 
they  afford  for  improving  our  knowledge  of  the  orbits  of  our 
two  neighboring  planets. 

Among  other  astronomical  fruits  of  the  expedition  to  Chile 
I  may  mention  the  following :  7000  meridian  observations  of 
2000  stars.  These,  with  their  instrumental  and  tabular  re- 
ductions and  a  resultant  catalogue,  form  a  part  of  Volume  iv 
of  the  series  of  the  results  of  the  expedition. 

Equal,  if  indeed  not  superior,  in  value  to  these  are  the 
33,000  observations  of  about  23,000  stars  within  2\\'^  of  the 
South  Pole.  These  comprise  stars  to  the  loth  magnitude  in- 
clusive, more  than  20,000  of  which  had  not  been  previously 
observed. 

Observations  of  earthquakes  (124  shocks  in  three  years), 
a  very  extended  series  of  meteorological  observations,  and 
systematic  observations  of  magnetism  make  another  chapter 
of  results  to  the  credit  of  the  expedition. 


ASTRONOMICAL   OBSERVATIONS   IN   THE  ARCTIC   SEAS 

The  famous  expeditions  of  Doctor  Kane  to  the  Arctic,  in  the 
years  1853-54-55,  yielded  astronomical  results  of  value,  which 
were  discussed  by  Charles  A.  Schott  and  printed  by  the  care 
of  the  Institution. 

The  observations  are  chiefly  useful  in  fixing  geographical 
positions  on  the  chart  of  the  expedition  up  to  latitudes  81° 
and  82°.  Meteorological,  magnetic,  and  tidal  observations 
of  great  value  were  also  secured,  and  similarly  discussed  and 
published  ;  and  the  scientific  results  of  the  expedition  are  most 
satisfactory  when  the  immense  difficulty  of  work  under  such 
abnormal  conditions  is  kept  in  view. 

The  Arctic  expeditions  of  Hall  and  Hayes  were  aided,  in 
many  respects,  by  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  and  the  astro- 


596  The  Smithsonian  Instittttion 

nomical    observations    of    the    former    expedition    made    by 
Doctor  Emil  Bessels,  were  all  reduced  in  Washington. 


TRANSATLANTIC    LONGITUDE 

The  determination  of  longitude  ^  by  telegraph  was,  as  is  well 
known,  first  practised  by  American  astronomers.  The  differ- 
ence of  longitude  between  Baltimore  and  Washington  was 
fixed,  in  1844,  by  Captain  Wilkes,  who  compared  his  chro- 
nometer at  Baltimore  with  signals  received  from  Washington. 
Professor  Sears  C.  Walker  in  1845,  "^^^  subsequently,  put  the 
telegraphic  methods  into  practical  form,  and  they  were  soon 
adopted  as  the  work  of  a  regular  department  of  the  Coast 
Survey,  with  the  cordial  support  of  Professor  A.  D.  Bache, 
the  Superintendent.  Professor  Loomis  was  a  coadjutor  of 
Walker  in  this  work ;  and  subsequently  the  longitude  ser- 
vice of  the  Survey  was  under  the  direction  of  Doctor  B.  A. 
Gould,  who  improved  it  in  many  respects.  By  the  efforts  of 
these  astronomers,  aided  by  the  chronographs  lately  invented 
by  Bond  and  Mitchel,  and  by  devices  due  to  Saxton  and 
others,  the  methods  of  observation  were  brought  to  a  high 
degree  of  accuracy.  The  observations  themselves  were  re- 
duced by  rigorous  methods. 

From  1846  to  1861,  the  date  of  the  beginning  of  the  Civil 
War,  the  telegraphic  determinations  of  longitude  had  followed 
the  extension  of  the  commercial  lines  of  wire  until,  in  the  lat- 
ter year,  they  extended  from  the  northeastern  boundary  of 
the  United  States  to  New  Orleans,  covering  2><  hours  of 
longitude  and  15°  of  latitude.  The  problem  of  the  connec- 
tion of  American  with  European  longitude  was  on  a  different 
footinof.     Until  the  Atlantic  cable  was  available  the  ocean  Ion- 

1  Gould,  Benjamin  A.,  "The  Transatlantic  published  in  1869  and  forms  the  sixth  pajier 
Longitude  as  determined  by  the  Coast  Sur-  in  Volume  xvi  of  the  "Smithsonian  Contri- 
vey  Expedition  of  1866."     This  memoir  was       butions  to  Knowledge." 


Astrono7ny 


597 


gitude  depended  on  less  exact  methods.  The  following  table, 
abridged  from  Doctor  Gould's  memoir,  gives  the  differences 
of  longitude : 

GREENWICH    OBSERVATORY — WASHINGTON   OBSERVATORY,  AS   DETERMINED 

BEFORE    1866. 


From  Occtdtatio7is  and  Eclipses. 


n.    M. 


Walker:  From  his  observations  before  1843 5     8     11. 14 

Peirce  :    From  the  eclipse  of  185 1 ii-S7 

Peirce  :    From  emersions  of  the  Pleiades,  1839.  ...  ii-45 

Peirce:    From  emersions  of  the  Pleiades,  1856-61  .  ,  'i^Z-'^Z 


From  Lunar  Culminations. 

Walker:  From  Cambridge  observations,  1843-45.  . 

Loomis :  From  Hudson  observations,  1838-44  .  .  . 

Gilliss  :  From  Capitol  Hill  observations,  1838-42  . 

Newcomb  :  From  Washington  observations,  1846-60  . 

Newcomb  :  From  Washington  observations,  1862-63  . 


s. 
10.01 

9-03 
10.04 

1 1.06 

9.08 


From  Transportation  of  Chronometers  betiveen  Boston  and  Liverpool. 


s. 


Mean  from  373  chronometers  previous  to  1849 12.52 

Bond:      From  175  chronometers,  1849 11.20 

Walker:  From  175  "  1849 12.06 

Bond:      From  175  "  1849 12.26 

Bond:      From    52  "  1855 1349 

The  Superintendent  of  the  Coast  Survey,  Professor  A.  D. 
Bache,  determined  to  take  advantage  of  the  Atlantic  cable  as 
soon  as  practicable,  and  plans  for  a  longitude  campaign  were 
made  by  Doctor  Gould. 

The  methods  employed  on  land  lines  required  serious  mod- 
ifications in  the  transatlantic  work,  and  even  the  Canadian 
land-lines  (Calais,  Maine,  to  Heart's  Content,  in  Newfound- 
land), could  not  be  worked  according  to  the  methods  usual  in 
the  Survey.  The  Astronomer- Royal,  Professor  Airy,  had  in- 
tended to  make  a  transatlantic  longitude  campaign  in  June, 
1867;  but  with  his  characteristic  devotion  to  science,  he  en- 


59^  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

tered  into  the  Coast  Survey  campaign  as  if  it  were  his  own. 
The  steps  of  the  program  determined  the  longitudes. 

H.        M.  S. 

I.  Greenwich-Foilhommerum  (Ireland) o     41     33.29 

II.  Foilhommerum-Heart's  Content  (cable)  ....     2     51     56.54 
III.   Heart's  Content-Calais  (Maine) o     55     37.72 

Greenwich-Calais 4     29       7.55 

or,  after  correcting  for  a  sHght  error  first  pointed  out  by  Dr. 
A.  Wagner/  the  result  is  — 

H.        M.  S. 

Greenwich-Calais 4     29       7.62 

The  numbers  given  above  are  the  result  of  observations  at 
five  stations,  and  by  the  observers  Dunkin  and  others  (at 
Greenwich),  Gould  and  Morgan  (Foilhommerum),  Dean  and 
Goodfellow  (Heart's  Content),  Davidson  and  Chandler  (Ca- 
lais), Boutelle  (Calais),  It  was  not  possible  to  eliminate  the 
personal  equations  of  these  observers  by  interchanging  sta- 
tions, and  the  observations  for  determining  the  corrections 
on  this  account  lead  to  quite  anomalous  results,  entirely  at 
variance  with  the  past  experience  of  the  observers. 

The  personal  equations  actually  employed  in  the  reductions 
were  obtained  by  assuming  them  to  have  such  values  as  bring 
the  various  steps  of  the  program  into  the  best  accordance. 
In  the  table  below,  column  A  gives  the  personal  equations  as 
determined  by  observation,  while  column  B  gives  the  values 
actually  employed  in  the  reductions : 

A  B 

Observed.  Adopted. 

s.  S. 

Gould-Mosman 4-0-45  -I-0.02 

Dean-Mosman -(-0.12  -|-o.ii 

Goodfellow-Dean -I-0.03  -I-0.02 

Boutelle-Goodfellow —0-13  — 0.14 

Boutelle-Chandler     —0.22  — 0.04 

Dunkin-Gould unknown.  unknown. 

1  Vierteljahrschrift  der  Astronomischen  Gesellschaft,  1871,  page  136. 


Astronomy  599 

The  longitude  Calais-Washington  depended  upon  the  steps 
Calais- Bangor,  Bangor- Cambridge,  Cambridge- New  York, 
New  York-Washington,  and  the  final  result  of  the  campaign 
gives  Greenwich-Washington  5  h.  8  m.  12.39  ^•'  c»r,  corrected 
by  Wagner,  5  h.  8  m.  1 2.46  s.  It  appears  that  the  chronometer 
expeditions  by  Bond  gave  the  result  nearest  to  the  determi- 
nation by  cable. 

A  second  campaign  was  made  by  Mr.  Dean  in  1866  over 
the  French  cable  from  Brest  to  Duxbury,  Massachusetts,  and 
a  third  campaign  in  1872,  which  connected  the  observatories 
of  both  Greenwich  and  Paris  with  the  United  States,  and 
therefore  incidentally  gave  the  earlier  telegraphic  difference 
of  longitude  between  these  observatories.  The  resulting  lon- 
gitude Greenwich-Washington  was  5  h.  8  m.  12.09  s.,  which  is 
the  value  now  adopted  (1896). 

The  expedition  of  1866  was  conducted  under  unfavorable 
circumstances,  and  was  not  entirely  satisfactory  in  all  its 
parts.  It  was,  however,  the  first  attempt  of  this  sort,  and  the 
first  demonstration  that  such  determinations  could  be  success- 
fully carried  out  in  the  face  of  new  and  peculiar  difficulties. 
The  expeditions  of  1870  and  of  1872  followed  the  path  traced 
out  by  Doctor  Gould  and  his  associates  in  i866,  and  the  re- 
sults of  the  three  expeditions  taken  together  are  a  substantial 
addition  to  geodesy  and  astronomy. 

SURVEYS   WEST   OF  THE    ONE    HUNDREDTH    MERIDIAN 

The  geographical  and  geological  surveys  of  the  region  of  the 
United  States  west  of  the  one  hundreth  meridian,  under 
Major  Powell,  Doctor  Hayden,  and  Lieutenant  Wheeler,  re- 
spectively, were  necessarily  forced  to  pay  much  attention  to  the 
determination  of  geographical  positions.  In  one  way  or  an- 
other the  Smithsonian  Institution   has  forwarded   their  work 


6oo  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

in  this  respect  and  in  others,  and  at  least  a  passing  record  of 
its  service  should  be  made  in  this  place. 


ANNOUNCEMENTS  OF  ASTRONOMICAL   DISCOVERIES 

In  1 87 1,  Doctor  C.  H.  F.  Peters,  Director  of  the  Hamilton 
College  Observatory,  addressed  a  letter  to  the  Secretary  of 
the  Smithsonian  Institution,  asking  that  the  Institution  should 
act  as  a  central  office  for  communicating  by  telegraph  dis- 
coveries of  planets  and  comets.  Steps  were  immediately 
taken  by  Professor  Henry  to  arrange  for  such  service,  and 
from  1873  to  1883  it  was  carried  out  under  the  auspices  of 
the  Institution. 

Great  pains  were  taken  by  Professor  Henry  and  Professor 
Baird  to  obtain  the  opinions  of  astronomers  as  to  the  best 
form  of  message. 

These  telegrams  were  useful  to  American  science,  in  spite  of 
many  errors  which  arose  mainly  from  the  fact  that  the  Institu- 
tion had  no  astronomer  to  serve  as  critic  and  editor.  The 
telegrams  received  by  the  Institution  from  discoverers  were 
very  often  wrongly  worded,  and  there  was  no  control. 

These  telegrams  were  widely  disseminated  by  Associated 
Press  despatches ;  and  in  a  more  detailed  and  scientific  form 
by  the  circulars  of  the  Boston  Scientific  Society,  edited  by 
Mr.  John  Ritchie,  from  1879  onwards.  Mr.  Ritchie  and 
Doctor  S.  C.  Chandler,  in  1881,  devised  a  special  cipher-code 
for  transmitting  such  telegrams,  which  was  submitted  to,  but 
not  accepted  by,  the  Smithsonian  Institution.  During  1882- 
1883  arrangements  were  concluded  which  resulted  in  the  trans- 
fer of  this  service  to  the  Harvard  College  Observatory.^ 

1  See  the  "Smithsonian  Report,"  1883,  page  The  Astronotnical  Journal,  Vohime  VI,  page 

33,  and    The  Science   Observer,  Volume  iv,  189    (1888),    and    The   Publieations  of   the 

page  33    (1883),  for  the  contemporary  and  Astronomical   Society   of  the  Pacific,    1896, 

official   records   of  this    transfer.     See   also  Volume  VI 1 1,  pages  109  and  179. 


Astrono7ny  60 1 

Mr.  Ritchie  was  appointed  to  take  charge  of  this  depart- 
ment of  the  Observatory  work,  and  Doctor  Chandler  cal- 
culated comet  orbits,  ephemerides,  etc.,  for  quick  transmission 
to  other  observatories.  The  transfer  of  the  Bureau  of  Astro- 
nomical Telegraphy  from  the  Smithsonian  Institution  to  the 
Harvard  College  Observatory  was  in  exact  conformity  to 
the  settled  policy  of  the  former  establishment,  which  is  to 
relinquish  its  own  work  to  other  responsible  institutions  so 
soon  as  the  latter  are  willing  and  competent  to  undertake  it. 

Under  the  new  arrangement  astronomers  are  sure  of  re- 
ceiving early  warnings  of  the  appearance  of  a  new  comet, 
etc.,  and  orbits  and  ephemerides  can  now  be  quickly  com- 
puted and  distributed.  To  any  one  who  recollects  the  state 
of  such  matters  previous  to  1873,  ^'^^  improvement  is  most 
striking.  It  is  due  to  the  original  suggestion  of  Doctor 
Peters,  to  its  prompt  adoption  by  the  Smithsonian  Institution, 
to  the  subsequent  devices  and  editorship  of  Messrs.  Chandler 
and  Ritchie,  and  to  the  assumption  of  the  necessary  expenses 
by  the  Harvard  College  Observatory. 

The  present  astronomical  service  of  Europe,  under  Pro- 
fessors Kriiger  and  Kreutz,  of  the  Observatory  of  Kiel,  is 
exceedingly  prompt,  able,  and  useful.^ 

EQUATORIAL   OF   HAMILTON   COLLEGE   OBSERVATORY 

This  telescope,  which  in  1856  was  the  largest  ever  constructed 
in  America  —  now  the  land  of  large  telescopes  —  was  made 
for  Hamilton  College  by  Charles  A.  Spencer.  The  trustees 
of  the  College  officially  requested  the  regents  of  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution  to  appoint  a  committee  of  experts  to  re- 
port upon  the   instrument ;    and   the  reasons  alleged  by  the 

1  Similar  European  telegrams  were  for-  Professor  Karlinski,  of  Cracow,  in  1865. 
merly  distributed  by  the  Vienna  Academy  {Asfrouomischc-u  Xiuhrichteti,  Volume  LXVi, 
of  Sciences,  according  to  a  code  devised  by       column  31  ;  Volume  LXXV,  column  141.) 

39 


6o2  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

trustees  for  the  request  are  interesting  as  showing  the  uni- 
versal confidence  which  the  Institution  had  already  con- 
quered. The  following  quotations  will  make  this  point 
clear. 

''Again,  the  funds  for  the  construction  of  this  instrument, 
and  the  Observatory  to  which  it  is  attached,  were  contributed 
by  many  persons  interested  in  the  advancement  of  science, 
and  scattered  throughout  the  State  of  New  York.  To  these 
persons  our  Institution  pledged  itself  to  secure  a  first-class  in- 
strument. The  college  corporation  desires  to  satisfy  them  by 
an  announcement  from  an  authoritative  quarter  that  it  has 
faithfully  fulfilled  the  trust,  etc. 

•'  Furthermore,  .  .  .  the  undersigned,  in  behalf  of  the 
College,  would  be  glad  to  establish  a  precedent,  which  might 
lead  the  purchasers  of  other  astronomical  instruments  to  sub- 
mit the  question  of  their  proper  construction  to  your  body,  as 
being  an  institution  central  in  its  position  and  national  in  its 
character." 

The  appointment  of  the  Committee  called  for  was  one  of 
the  early  precedents  for  the  service  of  officers  of  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution  on  boards  and  councils,  in  which  their 
work  has  been  of  very  wide  usefulness. 


CORRECTION   OF   SEXTANTS   FOR    ERRORS 

A  PAPER  ^  on  the  above  subject  was  published  in  1890.  It 
represents  the  results  of  thirty  years'  experience  on  the  part 
of  its  author,  Mr.  Joseph  A.  Rogers.  The  paper  has  two 
main  objects,  the  first  being  to  set  forth  simple  and  practical 
methods  by  which  an  observer  may  determine  the  errors  of 
any  particular  sextant ;  the  second,  and  perhaps  more  im- 
portant, object  being  to  point  out  to  observers  generally  how 

1  "Tlie  Correction  of  Sextants  for  Krrors  of  I'kcentricity  and  Gradation."     It  was  published 
in  1890,  in  Volume  xxxiv  of  the  "  Smithsonian  Contributions  to  Knowledge." 


Astronomy  603 

observations  with  any  sextant  may  be  made  exceedingly 
accurate  by  careful  handling,  and  by  the  application  of  the 
corrections  named  above,  and  thus  to  create  among  ob- 
servers and  instrument  makers  a  higher  standard  of  work 
and  a  consequent  improvement  in  processes  of  manufacture. 

CONSTRUCTION    OF  A   SILVERED-GLASS   TELESCOPE 

Doctor  Henry  Draper  published  in  1864,  through  the  me- 
dium of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  a  description  of  his  con- 
struction of  a  telescope  that  has  become  a  text-book  for  those 
engaged  in  the  making  of  silver-on-glass  reflectors.^ 

The  reflector  has  in  some  special  researches,  as  in  photog- 
raphy and  in  some  parts  of  celestial  spectroscopy,  a  distinct 
advantage  over  the  refractor ;  and  as  the  aperture  increases, 
the  difference  in  cost  between  a  reflector  and  a  refractor  of  the 
same  size  is  very  marked. 

There  is  somewhere  a  limit  to  the  size  of  a  refractor  due  to 
the  fact  that  the  incident  light  increases  only  as  the  square 
of  the  aperture,  while  the  absorption  of  the  light  in  passing 
through  the  glass  increases  in  a  far  higher  ratio.  The  ratio 
of  focus  to  aperture  in  large  refractors  must  be  relatively 
large  (in  the  Lick  refractor  it  is  19  to  i).  On  the  other 
hand,  large  reflectors  can  be  built  of  relativel)-  short  focus  (in 
the  Crossley  reflector  of  the  Lick  Observatory  the  ratio  of 
focus  to  aperture  is  about  6  to  i),  and  they  can  be  constructed 
at  small  cost,  and  mounted, —  since  they  are  comparatively 
short, —  in  relatively  small  domes.  They  are  very  sensitive  to 
changes  of  temperature  and  to  mechanical  flexures,  and  for 
these  and  other  reasons  lar^e  reflectors  are  often  inferior  in 
definition   to   refractors   of  equal   aperture.       But   where,   as 

1 "  On  the  Construction  of  a  Silvered-Glass  lished  in  1S64,  and  is  the  third  paper  in  Vol- 
Telescope,  15^  Inches  in  Aperture,  and  Its  ume  xiv  of  the  "Smithsonian  Contributions 
Use  in  Celestial  Photography."    It  was  pub-       to  Knowledge." 


6o4  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

in  spectroscopy,  the  definition  is  the  secondary  and  the 
amount  of  Hght  collected  the  primary  consideration,  large  re- 
flectors will  have  the  advantage.  If  the  difficulties  due  to 
temperature,  flexure,  etc.,  are  overcome,  the  reflector  has 
another  advantage  in  that  the  rays  of  all  wave-lengths  are 
brought  to  a  single  focus,  which  is  not  the  case  for  the  re- 
fractor. This  constitutes  a  marked  advance  in  certain  fields 
of  celestial  photography. 

In  1857  Doctor  Draper  visited  Lord  Rosse's  observatory  at 
Parsonstown,  and  was  privileged  to  see  the  operations  of 
grinding  and  polishing  mirrors  of  speculum  metal.  In  1858 
he  began  the  construction  of  a  15-inch  speculum  in  America. 
In  i860  speculum-metal  was  abandoned  for  silver-on-glass. 
During  1861  three  mirrors  were  constructed  of  i5>^  inches 
aperture,  and  others  smaller.  In  1862  Doctor  Draper  was 
with  his  regiment  in  the  Virginia  campaign;  but  in  the  winter 
of  that  year  two  1 5^2 -inch  and  two  9-inch  mirrors  were 
completed.  The  greater  part  of  the  year  1863  was  devoted 
to  lunar  and  planetary  photography  and  to  the  enlargement 
of  focal  negatives. 

The  various  practical  processes  required  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  a  perfect  mirror  are  described  in  detail  and  at  length. 
These  descriptions  are  of  the  highest  value,  for  they  embody 
the  results  of  long  practical  experience  described  by  an  ob- 
server of  adequate  theoretical  knowledge.  The  first  of  these 
sections  relates  to  experiments  on  a  metal  speculum.  The 
next  section  refers  to  silvering  the  glass,  and  contains  many 
practical  hints.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  film  of  sil- 
ver is  about  2  0  0^)  0  0  ^^  ^-^^  \\\q\\  in  thickness,  and  of  the  same 
optical  figure,  therefore,  as  the  glass  surface.  Its  thinness 
can  be  expressed  in  a  striking  form  by  remarking  that  the 
value  of  the  silver  on  a  15^ -inch  mirror  is  not  above  one 
cent.     The   durability   of  these  films  (when   kept   free   from 


Astronomy  605 

sulphuretted  hydrogen)  is  much  greater  than  one  might 
think.  Grinding  and  poHshing  glass  are  treated  in  several 
sections  also.  Rolled  glass,  such  as  was  used  for  speculums, 
has  axes  of  rigidity,  which  must  be  considered  in  mounting 
the  mirrors.  The  effects  of  heat  in  deforming  the  image 
formed  by  a  reflecting  surface  are  next  studied.  The  grind- 
ing-tools  and  the  emery  used  with  them  are  described,  and, 
again,  many  points  of  practical  value  are  brought  out.  The 
method  of  testing  the  optical  surface  is  fully  explained  in  de- 
tail. A  section  of  the  paper  is  devoted  to  the  description  of 
grinding-machines  of  various  kinds.  This  is  followed  by  sec- 
tions relating  to  eyepieces,  plane  mirrors,  telescope-mounting 
(altazimuth),  moving  plate-holders  for  photographs,  driving- 
clocks,  cameras,  the  construction  of  an  observatory,  observing 
chair,  the  photographic  laboratory,  enlarging  apparatus,  mic- 
roscopic photography,  and  the  like. 

In  each  and  all  of  these  sections,  it  is  clear  to  the  reader 
that  he  is  obtaining  the  results  of  first-hand  experience  ac- 
quired not  by  one  but  by  many  trials. 

After  completing  the  i5>^-inch  mirror,  Doctor  Draper  con- 
structed a  28-inch  Cassigranian  reflector,  which  he  mounted 
equatorially  (on  a  stand  constructed  by  himself)  alongside 
of  an  1 1 -inch  photographic  refractor  by  Alvan  Clark  & 
Sons.  The  reflectors  were  at  first  employed  in  producing  a 
large  number  of  excellent  photographs  of  the  moon,  and  later 
in  researches  in  stellar  spectroscopy. 

Since  Doctor  Draper's  too  early  death  these  and  other  in- 
struments have  been  presented  by  Mrs.  Draper  to  the  Harvard 
College  Observatory.  A  large  annual  grant  of  money  is 
made  by  Mrs.  Draper  for  the  continuation  and  extension  of 
the  researches  begun  by  her  husband,  and  under  the  skilful 
direction  of  Professor  Pickering,  the  publications  of  the  Draper 
Memorial  have  already  been  of  high  value  to  science.     The 

39* 


6o6  TJie  Smithsonian  Institution 

sound  theoretical  knowledge  of  Doctor  Draper,  and  his  very 
extended  experience  in  certain  fields,  are  nowhere  better  ex- 
emplified than  in  the  memoir,  of  which  only  a  brief  summary 
can  be  given. 

PENDULUM    OBSERVATIONS 

The  building  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  was  early  chosen 
as  a  suitable  station  for  the  determination  of  the  force  of 
gravity,  and  it  has  been  used  by  the  officers  of  the  Coast 
Survey  (Charles  S.  Peirce,  Erasmus  D.  Preston,  Edwin 
Smith,  and  others)  and  by  foreign  scientists  for  this  purpose. 

AID   TO   "THE   ASTRONOMICAL   JOURNAL" 

In  the  year  1849,  Doctor  B.  A.  Gould  began  the  publication 
of  The  Astrono7nicaL  Jour^ial,  a  periodical  devoted  solely  to 
the  interests  of  astronomy,  and  issued  always  at  a  loss. 
From  the  first  the  Institution  has  subscribed  for  a  number  of 
copies,  which  are  regularly  distributed  to  foreign  corre- 
spondents, and  this  original  subscription  is  still  continued. 

BIBLIOGRAPHIES   OF   SCIENTIFIC   LITERATURE 

The  following  bibliographies  relating  to  astronomy  and  astro- 
physics have  been  published  by  the  Institution. 

"  Index  Catalogue  of  Books  and  Memoirs  relating  to  Neb- 
ulae and  Clusters,  etc.,"  by  Edward  S.  Holden  (1877),  in 
"Smithsonian  Miscellaneous  Collections,"  Volume  xiv. 

"  A  Synopsis  of  the  Scientific  Writings  of  Sir  William 
Herschel,"  prepared  by  Edward  S.  Holden  and  Charles  S. 
Hastings,  in  the  Smithsonian  Report  for  1880. 

"  Index  to  the  Literature  of  the  Spectroscope,"  by  Alfred 
Tuckerman  (1888),  In  the  "Smithsonian  Miscellaneous  Col- 
lections," Volume  xxxii. 


Astronomy  607 

"  Bibliography  of  the  Chemical  Influence  of  Light,"  by 
Alfred  Tuckerman  (1891),  in  "Smithsonian  Miscellaneous 
Collections,"  Volume  xxxiv. 

"Bibliography  of  Astronomy  for  1887,"  by  William  C. 
Winlock,  in  "Smithsonian  Miscellaneous  Collections,"  Volume 

XXXIV. 

"  The  Index  Catalogue  of  Nebulce,  etc.,"  includes  papers, 
memoirs,  and  books  on  nebulae  and  clusters  alphabetically 
arranofed  accordimj  to  authors,  with  a  brief  note  to  each 
entry  expressing  its  contents.  The  works  of  the  elder  Her- 
schel  on  these  subjects  are  analyzed  at  considerable  length,  in 
order  to  partly  supply  the  great  want  of  an  edition  of  his  col- 
lected works.  The  index  is  practically  complete  to  1877,  and 
comprises  1 10  octavo  pages.  The  astronomical  life  of  Sir 
William  Herschel  covered  forty-tw^o  years.  During  this 
period  he  published  no  less  than  sixty-nine  different  memoirs, 
which  are  scattered  through  the  annual  volumes  of  the  Phil- 
osophical Tra7isactions  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London 
from  1780  to  1818.  In  the  absence  of  an  edition  of  Her- 
schel's  collected  w^orks.  Doctors  Holden  and  Hastings  have 
carried  out  the  idea  of  making  a  full  synopsis  of  every  one 
of  his  memoirs  according  to  a  model  which  he  himself  made 
for  one  of  his  most  important  papers.^  Accordingl)-  his  me- 
moirs on  astronomical  subjects  have  been  analyzed,  page  by 
page,  by  Professor  Holden,  and  those  on  physics  have  been 
treated  in  the  same  manner  by  Doctor  Hastings.  The  w'ork 
(of  114  octavo  pages)  supplies,  in  some  measure,  the  crying- 
need  for  a  complete  edition  of  his  waitings. 

Doctor  Tuckerman's  "Index  to  Spectroscopic  Literature" 
is  a  stout  volume  of  424  octavo  pages,  comprising  references 
to  3829  papers  by  799  authors.     The  astronomical   portion 

'^Philosophical  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London,  iSll, 
Volume  CI,  part  i,  page  269. 


6o8  The  Smithsonian  Institntion 

of  the  bibliography  is  given  in  pages  66  to  133,  and  is  sub- 
divided into  45  sections,  as  comets,  stars,  meteors,  ecHpses, 
etc.  An  author-index,  pages  363  to  394,  is  an  admirable 
complement  to  the  index  by  subjects. 

"The  Bibliography  of  the  Chemical  Influence  of  Light," 
by  Doctor  Tuckerman  (22  octavo  pages)  should  be  men- 
tioned among  astronomical  bibliographies,  as  it  gives  the 
scientific  bases  of  photography. 

An  index  to  the  literature  of  photography  is  (1891)  in 
preparation  by  the  same  author.  The  two  works,  taken  to- 
gether, will  be  of  the  greatest  use  in  connection  with  the 
application  of  the  art  of  photography  to  astronomical  re- 
searches. 

SHORT   PAPERS   ON   ASTRONOMICAL   SUBJECTS 

In  the  early  years  of  the  Institution  it  was  part  of  the  plan  to 
provide  for  popular  lectures  on  scientific  subjects  during  the 
sessions  of  Congress  by  distinguished  specialists. 

Among  these  lectures  we  may  mention  six  on  the  "  Prog- 
ress of  Astronomy,"  by  Doctor  B.  A.  Gould,  and  one  by  Pro- 
fessor S.  Alexander,  on  the  "Relations  of  Space  and  Time" 
(both  referred  to,  but  not  printed,  in  the  Smithsonian  Re- 
port, 1854);  one  by  Professor  E.  S,  Snell,  on  "Planetary 
Disturbances"  (Smithsonian  Report,  1855);  and  lectures 
on  "Astronomy,"  by  Professor  Alexis  Caswell  (Smithsonian 
Report,    1858). 

The  plan  of  regular  lectures  was  not  systematically  main- 
tained in  subsequent  years.  They  were  replaced  by  pop- 
ular papers  on  scientific  topics,  either  original  or  transferred 
from  other  periodicals.  In  looking  over  the  Reports  in  the 
Library  of  the  Lick  Observatory  (not  quite  a  complete  set) 
I  have  found  the  following  references  to  papers  of  the  sort. 
This  list  may  not  be  exhaustive : 


Astronomy  609 

AUTHOR.                                                                  SHORT    TITLE.  YEAR.    PAGE. 

Charles  Small  wood     ....  Description  of  His  Observatory   .    .  1856,  311 

L.  W.  Meech Heat  and  Light  of  the  Sun  ....  1856,  321 

Auguste  Laugel On  the  Sun 1861,  175 

John  Lee On  Astronomical  Photography    .    .  1861,   igi 

Charles  Dufour Scintillation  of  the  Stars 1861,  220 

R.  Gautier On  the  Nebulae 1863,  299 

J.  Fourier filoge  of  Delambre 1864,  125 

Charles  Delaunay The  Velocity  of  Light 1864,   135 

J.  Lamont Solar  Eclipse  of  i860 1864,  240 

William  Huggins Spectrum  Analysis 1866,  195 

Appearance  of  the  Sun's  Disk  .    .    .  1866,  209 

filie  De  Beaumont     ....  Memoir  of  Legendre 1867,   137 

Cleveland  Abbe Dorpat  and  Poulkowa 1867,  370 

G.  Hagen Memoir  of  Encke 1868,  193 

Joseph  Henry      Eulogy  on  Bache 1870,     91 

Frangois  Arago Biography  of  W.  Herschel      .    .    .  1870,  197 

^,   ^   .^    ,                               (  Memoir  of  John  Frederick  William  )  _ 

N-  S-  Dodge \      jj^^^^J \  .87.,  .09 

,  ,     ^,  ^      ,      ,,                  (  On    Secular    Variations    of    the  )  „ 

John  N.  Stockwell      .    .    .    ^      Planetary  Orbits \  ^^^^  ^^x 

.^     .      .     .    _     , .                 ( The  Cordoba   Astronomical   Ob-  )  o          n 

Benjamm  A.  Gould     .    .    .    \                                                           \  1873,  265 

'  (      servatory ) 

Fran9ois  Arago Eulogy  of  Laplace 1874,   129 

Ed.  Mailly      Eulogy  on  Quetelet 1874,   166 

WiUiam  B.  Taylor Kinetic  Theories  of  Gravitation    .    .  1876,  205 

_      .  ,  -^.  ,          ,                   (  The  Asteroids  between  Mars  and  )  o  ^r        o 
Daniel  Kirkwood   .    .    .    .    }       ^     .                                                 ^1876,  358 

I      Jupiter ) 

r,     r     1  ^   T-,      •                    (  Time- Reckoning   for    the   Twcn-  >  00^ 

Sanford  C.  Fleming    ...}.,    ^           ^                              }  1886,  345 

^                I      tieth  Century )  ^^ 

R.  Radau Astronomical  Photography  ....  1889,  469 

Robert  Simpson  Woodward  .  Mathematical  Theories  of  the  Earth  1890,  183 

Hubert  A.  Newton     ....  Memoir  of  Loomis 1890,  742 

Wilham  Huggins Celestial  Spectroscopy 1891,     69 

Agnes  M.  Gierke Stellar  Numbers  and  Distances    .    .  1 891,  103 

The  Sun's  Motion  in  Space  .    .    .    .  1 891,   109 

A  Southern  Observatory 1 891,   115 

Charles  S.  Hastings    .    .    .    .  History  of  the  Telescope 1892,     95 

Sir  Robert  S.  Ball Wanderings  of  the  North  Pole    .    .  1893,     75 

A.  C.  Ranyard The  Lunar  Crater  Tycho      ....  1893,     89 

Charles  A.  Young Variable  Stars 1893,   107 

Sir  George  G.  Stokes      .    .    .  The  Luminiferous /Ether     ....  1893,  113 

William  Harkness Magnitude  of  the  Solar  System    .    .  1894,     93 

William  H.  Pickering     .    .    .  Schiaparelli's  Views  on  Mars   .    .    .  1894,   113 

J.  Janssen Photographic  Photometry     ....  1894,   191 

John  K.  Rees Variation  of  Latitude 1894,  271 


6io  The  Smithsonian  Institution 


ANNUAL   REPORTS   ON   THE    PROGRESS   OF   ASTRONOMY 

Under  the  editorship  of  Professor  S,  F.  Baird  the  firm  of 
Harper  &  Brothers,  of  New  York,  pubHshed  a  "  Record  of 
Science  and  Industry"  from  month  to  month  in  "Harper's 
Magazine,"  and  as  an  annual  vohrnie  from  1871  to  1878. 
The  articles  relating  to  the  progress  of  astronomy  were 
written  by  Professor  Cleveland  Abbe  till  1875,  and  for  the 
years  1876,  1877,  and  1878  by  Doctor  Edward  S.  Holden. 

From  the  year  1879  onwards  this  record  of  the  progress  of 
astronomy  was  printed  in  the  annual  Report  of  the  Smithson- 
ian Institution,  the  articles  for  the  years  1879  to  1885  being 
written  by  Doctor  Holden,  and  from  1885  to  1892  by  Mr, 
William  C.  Winlock,  of  the  Institution. 

In  1879  a  circular  was  prepared  by  Doctor  Holden  and 
sent  by  the  Smithsonian  Institution  to  different  observatories. 
The  answers  to  this  circular  gave  valuable  information  as  to 
the  instrumental  equipment  of  the  different  establishments,  as 
to  their  past  work  and  that  proposed  for  the  future,  etc.,  and 
were  printed  in  the  Reports  for  1879  (edited  by  Doctor 
Holden)  and  for  1886  (edited  by  Mr.  George  H.  Boehmer). 

The  inevitable  limitations  of  space  and  the  necessary  omis- 
sion of  technical  considerations  made  all  these  annual  reviews 
very  unsatisfactory  to  their  compilers  ;  but,  after  taking  much 
pains  to  be  correctly  informed,  it  is  my  opinion  that  they 
have  been  of  considerable  value  to  unscientific  readers,  and 
of  some  slight,  though  real,  convenience  to  astronomers. 
The  "Bibliography  of  Astronomy"  for  the  year  1888  (printed 
in  the  Report  for  1888),  by  Mr.  Winlock,  was  an  attempt  to 
vary  the  form  in  which  astronomical  information  should  be 
given.  In  this  case  the  essential  benefit  was  to  professional 
astronomers  and  librarians. 


CHEMISTRY 

By  Marcus  Ben7amin 

Fellow  of  the  Chemical  Society  of  London 


l^'HAT  James  Smithson  was  an  analytical  chemist 
of  no  mean  abilit)-  has  been  shown  elsewhere 
in  this  volume,  but  it  is  eminently  proper  to 
emphasize  that  fact  in  connection  with  this 
summary  of  chemistry,  by  the  repetition  of  the 
statements  that  while  a  student  in  Oxford  he  had  "the  repu- 
tation of  excellinor  all  other  resident  members  of  the  Univer- 
sity  in  the  knowledge  of  chemistry,"  and  that  later  he  ac- 
quired the  well-deserved  fame  of  being  one  of  the  "  most  ex- 
pert chemists  in  elegant  analysis." 

In  the  preliminary  legislation  that  resulted  in  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  the  practice  of  chem- 
istry by  James  Smithson  seems  to  have  been  borne  in  mind, 
for  not  only  in  the  act  to  establish  the  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion, but  also  in  the  subsequent  report  of  the  organizing  com- 
mittee "a  chemical  laboratory"  was  provided  for. 

Later,  when  Professor  Henry  had  been  given  the  direction 
of  the  Institution,  he  refers  in  his  "  Protrram  of  Oroj-anization  " 
to  the  "chemical  analysis  of  soil  and  plants"  as  a  means  by 
which  "to  increase  knowledge,"* and  in  his  first  report  dis- 
tinctly avows  his  appreciation  of  the  value  of  chemistry  in  the 

6ii 


6i2  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

following  words:  "Agriculture  would  have  forever  remained 
an  empirical  art  had  it  not  been  for  the  light  shed  upon  it 
by  the  atomic  theory  of  chemistry." 

The  first  mention  of  any  chemical  activity  in  the  history  of 
the  Smithsonian  Institution  was  in  1848,  when  an  announce- 
ment was  made  of  an  arrangement  (among  others)  for  "a 
report  on  the  present  state  of  chemistry  as  applied  to  agri- 
culture." A  year  later  "a  report  on  the  application  of  chem- 
istry to  agriculture,"  prepared  by  Lewis  C.  Beck,  of  Rutgers 
College,  is  announced  as  "  nearly  ready  for  the  press,"  but  it 
does  not  appear  to  have  been  published,  and  it  is  probable 
that  the  matter  was  given  to  the  public  in  1850  in  a  course  of 
lectures  on  the  "  Chemical  Operations  of  Nature,"  delivered 
by  Professor  Beck  in  the  Smithsonian  hall. 

The  failure  to  publish  this  report  may  be  accounted  for  by 
the  statement  so  often  made  by  Henry  that  "it  is  the  policy 
of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  in  order  to  employ  its  funds 
most  effectually  in  the  way  of  increasing  and  diffusing  know- 
ledge, not  to  engage  in  any  operation  which  could  be  as  well, 
if  not  better,  carried  on  under  the  direction,  and  with  the 
funds  of  another  institution,"  and  as  an  appropriation  was 
made  by  Congress  in  1848  to  the  Commissioner  of  Patents 
for  the  purpose  of  investigating  the  relations  of  chemistry  to 
agriculture,  it  is  more  than  likely  that  Henry  deemed  it 
undesirable  to  encroach  on  that  domain. 

The  first  published  contribution  to  chemistry  was  the 
"Memoir  on  the  Explosiveness  of  Niter,"  by  Robert  Hare. 
It  comprised  twenty  pages  and  formed  the  seventh  memoir 
in  the  second  volume  of  the  "  Smithsonian  Contributions  to 
Knowledge."  Its  history  is  interesting.  A  fire  occurred  in 
New  York  City  on  July  19,  1845,  during  which  two  hundred 
and  thirty  houses  were  destroyed,  containing  merchandise 
valued  at  over  two  millions  of  dollars.     A  peculiar  feature  of 


Chemistry  6 1 3 

this  catastrophe  was  a  series  of  detonations  successively  in- 
creasing in  loudness,  and  followed  by  a  final  explosion  which 
tore  in  pieces  the  building  where  it  occurred,  threw  down 
several  houses  in  the  vicinity  and  forced  in  the  fronts  of  the 
houses  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  street.  These  effects  were 
attributed  to  gunpowder,  but  the  owner  of  the  building  de- 
clared that  he  had  none  of  that  explosive,  although  a  large 
quantity  of  niter  was  stored  in  the  house.  Doctor  Hare 
showed  by  numerous  experiments  that  explosions  of  a  violent 
character  could  be  produced  by  forcibly  bringing  in  contact 
at  a  high  temperature  niter  and  substances  of  an  inflammable 
character.  This  memoir  was  referred  to  John  Torrey  and 
Colonel  John  J.  Abert,  and  on  their  recommendation  accepted 
for  publication  by  the  Smithsonian  Institution  in  October, 
1849.      ^^  ^^^^  published  in  1850. 

It  is  interesting  to  mention  that  on  the  title-page  of  Doctor 
Hare's  memoir  he  refers  to  himself  as  an  "associate  of  the 
Smithsonian  Institution."  Among  the  six  honorary  members 
created  by  the  Establishment  the  names  of  Robert  Hare  and 
Benjamin  Silliman  —  both  among  the  foremost  chemists  of 
their  time  —  are  conspicuous;  they  were  elected  in  1849,  "^^^ 
continued  in  that  relation  until  their  death. 

The  publication  of  periodic  reports  summarizing  all  the  dis- 
coveries of  science  and  giving  a  well-digested  account  of 
important  additions  to  knowledge  was  an  idea  that  Henry  de- 
rived from  Berzelius,  a  Swedish  chemist  of  high  reputation. 
A  practical  expression  of  the  value  of  this  scheme  was  demon- 
strated in  1851  by  the  publication  of  a  report  "On  Recent 
Improvements  in  the  Chemical  Arts,"  compiled  by  James  C. 
Booth,  Assayer  of  the  United  States  Mint  in  Philadelphia, 
and  his  associate,  Campbell  Morfit.  It  consisted  of  a  digest 
of  articles  that  had  appeared  during  the  ten  years  previous 
in  the  various  journals  of  science  and  the  arts  in  the  English, 


6i4  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

French,  and  German  languages.  The  great  vahie  of  this 
work  is  beyond  dispute  and  its  appreciation  evidenced  by  the 
fact  that  the  first  edition  was  soon  exhausted  and  a  second 
one  was  issued.  This  is  worthy  of  special  note  when  it  is  re- 
membered that  chemistry  was  at  that  time  just  beginning  to 
receive  recognition  among  colleges  in  the  United  States. 

The  diffusion  of  knowledge  by  means  of  public  lectures, 
especially  during  the  sessions  of  Congress,  had  become  part 
of  the  recognized  policy  of  the  Institution,  and  during  the 
winter  of  1852  the  younger  Silliman  delivered  a  course  of  six 
lectures  on  the  four  ancient  elements :  "  Earth,  Air,  Fire, 
and  Water."  In  the  Report  for  1853  the  announcement  was 
made  that  J.  Lawrence  Smith  had  been  engaged  to  give  a 
full  course  of  lectures  on  chemistry  ;  and,  accordingly,  during 
the  winter  of  1853-54  a  series  of  twenty-live  lectures  was 
given  by  Professor  Smith.  The  general  character  of  the 
course  may  be  inferred  from  the  title  of  the  first.  It  was: 
"  The  improvement  of  the  study  of  chemistry  and  its  close 
connection  with  the  progress  of  the  arts  and  manufactures  of 
the  present  age  ;  also  general  notice  of  the  nature  of  bodies, 
more  especially  gaseous  bodies." 

Although  the  establishment  of  a  chemical  laboratory  was 
provided  for  in  the  law  incorporating  the  Institution,  it  does 
not  appear  to  have  come  into  existence  until  its  organization  by 
Professor  Smith.  In  the  Report  for  1854  Henry  says  :  "  The 
laboratory  of  the  Institution  during  the  past  year  has  been 
used  by  Professor  J.  Lawrence  Smith  in  the  examination  of 
American  minerals ;  and  on  behalf  of  the  Treasury  Depart- 
ment in  investigations  relative  to  the  different  kinds  of  mo- 
lasses imported  into  this  country.  He  also  made  a  series 
of  analyses  of  meteorites,  among  which  were  fourteen  speci- 
mens belonging  to  the  cabinet  of  James  Smithson,  the  founder 
of  the  Institution." 


Chemistry  615 

It  was  about  this  time  that  Smith  was  finishing  his  elab- 
orate memoir  on  the  "  Reexamination  of  American  Minerals," 
which,  according  to  the  younger  Silliman,  was  "  the  most 
important  contribution  yet  made  by  any  American  chemist." 
It  is  not  improbable,  therefore,  that  the  work  begun  while  he 
was  in  the  University  of  Virginia  was  completed  at  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution. 

A  year  later  it  appears  that  a  commodious  room  had  been 
fitted  up  with  the  necessary  appliances  for  original  research 
in  chemistry  and  other  physical  sciences ;  still  no  regular 
chemist  was  employed  by  the  Institution,  although  Doctor 
John  D.  Easter,  who  had  studied  chemistry  for  three  years  in 
Germany,  was  allowed  the  use  of  the  laboratory.  For  the 
facilities  afforded  him  he  was  required  to  keep  the  apparatus 
in  working  order  and  to  make  such  examinations  of  specimens 
as  would  not  require  much  labor.  In  the  domain  of  chemistry 
investigations  were  conducted  on  the  application  of  some 
newly-discovered  substances  to  practical  purposes  in  the  arts, 
and  numerous  examinations  were  made  of  minerals  obtained 
from  the  Pacific  railroad  and  other  expeditions. 

During  the  winter  of  1855-56  George  J.  Chace,  of  Brown 
University,  delivered  a  course  of  six  lectures  on  "  Chemistry 
Applied  to  the  Arts."  No  lectures  on  subjects  pertaining  to 
chemistry  were  delivered  for  the  next  two  winters,  but  dur- 
ing 1858-59  Thomas  Clemson  lectured  on  "Water"  and  on 
"  Nitrogen,"  and  during  the  same  season  Josiah  P.  Cooke, 
of  Harvard  College,  delivered  lectures  on  "  Atmospheric  Air." 
"Oxygen  and  Zinc,"  "Nitrogen,"  "Water,"  "  Carbon,"  etc. 
These  were  followed,  during  1859-60,  by  a  course  of  six  lec- 
tures on  "Agricultural  Chemistry,"  by  Samuel  W.  Johnson, 
of  Yale  College,  and  later  by  five  lectures  treating  of  the 
relation  of  chemistry  to  geology,  by  T.  Sterry  Hunt,  then 
of  the  Geological  Survey  of  Canada. 


6i6  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

Meanwhile  the  "  Smithsonian  Contributions  to  Knowledge  " 
had  been  enriched  by  the  publication  of  the  results  of  a  most 
important  series  of  "  Researches  on  the  Ammonia- Cobalt 
Bases,"  conducted  by  Wolcott  Gibbs  and  Frederick  A.  Genth. 
Henry  describes  it  as  "  a  laborious  series  of  investigations 
relative  to  a  very  interesting  part  of  chemistry."  It  still  con- 
tinues to  rank  high  as  a  model  investigation,  and  Doctor 
Gibbs,  now  the  foremost  of  American  chemists,  honored  at 
home  and  abroad,  continues,  in  the  honorable  leisure  of  his 
well-spent  life,  to  devote  part  of  his  time,  in  his  private  labora- 
tory in  Newport,  Rhode  Island,  to  the  development  of  certain 
portions  of  this  classic  research.  This  memoir  was  referred 
to  John  F.  Frazer  and  John  Torrey,  and,  on  their  recommen- 
dation, accepted  for  publication  in  July,  1856,  and  issued  in 
separate  form  in  December  of  that  year.  It  is  the  fifth 
article  in  the  ninth  volume  of  the  "  Contributions." 

In  returning  to  a  consideration  of  the  chemical  laboratory, 
it  is  desirable  to  recall  those  significant  words  of  Henry, 
already  quoted  in  this  article  —  that  it  was  not  the  policy 
of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  "to  engage  in  any  operation 
which  could  be  as  well,  if  not  better,  carried  on  under  the 
direction  and  with  the  funds  of  another  institution."  For  this 
reason,  perhaps,  more  than  any  other  the  chemical  laboratory 
has  never  been  continuously  occupied.  During  1857  it  was 
used  by  Eugene  W.  Hilgard,  who  conducted  a  series  of  ex- 
periments relative  to  the  vapor  from  a  modification  of  carbon 
disulphide  as  a  substitute  for  steam  applied  to  mechanical 
purposes.  His  results  were  unfavorable  to  the  substitution. 
Also  a  series  of  investigations  relating  to  the  prevention  of 
counterfeiting  bank-notes  was  carried  on.  Soon  after  Pro- 
fessor Hilgard  accepted  the  appointment  of  State  Geologist 
of  Mississippi,  and  George  C.  Schaeffer  and  Doctor  Benja- 
min F.   Craig  occupied  the  laboratory.      During    1858  they 


Chemistry  6 1 7 

investigated  a  large  number  of  specimens  of  guano.  Pro- 
fessor Schaeffer  soon  withdrew  and  accepted  the  more  con- 
genial post  of  librarian  of  the  United  States  Patent  Office, 
where  he  remained  until  his  death,  always  honored  and 
esteemed  as  a  man  of  varied  and  exact  learning.  During  the 
first  decade  of  the  second  series  of  the  "American  Journal  of 
Science,"  he  prepared  the  chemical  abstracts  that  appeared 
over  the  initials  of  "  G.  C.  S."  Doctor  Craig  remained  in 
charge  of  the  Smithsonian  Laboratory,  and  continued  to  re- 
port on  various  minerals  sent  to  the  Institution,  also  making 
such  private  investigations  as  came  to  him  from  persons 
desiring  the  services  of  a  chemist.  During  1862  a  large 
quantity  of  disinfecting  fluid  was  made  for  the  use  of  hos- 
pitals, and  during  1863  experiments  on  the  properties  of 
different  kinds  of  oil  intended  for  lighthouse  purposes  were 
carried  on.  In  1864  Doctor  Charles  M.  Wetherill,  already 
well  known  as  the  author  of  "The  Manufacture  of  Vinegar, 
its  Theory  and  Practice,  with  Special  Reference  to  the  Quick 
Process"  (i860),  was  given  charge  of  the  laboratory,  and  he 
continued  the  examination  of  materials  for  lighthouse  illumin- 
ation. Also  during  1864  Doctor  Wetherill  studied  the  condi- 
tion of  the  air  and  the  mode  of  ventilatimjf  the  United  States 
Capitol.  On  this  subject  he  submitted  a  very  elaborate  re- 
port to  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior.  In  the  laboratory  he 
was  occupied  in  investigations  on  the  nature  of  the  so-called 
ammonium  amalgam,  the  crystallization  of  sulphur,  and  the 
crystalline  nature  of  glass. 

Chemistry  and  physics  arc  allied  sciences  and  the  appH- 
ances  used  in  one  science  are  frequently  employed  in  the 
other.  Elsewhere  mention  is  made  of  the  early  gift  of 
physical  apparatus  to  the  Institution  by  Doctor  Robert  Hare, 
much  of  which  was  of  interest  on  account  of  its  association 
with  the  history  of  the  advancement  of  science  in  this  coun- 
40 


6i8  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

try,  notably  those  pieces  which  had  been  used  by  Doctor 
Hare  in  his  isolation  of  calcium  without  the  aid  of  galvanism. 
To  this  collection  were  added  in  1859,  by  the  gift  of  J.  R. 
Priestley  (a  grandson  of  the  discoverer  of  oxygen),  a  burning 
lens  and  a  condensing  air-pump.  It  was  with  these  instru- 
ments that  Joseph  Priestley  discovered  the  gas  which  is  now 
called  oxygen.  With  this  discovery,  made  on  August  i,  1774, 
begins  the  history  of  modern  chemistry. 

From  the  greatest  of  the  early  American  chemists  we  return 
to  the  first  of  living  American  chemists  for  the  purpose  of 
mentioning  the  grant,  in  1859,  of  a  small  appropriation  to 
Wolcott  Gibbs  in  order  to  defray  the  expenses  of  the  neces- 
sary material  and  apparatus  for  an  investigation  relative  to 
the  ores  of  platinum,  in  which  Doctor  Gibbs  successfully  sep- 
arated the  different  platinum  metals  and  discovered  a  series 
of  compounds  containing  osmium,  ruthenium,  and  iridium. 
The  results  of  this  investigation  were  permitted  by  the 
Smithsonian  Institution  to  appear  in  the  "American  Journal 
of  Science,"  and  four  papers  bearing  the  general  title  of  "  Re- 
searches on  the  Platinum  Metals  "  were  published  through 
that  medium  in  the  years  1861,   1862,  and  1864. 

During  the  winter  of  1862-63,  Eben  N.  Horsford,  of  the 
Lawrence  Scientific  School  of  Harvard  University,  delivered  a 
course  of  five  lectures  on  "Munitions  of  War,"  and  during  the 
same  season  Doctor  Henry  Wurtz,  of  New  York,  gave  a 
series  of  four  lectures  on  "  Gunpowder."  Thereafter  no  lec- 
tures on  chemistry  were  delivered  before  the  Smithsonian 
Institution,  and  subsequent  to  1865,  owing  to  a  fire  that  oc- 
curred in  the  building  on  January  24  of  that  year,  public  lec- 
ture courses  were  entirely  abandoned. 

The  appendix  to  the  Report  for  1856  contains  a  paper  "On 
Tables  of  the  Constants  of  Nature  and  Art,"  by  Charles  Bab- 
bage,  in  which  it  is  said  that  these  constants  should  include 


Chemistry  619 

(among  other  things)  :  "  The  atomic  weights  of  bodies,  the 
proportions  of  the  elements  of  various  compounds;  acids  with 
bases ;  metals  with  oxygen,  etc.  A  list  of  metals,  with  col- 
umns containing  specific  gravity,  elasticity,  tenacity,  specific 
heat,  conductive  power  of  heat,  conductive  power  of  electric- 
ity, melting  point,  refraction  power,  proportion  of  rays  re- 
flected out  of  1000  at  an  incident  of  go'^.  List  of  specific 
gravities  of  all  bodies."  Frank  \V.  Clarke,  then  of  Boston, 
had  for  his  own  purpose  compiled  certain  information  of  the 
above  character,  and  in  1873  submitted  to  the  Smithsonian 
Institution  his  results,  consisting  of  a  table,  exclusive  of  its 
supplement,  which,  in  his  own  words,  "  contains  the  specific 
gravities  of  2263  substances  and  over  5000  determinations  in 
all.  There  are  over  2000  determinations  of  boiling  point, 
representing  1 205  different  substances,  and  nearly  500  of 
melting  point  for  326  substances.  In  all,  the  names  of  2572 
distinct  bodies  will  be  found  in  this  table."  This  work,  en- 
titled "The  Constants  of  Nature.  Part  i.  Specific  Gravities; 
Boiling  and  Melting  Points  and  Chemical  Formula,"  was  sub- 
mitted for  critical  examination  to  Charles  A.  Joy,  and  Charles 
F".  Chandler,  of  Columbia  College ;  and  on  their  recommen- 
dation published  in  December,  1873.  It  consisted  of  263 
octavo  pages,  and  was  numbered  255  of  the  "Smithsonian 
Miscellaneous  Collections." 

In  April,  1876,  the  Smithsonian  Institution  issued  the 
"  First  Supplement  to  Part  i  "  of  "  The  Constants  of  Nature  " 
as  an  octavo  pamphlet  of  sixty-one  pages,  which  contained, 
"in  addition  to  determinations  published  during  the  past 
two  years,  some  materials  which  were  overlooked  in  com- 
piling the  original  work."  At  the  same  time  there  were  is- 
sued Part  II  of  "The  Constants  of  Nature,"  consisting  of 
"A  Table  of  Specific  Heats  for  Solids  and  Liquids"  (58 
pages),  and  also    Part   in,   "  Tables   of  Expansion   by  Heat 


620  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

for  Solids  and  Liquids"  (57  pages),  both  prepared  by  Pro- 
fessor Clarke.  They  are  all  contained  in  Volume  xiv  of  the 
"  Smithsonian  Miscellaneous  Collections." 

The  chemical  laboratory,  concerning  which  mention  has 
already  been  made,  was  occupied  during  1873-76  by  Doctor 
Oscar  Loew,  the  chemist  and  mineralogist  of  the  Geograph- 
ical Survey  under  Lieutenant  George  M.  Wheeler.  Besides 
his  work  for  the  Survey,  he  made  analyses  of  minerals,  min- 
eral waters,  and  other  substances  that  were  referred  to  the 
Smithsonian  Institution  for  examination.  He  was  succeeded 
by  Doctor  Frederic  M.  Endlich,  the  mineralogist  of  the 
Institution,  who  in  turn  gave  way  to  Frederick  W.  Taylor. 
The  latter  took  charge  of  the  laboratory  in  the  autumn  of 
1877,  and  continued  in  charge  until  June,  1884.  During  his 
administration  many  improvements  were  introduced,  espe- 
cially in  1 88 1,  when  the  entire  second  floor  of  the  southwest 
pavilion  of  the  Museum  building  was  assigned  to  Mr.  Taylor 
for  a  chemical  laboratory,  which  was  then  equipped  with 
much  new  apparatus.  The  work  continued  to  consist  chiefly 
of  the  identification  of  minerals,  both  for  the  collections  and 
for  persons  who  sent  specimens  to  the  Institution  for  exam- 
ination. Still,  from  time  to  time  questions  involving  chem- 
ical research  from  other  departments  of  the  government  came 
to  the  laboratory  for  decision.  Among  those  worthy  of  men- 
tion was  the  controversy  between  the  Custom  House  authori- 
ties in  New  York  and  the  importers  of  Apollinaris  water,  as 
to  whether  the  article  imported  under  that  name  really  came 
uncharged  from  the  springs,  or  was  artificially  charged  with 
other  substances,  especially  carbon  dioxide.  A  report  on 
this  matter  was  prepared  at  the  request  of  the  Secretary  of 
the  Treasury.  During  this  period  the  Institution  was  fre- 
quently called  upon  to  act  as  advisor  to  the  departments  in 
securing   specialists  for  investigations   too  extensive   for  the 


WILLIAM   TECUMSEII   SHEEMAX. 

REOEXT  OF  THE  SMITHSOXIAX  INSTITUTIOX, 

1871-187-1:,  1878-1884. 


as 

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^v-V.r.  -■  'iprick  lylor. 

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or 


.ly 


he  Institution  for  exam- 

1"^  involving  cheni- 

overnment  came 

worthy  of  men- 

hori- 


,'.  on 

of 

rtmr 


Copyright,  1884-1888,  by  The  Century  Co. 


W 


Chemistry  621 

time  and  apparatus  of  its  chemist,  or  which  for  other  reasons 
could  not  be  undertaken  by  him. 

With  the  resignation  of  Mr.  Taylor  the  place  of  official 
chemist  to  the  Institution  ceased  to  exist.  An  arraneement 
was  then  made  between  the  Secretary  of  the  Institution  and 
the  Director  of  the  United  States  Geological  Survey,  by 
means  of  which  the  laboratory  in  the  Institution  was  placed 
in  charge  of  Professor  Clarke,  chief  chemist  of  the  Survey, 
with  the  understanding  that  Professor  Clarke  should  perform 
such  chemical  work  as  might  be  called  for  by  the  Institution. 
This  procedure  was  in  accordance  with  the  policy  of  relin- 
quishing such  lines  of  work  as  could  be  satisfactorily  carried 
on  by  other  departments  of  the  government,  and  of  fostering 
only  such  branches  of  investigation  as  were  not  provided  for 
elsewhere.  For  nine  years  nearly  all  of  the  chemical  work  of 
the  Survey  was  done  in  the  rooms  assigned  to  that  work  in 
the  Museum  building,  but  in  1892  the  analytical  work  was 
transferred  to  the  new  offices  of  the  Survey.  In  addition  to 
the  foregoing,  considerable  chemical  work  pertaining  to  me- 
tallurgy and  economic  geology  was  performed  during  these 
years  in  the  departments  of  metallurgy  and  economic  geology 
and  of  lithology  and  physical  geology  by  their  respective 
curators,  Frederic  P.  Dewey  and  George  P.  Merrill.  Since 
1892  such  chemical  work  as  has  been  required  by  the  Insti- 
tution has  been  conducted  in  the  laboratory  now  in  the  De- 
partment of  Geology  under  the  direction  of  the  curator, 
Doctor  George  P.   Merrill. 

Soon  after  the  publication  of  the  three  parts  of  the  "  Con- 
stants of  Nature,"  Professor  Clarke  began  collecting  data 
relative  to  the  determinations  of  atomic  weights  for  the  pur- 
pose of  preparing  a  complete  digest  of  the  entire  subject,  and 
of  recalculatinor  all  the  estimations.  Much  material  had  been 
collected  and  partly  discussed  when  a  manuscript  entitled 
40* 


62  2  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

"Atomic  Weight  Determinations:  A  Digest  of  the  Investi- 
gations PubHshed  since  1814,"  by  George  F.  Becker,  was 
received  by  the  Smithsonian  Institution.  According  to  Pro- 
fessor Clarke,  to  whom  it  was  submitted,  '•  it  brought  together 
all  the  evidence,  presenting  it  clearly  and  thoroughly  in  com- 
pact form."  It  was  accordingly  issued  as  Part  iv  of  the 
"Constants  of  Nature,"  in  August,  1880,  forming  a  pamphlet 
of  149  pages  in  the  octavo  series.  Two  years  later  Part  v  of 
the  "Constants  of  Nature,"  consisting  of  "  A  Recalculation 
of  the  Atomic  Weights,"  by  Professor  Clarke,  was  published. 
It  discussed  all  existing  data  on  the  subject,  and  gave  the 
most  probable  value  to  each  of  the  elements.  Its  publication 
gained  for  Professor  Clarke  the  reputation  of  being  a  high 
authority  in  computing  the  atomic  weights  of  the  chemical 
elements,  and  his  values  are  now  quoted  in  most  chemical 
text-books.  His  results  were  included  in  271  octavo  pages, 
and,  together  with  Mr.  Becker's  paper,  formed  the  greater 
part  of  Volume  xxvii  of  the  "  Miscellaneous  Collections." 

In  1 88 1  Secretary  Baird  began,  in  the  Report,  the  pub- 
lication of  a  series  of  records  of  "  Scientific  Progress."  That 
on  "Chemistry,"  published  in  1881,  was  by  George  F.  Barker; 
those  for  i882-'83-'84-'85  and  '86  were  by  H.  Carrington 
Bolton,  and  that  for  1887-88  by  Professor  Clarke.  Subse- 
quent to  1888  the  series  was  discontinued,  because  it  was 
found  "impracticable  to  obtain  all  the  desired  reports  in  each 
department  within  the  time  prescribed." 

Mention  has  already  been  made  of  the  gift  of  certain  scien- 
tific apparatus  of  a  historical  character  to  the  Smithsonian 
Institution,  and  in  1883  application  was  made  by  Baird  to 
Mrs,  Priestley,  of  Northumberland,  Pa.,  for  the  collection  of 
apparatus  used  by  her  husband's  ancestor,  Joseph  Priestley, 
which  had  been  exhibited  at  the  celebration  of  the  centennial 
of  oxygen  in  August,  1874.     It  is  gratifying  to  say  that  the 


Chemistry  623 

collection  was  subsequently  presented  by  Mrs.  Priestley  to 
the   Institution  for  the   Museum. 

In  1884  the  Committee  on  the  Indexing  of  Chemical 
Literature  of  the  American  Association  for  the  Advancement 
of  Science  announced  that  the  Smithsonian  Institution  had 
consented  to  publish  indexes  to  chemical  literature  that  had 
been  indorsed  by  the  Committee.  In  accordance  with  this 
agreement,  the  Smithsonian  Institution  has  published  "  Index 
to  the  Literature  of  Uranium,  i  789-1885,"  by  H.  Carrington 
Bolton  (octavo,  32  pages)  ;  "  Index  to  the  Literature  of  the 
Spectroscope,  from  the  Beginning  of  our  Knowledge  of  the 
Subject  until  July,  1887,"  by  Alfred  Tuckerman  (423  pages); 
"Index  to  the  Literature  of  Columbium,  1801-1887,"  by 
Frank  W.  Traphagen  (27  pages);  "Index  to  the  Literature 
of  Thermodynamics,"  down  to  the  middle  of  the  year  1889, 
by  Alfred  Tuckerman  (239  pages);  "Bibliography  of  the 
Chemical  Influences  of  Light,"  1891  (22  pages);  "Bibliog- 
raphy of  Aceto- Acetic  Ester,"  1 840-1 892,  by  Paul  H.  Sey- 
mour (148  pages)  ;  "  Index  of  the  Literature  of  Didymium  " 
(1842-1893),  by  A.  C.  Langmuir  (20  pages),  and  "Indexes 
to  the  Literature  of  Cerium  and  Lanthanum,"  1751  —  1894,  by 
W.  H.  Magee  (43  pages). 

Much  new  material  pertaining  to  density  of  various  sub- 
stances had  accumulated  since  Professor  Clarke  submitted  his 
original  compilation  of  the  "Constants  of  Nature"  to  the 
Smithsonian  Institution.  Therefore,  in  1888  he  presented  a 
new  edition  (revised  and  enlarged)  of  Part  i,  "  A  Table  of 
Specific  Gravity  for  Solids  and  Liquids,"  that  contained  "the 
specific  gravities  of  5227  distinct  substances  and  14,465  sep- 
arate determinations."  This  table  contained  409  pages,  and 
formed  about  one-half  of  Volume  xxxii  of  the  "Smithsonian 
Miscellaneous  Collections." 

The  announcement  of  the  Hodgkins  Fund  prizes  in  1893 


624  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

was  not  without  value  to  chemistry.  It  created  at  once  an 
interest  in  the  study  of  the  air,  and  from  every  part  of  the 
world  papers  were  sent  to  the  Smithsonian  Institution  in 
competition  for  the  prizes.  Of  the  218  papers  submitted  to 
the  jury  for  consideration,  that  by  Lord  Rayleigh  and  Profes- 
sor William  Ramsay,  descriptive  of  their  magnificent  dis- 
covery of  a  hitherto  unknown  element  in  the  atmosphere, 
received  the  first  prize  of  $10,000.  Under  the  title  of 
"Argon,  a  New  Constituent  of  the  Atmosphere,"  the  origi- 
nal memoir,  as  submitted  by  the  authors,  was  published  in 
May,  1896.  It  forms  one  of  the  papers  contained  in  Volume 
XXIX  of  the  "  Smithsonian  Contributions  to  Knowledoe."  In 
it  are  found  the  reasons  that  led  the  authors  to  suspect  the 
existence  of  a  new  element,  and  the  steps  in  the  investiga- 
tion that  developed  the  suspicion  into  belief  and  conviction, 
culminating  in  the  absolute  proof  by  several  methods,  of  the 
presence  of  a  hitherto  unknown  gas  in  the  atmosphere,  which, 
owing  to  its  chemical  inactivity,  was  called  argon. 

The  third  prize,  of  $1,000,  was  awarded  to  Doctor  Henri 
de  Varigny  for  his  popular  treatise  entitled  "  L'Air  et  la  Vie," 
which,  under  the  title  of  "  Air  and  Life,"  has  been  published 
by  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  It  is  an  admirable  summary 
of  our  knowledge  of  the  atmosphere,  chemical  and  otherwise, 
written  in  a  pleasant  style. 

The  paper  by  F.  A.  R.  Russell  on  "  The  Atmosphere  in 
Relation  to  Human  Life  and  Health,"  which  was  honorably 
mentioned  and  received  one  of  the  Hodgkins  silver  medals,  is 
also  of  a  popular  character.  Among  the  papers  that  re- 
ceived honorable  mention  is  one  on  "  Atmospheric  Actinome- 
try  and  the  Actinic  Constitution  of  the  Atmosphere,"  by  E. 
Duclaux,  of  Paris,  France.  It  was  recommended  by  the  award 
committee  for  publication,  and  is  included  in  Volume  xxix 
of  the  "Smithsonian  Contributions  to  Knowledofe."    It  is  here 


Chemistry  625 

mentioned  because  of  its  chemical  character,  for  it  is  essen- 
tially a  description  of  a  series  of  experiments  that  show 
how  a  weak  solution  of  oxalic  acid  is  oxydized  by  the  in- 
fluence of  the  chemical  rays  of  sunlight,  and  hence  that  such 
a  solution  can  be  used  as  an  actinometric  measure. 

A  paper  entitled  "The  Air  of  Towns,"  presented  by  Doctor 
J.  B.  Cohen,  of  Yorkshire,  England,  likewise  received  honor- 
able mention.  It  consists  of  four  popular  lectures  on  "  Close 
Rooms,"  "Smoke,"  "Town  Fog,"  and  "Germs  of  the  Air"; 
and  these  were  of  such  practical  character  that  they  were 
deemed  worthy  of  prompt  publication. 

In  the  oriofinal  circular  concerninof  the  Hodcrkins  Fund 
prizes  it  says  that  "  special  grants  of  money  may  be  made 
to  specialists  engaged  in  original  inv^estigation  upon  atmos- 
pheric air  and  its  properties."  In  accordance  with  this  pro- 
vision a  grant  of  $500  was  made  to  Doctor  Otto  Lummer 
and  Doctor  Ernst  Pringsheim  of  Berlin,  Germany,  for  re- 
searches on  the  determination  of  an  exact  measure  of  the 
cooling  of  gases  while  expanding,  with  a  view  to  revising  the 
value  of  that  most  important  constant  which  is  technically 
termed  "  gamma  "  function.  This  grant  was  made  on  recom- 
mendation of  Professor  von  Helmholtz.  In  the  same  year  a 
second  grant,  amounting  to  $1000,  was  placed  at  the  dis- 
posal of  Doctor  John  S,  Billings,  of  Washington  City,  and 
of  Doctor  S.  Weir  Mitchell,  of  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania, 
for  an  investigation  into  the  nature  of  the  peculiar  sub- 
stances of  organic  origin  contained  in  the  air  expired  by 
human  beings,  with  a  specific  reference  to  the  application  of 
the  results  obtained  to  the  problem  of  ventilation  for  inhabited 
rooms.  The  investigation  undertaken  by  these  scientists  was 
carried  on  in  the  Laboratory  of  Hygiene  in  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania,  largely  by  Doctor  David  H.  Bergey.  and  un- 
der their  joint  names  the  Smithsonian  Institution  in   Novem- 


62  6  The  Sinithsoniau  Institution 

ber,  1895,  published  their  results  with  the  title,  "The  Com- 
position of  Expired  Air  and  its  Effects  upon  Animal  Life." 
They  concluded  that  dust  particles  are  the  only  really  dan- 
gerous elements  in  the  air,  and  that  it  is  improbable  that 
there  is  any  peculiar  volatile  poisonous  matter  in  the  air  ex- 
pired by  healthy  men  and  animals  other  than  carbon  dioxide. 
It  forms  one  of  the  papers  contained  in  Volume  xxix  of  the 
"Smithsonian  Contributions  to  Knowledge."  In  June,  1896, 
the  "  Methods  for  the  Determination  of  Organic  Matter  in 
Air"  used  by  Doctor  Bergey  was  published  by  the  Institu- 
tion, and  is  contained  in  Volume  xxxix  of  the  "Smithsonian 
Miscellaneous  Collections."  Both  of  these  papers  are  cred- 
ited to  the  Hodo-kins  Fund. 

The  year  1893  was  conspicuously  celebrated  throughout 
the  United  States  as  the  four  hundredth  anniversary  of  the 
discovery  of  America.  In  the  annals  of  chemistry  that 
year  stands  out  prominently  as  the  one  in  which  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution  honored  that  science  by  the  publication  of 
H.  Carrington  Bolton's  magnificent  "  Select  Bibliography  of 
Chemistry,  1492— 1892."  Secretary  Langley  wrote:  "  It  repre- 
sents the  labor  of  a  lifetime  on  the  part  of  a  most  industrious 
student  of  the  bibliography  of  chemistry,  and  is  a  work  of 
reference  of  such  value  that  it  is  believed  it  will  be  a  neces- 
sity to  every  chemical  investigator."  It  contains  12,000  titles, 
and  forms  Volume  xxxvi  of  the  "  Smithsonian  Miscellaneous 
Collections."  The  first  edition  was  soon  exhausted,  and  a 
second  one  was  issued.  Dr.  Bolton  has  in  hand  a  supplement, 
to  include  similar  titles  to  1895. 

The  granting  of  funds  for  the  purpose  of  prosecuting  origi- 
nal investigations  in  science  is  one  of  the  means  of  increasing 
knowledge  that  has  been  more  common  in  the  recent  history 
of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  than  was  formerly  the  case. 
The  present  Secretary  has  ever  shown  a  kindly  feeling  to- 


Chemistry  627 

ward  chemistry,  and  in  his  Report  for  1891  he  announced  that 
a  sum  of  $600  had  been  placed  at  the  disposal  of  Edward  W. 
Morley,  to  procure  a  special  apparatus  for  determinations  of 
the  density  of  oxygen  and  hydrogen,  which  he  properly  desig- 
nates as  "an  investigation  requiring  extreme  precision  and 
delicacy  of  manipulation,  and  promising  results  of  wide  appli- 
cation," In  the  same  Report  mention  is  made  of  the  grant 
of  $200  to  Wolcott  Gibbs,  to  aid  in  the  completion  of  his 
investigations  of  the  physiological  action  of  chemical  com- 
pounds. Doctor  Gibbs  subsequently  published  his  results  in 
the  American  Cke?nicaL  Jotcrnal. 

The  last  item  to  be  chronicled  in  this  necessarily  brief  his- 
tory of  the  relation  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  to  chemis- 
try was  the  purchase  of  a  balance  —  more  delicate  than  any 
in  the  United  States  —  which  was  loaned  to  Edward  W. 
Morley  for  use  in  his  masterly  redetermination  of  certain 
physical  constants  of  oxygen  and  hydrogen,  concerning  which 
it  has  been  well  said  that  "  the  classical  researches  of  Reg- 
nault  are  far  excelled  by  the  investigations  so  far  made  by 
Morley."  The  Smithsonian  Institution  has  also  published 
Professor  Morley's  results  "  On  the  Density  of  Oxygen  and 
Hydrogen  and  on  the  Relation  of  their  Atomic  Weights,"  on 
the  recommendation  of  Frank  W.  Clarke  and  Carl  Barus.  It 
contains  109  pages,  and  is  included  in  Volume  xxix  of  the 
"  Smithsonian  Contributions  to  Knowledge." 

No  more  conspicuous  illustrations  of  the  perfect  operation 
of  the  exact  wording  of  the  will  of  James  Smithson  could  be 
shown  than  those  just  mentioned.  Knowledge  —  and  that  of 
the  very  best  kind  —  has  been  increased  by  the  promotion 
of  the  research  conducted  by  Professor  Morley,  and  knowledge 
has  been  diffused  by  the  publication  of  his  results,  which  con- 
stitute, indeed,  the  finest  physico-chemical  investigation  ever 
undertaken  and  completed  in  this  country. 


62  8  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

In  conclusion,  a  list  of  the  chemical  papers  that  have  ap- 
peared in  the  annual  reports  is  herewith  appended : 

"Oxygen  and  its  Combinations,"  by  George  I.  Chace,  1855. 

"  Memoir  of  Priestley,"  by  M.  Cuvier  (translated  by  C.  A. 
Alexander),  1858. 

"  Lectures  on  Agricultural  Chemistry,"  by  Samuel  W.  John- 
son, 1859. 

"Scientific  Congress  of  Carlsruhe  "  (Section  of  Chemistry), 
by  M.  J.  Nickles  (translated  by  C.  A.  Alexander),   i860. 

"The  Sun:  Its  Chemical  Analysis,"  by  Auguste  Laugel, 
1861. 

"  Notes  on  the  History  of  Petroleum  or  Rock  Oil,"  by  T. 
Sterry  Hunt,  1861. 

"Report  on  Nitrification,"  by  Benjamin  F.  Craig,  1861. 

"  Explosibility  of  Coal  Oils,"  by  T.  Allen,  1861. 

"  Destructive  Effect  of  Iron  Rust"  (from  the  German),  1861. 

"  Memoir  of  Louis  Jacques  Thenard,"  by  M.  Flourens 
(translated  by  C.  A.  Alexander),  1862. 

"The  Catalytic  Force;  or.  Studies  on  the  Phenomena  of 
Contact,"  by  T.  J.  Phipson  (translated  by  C.  A.  Alex- 
ander), 1862. 

"  On  Atoms,"  by  Sir  John  Herschel,  1862. 

"A  Brief  Sketch  of  the  Modern  Theory  of  Chemical  Types," 
by  Charles  M.  Wetherill,  1863. 

"Purple  Dyeing,  Ancient  and  Modern"  (from  the  Ger- 
man), 1863. 

"Ozone  and  Antozone,"  by  Charles  M.  Wetherill,  1864. 

"Vegetation  and  the  Atmosphere,"  by  J.  Jamin,  1864. 

"  Extract  of  a  Memoir  on  the  Preservation  of  Copper  and 
Iron  in  Salt  Water,"  by  M.  Becquerel,   1864. 

"  Preservation  of  Wood "  (translated  from  the  German  by 
C.  A.  Alexander),  1864. 


Chemistry  629 

"Caoutchouc  and  Gutta  Percha"  (translated  from  the 
German),  1864. 

"The  Products  of  the  Combustion  of  Gun-cotton  and  Gun- 
powder under  Circumstances  Analogous  to  Those  Which 
Occur  in  Practice,"  by  Lieutenant  von  Karolyi,  1864. 

"  Description  of  Apparatus  for  Testing"  Results  of  Perspira- 
tion and  Respiration  in  the  Physiological  Institute  at 
Munich,"  by  Max  Pettenkofer  (translated  by  A.  Ten 
Brook),  1864, 

"  Photochemistry,"  by  M.  Jamin  (translated  from  the  French), 
1867. 

"  Notice  of  Christian  Frederic  Schoenbein,  the  Discoverer  of 
Ozone "  (translated  from  the  "Archives  des  Sciences 
Physiques  et  Naturelles,  Geneva"),  1868. 

"  Appendix  to  Notice  of  Schoenbein,"  by  Joseph  Henry,  1868. 

"A  Brief  Account  of  the  Processes  Employed  in  the  Assay 
of  Gold  and  Silver  Coins  at  the  Mint  of  the  United 
States  "  (from  the  Annual  Report  of  James  Pollock),  1868. 

"On  the  Chemistry  of  the  Earth,"  by  T.  Sterry  Hunt,  1869. 

"  Hydrogen  as  a  Gas  and  as  a  Metal,"  by  Doctor  J.  Emerson 
Reynolds,  1870. 

"  On  Professor  Thomas  Graham's  Scientific  Work,"  by  Will- 
iam Odling,  1 87 1. 

"  Organic  Bases,"  by  Professor  A.  Bauer  (translated  from 
the  German),  1872. 

"The  Nitrogen  Bodies  of  Modern  Chemistry,"  by  Professor 
Kletzinsky  (translated  from  the  German),  1872. 

"  Scheme  for  the  Qualitative  Determination  of  Substances 
by  the  Blowpipe,"  by  Thomas  Egleston,  1872. 

"Eulogy  on  Gay-Lussac,"  by  M.  Arago,  1876. 

"  Chemistry,"  by  George  F.  Barker,  1880. 

"Chemistry,"  by  George  F.  Barker,   1881. 

"Chemistry,"  by  H.  Carrington  Bolton,  1882. 


630  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

"Chemistry,"  by  H.  Carrington  Bolton,  1883. 

"Chemistry,"  by  H.  Carrington  Bolton,  1884. 

"Chemistry,"  by  H.  Carrington  Bolton,  1885. 

"  Index  to  the  Literature  of  Uranium,"  by  H.  Carrington 
Bolton,  1885. 

"Chemistry  in  1886,  with  Bibliography,"  by  H.  Carrington 
Bolton,  1887. 

"Chemistry  for  1887  and  1888,"  by  F.  W.  Clarke,  1888. 

"The  Life-work  of  a  Chemist"  [Pasteur],  by  Sir  Henry  E. 
Roscoe,  1889. 

"Aluminum,"  by  Horace  C.  Hovey,  1889. 

"Alloys  of  Aluminum,"  by  J.  H.  Dagger,  1889. 

"  The  Chemical  Problems  of  To-day,"  by  Victor  Meyer,  1890. 

"Autobiographical  Sketch  of  Justus  von  Liebig"  (translated 
from  the  German  by  J.  Campbell  Brown),  1891. 

"  Deduction  from  the  Gaseous  Theory  of  Solution,"  by  Orme 
Masson,  1892. 

"Some  Suggestions  Regarding  Solutions,"  by  Professor 
William  Ramsay,  1892. 

"  Liquids  and  Gases,"  by  Professor  William  Ramsay,  1892. 

"Atoms  and  Sunbeams,"  by  Sir  Robert  Ball,  1893. 

"  Magnetic  Properties  of  Liquid  Oxygen,"  by  Professor 
James  Dewar,  1893. 

"On  Chemical  Energy,"  by  Doctor  W.  Ostwald,  1893. 

"The  American  Chemist,"  by  George  C.  Caldwell,  1893. 

"The  Waste  and  Conservation  of  Plant  Food,"  by  Harvey 
W.  Wiley,  1894. 

"The  Relations  of  Physiology  to  Chemistry  and  Morphol- 
ogy," by  Giulio  Fano,  1894. 

"The  Place  of  Research  in  Education,"  by  Henry  E.  Arm- 
strong, 1895. 

"Eulogy  on  Pasteur,"  by  George  M.  Sternberg,  1896. 


GEOLOGY  AND    MINERALOGY 


By  William  North  Rice 

Professor  of  Geology,  Wesleyan  University 

HE  aim  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  as  de- 
fined in  the  will  of  its  illustrious  founder,  is 
twofold  —  "The  increase  and  diffusion  of 
knowledge."  While  its  contributions  in  the 
department  of  geology  have  been  less  exten- 
sive than  in  some  other  departments  of  science,  they  have 
been  by  no  means  unimportant.  The  Institution  has  ren- 
dered valuable  service  in  both  the  incj'case  and  the  diffusion 
of  the  knowledge  of  the  constitution  and  history  of  the  globe 
on  which  we  live. 

I.     PUBLICATIONS 

Attention  turns  naturally  first  to  the  publications  of  the  In- 
stitution. These  include  both  original  papers  and  reprints 
of  papers  published  elsewhere.  The  original  papers  on 
geology  and  mineralogy  may  be  conveniently  classified  for 
present  purposes  in  three  divisions:  i.  Miscellaneous  papers; 
2.  Papers  immediately  relating  to  the  collections  in  the  Na- 
tional Museum  or  displayed  in  the  temporary  expositions  in 
which  the  Institution  has  been  represented ;  3.  Reports  of 
the  progress  of  particular  branches  of  science. 

631 


6.32  The  Smithsoiiian  Iiistitutmi 

MISCELLANEOUS    PAPERS 

Among  the  somewhat  elaborate  publications  included  in  the 
quarto  series  ("  Smithsonian  Contributions  to  Knowledge"), 
several  have  been  of  sufficient  importance  to  the  progress  of 
geology  to  deserve  special  notice. 

J.  W.  Bailey's  paper,  entitled  "Microscopical  Examinations 
of  Soundings,  made  by  the  United  States  Coast  Survey  off 
the  Atlantic  Coast  of  the  United  States  "  (185  i)  is  an  interest- 
ing piece  of  pioneer  work  in  a  field  destined  to  be  earnestly 
cultivated,  and  to  yield  a  rich  harvest  in  the  succeeding  half- 
century.  The  observation  that,  as  the  soundings  increased 
in  depth  (though  none  of  them  much  exceeded  100  fathoms), 
the  quartzose  and  feldspathic  constituents  of  the  seashore 
sands  gave  place  gradually  to  the  calcareous  remains  of  fora- 
minifera,  was  a  discovery  of  prophetic  interest. 

Two  important  papers  relate  to  surface  geology,  or  the 
geology  of  the  Quaternary  era.  "  Illustrations  of  Surface 
Geology,"  by  Edward  Hitchcock  (1857),  is  a  valuable  inves- 
tigation in  a  department  of  geology  which  had  then  received 
but  little  attention.  The  maps  and  sections  of  terraces  of  the 
Connecticut  River  and  its  tributaries  give  evidence  of  most 
thorough  and  conscientious  work.  The  progress  of  science 
in  the  past  forty  years  has,  indeed,  very  largely  changed  the 
interpretation  of  the  facts  so  faithfully  observed  and  recorded. 
The  increased  knowledge  of  the  dynamics  of  glaciers  has 
answered  the  objections  which  compelled  President  Hitch- 
cock to  attribute  the  Drift  to  the  action  of  ice-floes.  The 
marks  of  the  action  of  glaciers,  which  he  was  sagacious 
enough  to  recognize  in  various  localities  in  Massachusetts 
and  Vermont,  can  now  take  their  place  as  illustrations  of 
particular  phases  of  the  action  of  the  same  agency  which 
produced  the  Drift,  instead  of  being  arbitrarily  distinguished. 


Geology  and  Mineralogy  6 


jj 


The  dynamics  of  river  action,  also,  we  understand  better  than 
forty  years  ago.  Few,  if  any,  geologists  to-day  would  at- 
tribute the  formation  of  valleys  to  the  ocean ;  and  most 
geologists  doubtless  would  approve  Gilbert's  elegant  trans- 
formation ^  of  Hitchcock's  diagram  exhibiting  the  structure 
of  terraces.  But  the  paper  is  an  interesting  monument  of  the 
early  stages  of  the  history  of  glacial  geology,  and  much  more 
of  the  same  sort  of  conscientious  study  of  the  facts  in  detail 
will  be  requisite  before  all  the  problems  of  the  Drift  are 
satisfactorily  solved. 

The  paper  "  On  the  Fresh- water  Glacial  Drift  of  the 
Northwestern  States,"  by  Charles  Whittlesey  (1866),  maps 
approximately  the  southern  boundary  of  the  Drift  from  New 
Jersey  to  Iowa  (locating  the  boundary  most  of  the  way  some- 
what further  north  than  more  recent  authorities).  Attention 
is  called  to  the  moraines  far  to  the  north  of  the  boundary  of 
the  Drift,  and  their  characteristic  surface  pitted  with  kettle- 
holes.  Numerous  small  lakes  and  bays  are  attributed  to  gla- 
cial erosion,  and  the  basins  of  the  Qreat  lakes  are  believed  to 
have  been  somewhat  modified  by  the  same  agency.  The  un- 
stratified  Drift  is  referred  to  the  action  of  glaciers,  and  the 
stratified  deposits  to  fresh  waters. 

Colonel  Whittlesey  contributes  also  one  paper  in  the  depart- 
ment of  physiography,  "On  Fluctuations  of  Level  in  the  North 
American  Lakes"  (i860).  This  paper  gives  a  large  amount 
of  information  bearing  upon  secular,  annual,  and  transient 
variations.  Very  curious  are  those  transient  oscillations, 
which  have  been  studied  and  described  by  a  number  of  ob- 
servers in  the  Swiss  Lakes,  under  the  name  of  "seiches,"  and 
of  which  Colonel  Whittlesey's  paper  is  probably  the  first  no- 
tice in  this  country.  They  are  doubtless  connected  with  vari- 
ations   of  atmospheric    pressure.     Although,  in    some   cases 

1  "  Report  on  Geology  of  the  Henry  Mountains,"  Washington,  1877,  Figures  64,  65. 
41 


634  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

reported,  there  was  no  barometric  fluctuation  at  the  point  of 
observation  at  the  time  when  the  seiche  was  observed,  the 
explanation  is  doubtless,  as  suggested  in  a  note  by  Professor 
Henry,  to  be  found  in  the  occurrence  of  thunder-storms  in 
distant  parts  of  the  lake. 

"  Geological  Researches  in  China,  Mongolia,  and  Japan 
during  the  years  1862  to  1865,"  by  Raphael  Pumpelly  (1866), 
is  an  important  contribution  to  the  knowledge  of  a  field  then 
almost  untrodden  by  geological  explorers,  though  destined 
soon  after  to  be  illustrated  by  the  more  extended  travels  and 
researches  of  Baron  von  Richthofen.  The  loess  of  northern 
China  is  in  this  paper  considered  a  lacustrine  deposit,  though 
the  author  afterward  adopted  Richthofen's  view  of  its  seolian 
origin.  The  wonderful  migrations  of  the  Hoang  Ho  River 
over  the  immense  confluent  delta  which  it  shares  with  the 
Yang-tse-Kiang  is  illustrated  by  a  most  interesting  series 
of  maps.  Much  information  is  given  in  regard  to  the  coal  of 
Chihli  and  adjacent  provinces  of  northern  China,  which  is 
considered  Mesozoic,  on  the  evidence  of  ferns,  cycads,  and  a 
conifer  described  by  Professor  Newberry.  The  coal  of  Chihli 
was  pronounced  Jurassic  by  Richthofen,  though  in  other 
parts  of  China  coal  of  Carboniferous  age  is  extensively  de- 
veloped. 

The  paper  "  On  the  Geology  of  Lower  Louisiana  and  the 
Salt  Deposit  on  Petite  Anse  Island,"  by  Eugene  W.  Hilgard 
(1872),  discusses  a  deposit  whose  scientific  interest  even  ex- 
ceeds that  which  arises  from  its  economic  value.  The  salt, 
which  is  overlain  by  the  Orange  Sand,  is  held  to  be  of  Creta- 
ceous age. 

The  subject  of  the  physics  of  the  globe  is  treated  in  two 
papers  by  J.  G.  Barnard,  the  first  on  'T-*roblems  of  Rotary 
Motion"  (1872),  the  second  "On  the  Internal  Structure  of 
the  Earth"  (1877).      In  both  papers  the  question  is  discussed 


Geology  and  Mineralogy 


>3:) 


mathematically,  whether  the  phenomena  of  precession  afford 
conclusive  evidence  as  to  the  constitution  of  the  interior  of 
the  earth.  In  the  former  paper,  General  Barnard  holds  that 
the  phenomena  of  precession  require  a  solid  globe.  In  the 
latter  paper,  he  holds  that  the  precession  of  a  liquid  would  be 
substantially  the  same  as  that  of  a  solid  globe,  having  be- 
come convinced,  like  Lord  Kelvin,  of  the  validity  of  Professor 
Simon  Newcomb's  criticism. 

Numerous  short  papers  bearing  upon  geology  and  miner- 
alogy occur  in  the  annual  Reports  of  the  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tution and  in  the  "  Bulletins "  and  "  Proceedings "  of  the 
National  Museum.  Detailed  comment  on  these  papers  is 
precluded  by  the  limits  of  this  article,  though  many  of  them 
have  an  importance  disproportionate  to  their  length.  A  few 
of  them  are  briefly  mentioned. 

Joseph  Le  Conte's  "Lectures  on  Coal  "  (Report,  1857)  are 
a  model  of  truly  popular  exposition  of  a  scientific  theme.  The 
treatment  of  the  paleontological  part  of  the  subject  belongs, 
of  course,  to  the  pre- Darwinian  epoch,  then  near  its  end. 

T.  S.  Hunt's  report  "On  the  Chemistry  of  the  Earth" 
(Report,  1S69)  is  a  very  compact  summary  of  the  views  on 
chemical  geology,  which  are  more  fully  presented  in  his 
"  Chemical  and  Geological  Essays,"  and  other  writings. 

W.  N.  Rice  gives  results  of  studies  on  "  The  Geology  of 
Bermuda"  (Bulletin,  No.  25).  He  holds  the  islands  to  be 
an  atoll,  originally  formed  by  subsidence,  in  accordance  with 
the  views  of  Darwin  and  Dana ;  but  supposes  the  subsidence 
to  have  been  interrupted  by  an  epoch  of  elevation  in  which 
enormous  accumulations  of  aeolian  limestone  were  formed. 

T.  Egleston's  "Catalogue  of  Minerals  and  Synonyms" 
(Bulletin,  No.  ^^  is  an  exceedingly  handy  little  volume 
for  reference.  All  mineralogical  names  are  given  in  alpha- 
betical order ;   while  names  of  recognized  species  are  distin- 


636  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

guished  by  being  printed  in  capitals,  and  are  followed  by 
statements  of  chemical  composition  and  crystalline  form,  and 
by  lists  of  synonyms  and  varieties. 

G.  W.  Hawes  (Proceedings,  Volume  iv)  shows  that  the 
Triassic  diabases  of  the  eastern  United  States  contain  not 
only  labradorite,  but  various  other  feldspars,  among  which  are 
andesine,  anorthite,  and  albite.  He  also  calls  attention  to  the 
frequent  absence  of  twinning  structure  in  the  triclinic  feld- 
spars, and  the  consequent  unreliability  of  optical  determina- 
tions not  checked  by  chemical  analysis. 

G.  P.  Merrill  has  published  numerous  papers  on  mineral- 
ogical  and  lithological  subjects  in  the  "  Proceedings  of  the 
National  Museum."  Among  them  is  one  somewhat  elaborate 
paper  entitled,  "  Notes  on  Some  Eruptive  Rocks  from  Galla- 
tin, Jefferson,  and  Madison  Counties,  Montana"  (Volume  xvii). 
In  several  notes  on  "  Serpentines,"  from  various  localities  (Vol- 
umes XI,  xii),  evidence  is  given  of  the  derivation  of  serpentine 
from  olivine  and  other  anhydrous  magnesian  silicates.  The 
glistening  surfaces,  like  slickensides,  in  the  serpentines,  are 
attributed  to  the  friction  of  movements  due  to  the  expansion 
of  the  mass  in  undergoing  hydration.  Interesting  studies  on 
points  of  detail  in  geological  structure  are  given  in  notes 
"On  Fulgurites"  (Volume  ix),  "On  Stalactites  and  Gypsum 
Incrustations,"  and  on  "Sandstone  Concretions"  (Volume 
xvii).  A  note  "  On  Deposits  of  Volcanic  Dust  and  Sand 
in  Southwestern  Nebraska"  (Volume  viii)  records  the  first 
known  observation  of  unaltered  volcanic  ashes  or  tufa  in  the 
United  States  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

C.  T.  Simpson  discusses  (Volume  xvi)  the  Unios  found  in 
the  deposits  near  Toronto  supposed  to  be  interglacial.  All 
are  species  belonging  to  the  fauna  of  the  Mississippi  Valley, 
and  most  of  them  are  no  longer  found  in  Canada.  Their  in- 
troduction into  the  drainage  basin  of  the  St.  Lawrence  dates 


Geology  and  Mineralogy  637 

from  the  time  when  the  St.  Lawrence  valley  was  filled  with 

ice,  and  the  great  lakes  at  the   southern   margin  of  the  ice 
sheet  drained  southward  into  the  Mississippi. 


PAPERS    RELATING    TO    THE    COLLECTIONS    IX    THE 
NATIONAL    MUSEUM 

Among  the  interesting  papers  relating  to  the  Museum  should 
be  mentioned  the  "  Catalogue  of  Meteorites,"  by  F.  W.  Clarke, 
and  the  description  of  "  The  Gem  Collection,"  by  G.  V . 
Kunz  (Report,  1886).  G.  P.  Merrill's  paper  on  "The  Col- 
lection of  Building  and  Ornamental  Stones"  (Report,  1886) 
is  much  more  than  a  catalogue,  being  an  exceedingly  val- 
uable monograph,  treating  the  stones  in  both  geological  and 
economical  relations.  The  same  author  has  given,  in  his 
"Preliminary  Handbook  for  the  Department  of  Geology" 
(Report,  1889),  and  "  Handbook  for  the  Department  of 
Geology,  Part  I  "  (Report,  1890),  not  only  admirable  de- 
scriptions of  the  collections,  but  also  valuable  treatises  on 
dynamical  geology  and  lithology.  Another  such  paper,  far 
transcending  the  character  of  a  simple  catalogue,  and  rank- 
ing as  an  important  treatise,  is  Y .  P.  Dewey's  "  Preliminary 
Description  of  Catalogue  of  the  Systematic  Collections  in 
Economic  Geology  and  Metallurgy  "  (Bulletin,  No.  42). 

REPORTS    OF    PROGRESS 

As  these  papers  are  themselves  abstracts  of  a  mass  of  litera- 
ture, any  attempt  to  give  abstracts  of  them  would  be  use- 
less. Nor  is  it  necessary  to  comment  on  the  utility  of  such 
summaries  of  scientific  work.  The  names  of  the  authors  are 
sufficient  guarantee  of  the  quality  of  the  work.  These  papers 
are  contained   in  the    Reports   for  the  years    1880  to    1S88. 

41* 


638  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

The  authors  of  the  various  accounts  of  progress  were  well 
known  men  of  science,  as  follows : 

Geology,  G.  W.  Hawes,  T.  S.  Hunt,  N.  H.  Darton,  W  J 
McGee ;  Mineralogy,  G,  W.  Hawes,  E.  S.  Dana ;  Petrog- 
raphy, G.  P.  Merrill ;  Vulcanology  and  Seismology,  C.  G. 
Rockwood,  Jr. 

REPRINTS 

An  appropriate  memorial  of  the  honored  founder  of  the  In- 
stitution is  afforded  by  the  republication  of  "  The  Scientific 
Writings  of  James  Smithson,"  extracted  from  the  "  Philosophi- 
cal Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London,"  and  from 
"  Thomson's  Annals  of  Philosophy."  Most  of  these  papers  are 
now  chiefly  interesting  as  illustrating  the  character  of  one  of 
the  benefactors  of  humanity.  The  paper  entitled  "  A  Chemi- 
cal Analysis  of  Some  Calamines  "  (1802)  gives  the  proof  that 
one  of  the  minerals  formerly  confounded  under  the  name 
calamine  is  a  carbonate  of  zinc,  while  the  other  affords  on 
analysis  silica  and  oxide  of  zinc.  The  former  is  now  most 
appropriately  named  smithsonite.  The  ingenious  refutation 
of  Granville  Penn's  theory  that  the  fossils  found  in  Kirkdale 
Cave  were  relics  of  the  Noachian  delude  eives  an  interest- 
ing  illustration  of  the  state  of  geological  opinion  at  the  close 
of  the  first  quarter  of  this  century. 

The  scientific  papers  to  which  from  time  to  time  a  wider 
circulation  has  been  given  by  their  republication  in  the 
Smithsonian  Reports,  have  been  sometimes  selected  as  giv- 
ing accounts  of  new  and  important  discoveries,  sometimes 
as  dealing  with  broad  generalizations  and  correlations. 

A.  Geikie's  brilliant  address  on  "  Geological  Change,  and 
Time"  (1892)  affords  an  admirably  clear  and  comprehensive 
view  of  the  spirit  and  method  of  geological  study. 

The  important  but  difficult  problems  of  the  physics  of  the 


Geology  and  Mineralogy  639 

globe  are  treated  in  papers  by  A.  Blytt,  H.  Hennessy,  C. 
Chree,  and  G.  K.  Gilbert. 

C.  D.  Walcott,  in  a  paper  entitled  "  Geologic  Time,  as 
Indicated  by  the  Sedimentary  Rocks  of  North  America " 
(1893),  investigates  especially  the  rate  of  accumulation  of 
Paleozoic  sediments  in  the  Cordilleran  Sea.  The  general 
conclusion  is  reached  that  geologic  time  "  can  be  measured 
by  tens  of  millions  but  not  by  single  millions  or  hundreds  of 
millions  of  years."  This  is  in  harmony  with  C.  King's  paper 
on  "The  Age  of  the  Earth,"  in  the  same  volume,  in  which 
the  theory  of  the  mode  of  cooling  of  the  earth  is  investigated 
in  the  light  of  recent  experiments  on  the  latent  heat  of  fusion, 
specific  heat,  and  expansion  in  melting  of  diabase. 

A.  Daubree's  paper  on  "Deep-sea  Deposits"  (1893)  gives 
an  admirable  summary  of  .the  results  of  the  voyage  of  the 
Challe7iger,  and  other  recent  explorations,  on  a  subject  of 
profound  interest  to  the  geologist. 

Important  contributions  to  the  geology  of  particular  re- 
gions are  given  in  T.  Thoroddsen's  "  Volcanic  Eruptions  and 
Earthquakes  in  Iceland  within  Historic  Times  "  (1885),  and  in 
A.  Hague's  "Geological  History  of  the  Yellowstone  National 
Park"  (1892). 

A.  Brezina's  "Explanation  of  the  Principles  of  Crystallog- 
raphy and  Crystallophysics  "  (1872)  is  a  remarkably  compact 
and  elegant  exposition  of  Miller's  crystallographic  system  and 
of  the  optical  characters  of  crystals.  The  theory  of  crystal 
formation  is  illustrated  by  valuable  papers  by  J.  W.  Judd  and 
C.  D.  Liveinor. 

The  short  paper  by  E.  Orton  on  the  "  Origin  of  the  Rock 
Pressure  of  Natural  Gas  in  the  Trenton  Limestone  of  Ohio 
and  Indiana"  (1891)  is  valuable  for  the  clearness  and  beauty 
of  its  scientific  reasoning,  and  for  the  economic  importance 
of  the  subject  which  it  treats. 


640  The  S^nithsonian  Institution 

J.  Geikie's  "Glacial  Geology"  (1889)  summarizes  clearly 
and  comprehensively  the  recent  progress  in  knowledge  of 
the  events  of  the  Quaternary  in  Europe.  A.  R.  Wallace's 
"The  Ice  Age  and  Its  Work"  (1893)  affords  an  elegant 
sketch  of  the  rise  of  the  glacier  theory,  and  an  able  argument 
in  favor  of  the  formation  of  lake  basins  by  glacial  erosion. 
G.  K.  Gilbert's  "  History  of  the  Niagara  River  "  (1890)  is  an 
elegant  discussion  of  one  of  the  most  interesting  problems  of 
American  Quaternary  geology. 

E.  Desor's  "  Palafittes,  or  Lacustrian  Constructions  of  the 
Lake  of  Neuchatel "  (1865)  was  given  to  the  American  pub- 
lic through  the  medium  of  the  Smithsonian  Report,  most 
seasonably,  when  the  evidences  of  the  antiquity  of  man  were 
beginning  to  attract  the  attention  of  thoughtful  men. 

II.     EXPLORATIONS 

A  PROMINENT  department  of  activity  in  all  the  history  of  the 
Institution  has  been  the  exploration  of  regions  imperfectly 
known,  especially  in  North  America.  In  some  cases  expedi- 
tions have  been  fitted  out  under  the  direction  of  the  Institu- 
tion. In  other  cases  aid  and  counsel  have  been  pfiven  to 
parties  organized  by  private  enterprise  or  by  various  depart- 
ments of  the  government.  These  expeditions  have  resulted 
in  the  acquisition  of  rich  stores  of  knowledge  of  the  geology 
of  the  regions  traversed ;  and  the  National  Museum  has  been 
enriched  with  minerals,  rocks,  and  fossils,  as  well  as  with 
specimens  illustrative  of  botany,  zoology,  and  anthropology. 

One  of  the  earliest  of  these  expeditions  was  that  of  Thad- 
deus  Culbertson  to  the  Mauvaises  Terres  of  the  Upper  Mis- 
souri in  1850;  and  the  spoils  of  this  expedition  were  a  part 
of  the  material  with  which  Doctor  Leidy  began  the  study 
of  the  Tertiary  mammalian  fauna  of  the  West,      In  the  Re- 


Geology  and  Mineralogy  641 

port  for  185 1  it  is  stated  "that  the  specimens  are  of  much 
scientific  interest,  showing,  as  they  do,  for  the  first  time,  the 
existence  in  this  country  of  an  Eocene  deposit  rivahng  in  the 
number  of  its  species  of  extinct  animals  the  celebrated  basin 
of  Paris."  This  was  the  modest  prophecy  of  that  wealth 
of  discovery  in  mammalian  paleontology  which  was  destined 
to  be  made  in  the  half-century  of  this  history  by  Leidy, 
Marsh,  Cope,  Osborn,  and  Scott. 

Until  the  organization  of  the  United  States  Geological 
Survey,  the  Smithsonian  Institution  was  the  headquarters  of 
the  geologists  in  the  service  of  the  government.  The  Insti- 
tution aided  in  providing  their  outfit,  its  annual  Reports 
briefly  announced  their  discoveries,  and  their  collections  were 
received  into  its  Museum,  and  studied  within  its  walls  or 
under  its  direction.  The  geological  work  done  by  the  Mexi- 
can Boundary  Survey,  the  Pacific  Railroad  Surveys,  the 
Colorado  expedition  of  Lieutenant  Iv^es,  the  expeditions  of 
Lieutenant  (afterward  General)  Warren  to  the  Yellowstone, 
the  Black  Hills,  and  the  Loup  Fork,  the  explorations  of  Doctor 
D.  D.  Owen,  Foster  and  Whitney,  Doctor  Charles  T.  Jackson, 
Doctor  John  Evans,  and  Doctor  F.  V.  Hayden  were  all 
more  or  less  intimately  related  with  the  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion. Within  its  walls  were  carried  on  the  patient  and  con- 
scientious labors  of  F.  B.  Meek,  by  which  the  paleontology 
of  the  United  States  was  so  greatly  advanced. 

The  Institution  activ^ely  cooperated  in  the  expedition  to 
Alaska  under  the  auspices  of  the  Western  Union  Telegraph 
Company  ;  and  Kennicott  and  Dall  and  the  other  naturalists 
of  that  expedition  were  among  the  scientific  men  whose 
headquarters  was  in  the  Institution.  Much  of  geological 
knowledge  was  gained  by  this  expedition. 

In  1867  geology  acquired  a  more  independent  position  than 
it  had  previously  held  in  relation  to  the  government  of  the 


642  The  Smithsonian  Institntion 

United  States.  Prior  to  that  date  most  of  the  geological 
work  under  the  auspices  of  the  United  States  government  had 
been  done  by  expeditions  undertaken  primarily  for  some 
other  object.  The  place  of  geology  had  been,  as  Clarence 
King  has  well  expressed  it,  that  of  a  camp-follower.  The 
next  few  years  were  marked  by  the  achievements  of  four 
o-reat  organizations  devoted  specifically  to  geological  work : 
the  Survey  of  the  Fortieth  Parallel,  under  Clarence  King  ; 
the  Survey  West  of  the  One  Hundredth  Meridian,  under  Lieu- 
tenant Wheeler  ;  the  Survey  of  the  Territories,  under  Doctor 
Hayden  ;  and  the  Survey  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  Region, 
under  Major  Powell.  All  these  explorations  were  aided  by 
the  Smithsonian  Institution,  and  helped  to  enrich  its  Museum 
by  their  collections. 

After  the  organization  of  the  United  States  Geological  Sur- 
vey in  1879,  the  geologists  in  government  employ  had  a 
headquarters  of  their  own  in  Washington,  and  their  work  was 
naturally  less  intimately  related  to  the  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion. Yet  the  two  organizations,  entirely  independent,  have 
been  mutually  helpful.  Several  of  the  geologists  of  the 
Survey  have  been  at  the  same  time  curators  in  the  National 
Museum. 

One  exploration  deserves  special  mention  in  this  connec- 
tion, because  placed  by  act  of  Congress  specifically  under  the 
direction  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  —  the  exploration  of 
the  Colorado  River  and  its  tributaries,  by  Major  Powell,  in 
the  years  1869-72.  The  report  was  submitted  to  the  Sec- 
retary of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  though  not  published 
as  one  of  its  series  of  documents.  The  intrepid  and  adventur- 
ous character  of  the  expedition  and  the  brilliant  style  of  the 
narrative  make  the  report  of  this  exploration  one  of  the  most 
interesting  stories  of  scientific  travel.  But  the  report  is  of 
greater  importance  as  containing  the  formulation  of  the  doc- 


Geology  and  Mineralogy  643 

trine  of  base  levels,  and  the  definition  of  antecedent,  conse- 
quent, and  superimposed  drainage.  These  ideas  have  proved 
richly  fruitful.  As  they  have  been  developed  by  Gilbert, 
Davis,  and  others,  they  have  marked  an  epoch  in  dynamical 
geology.  With,  perhaps,  the  exception  of  Dana's  doctrine  of 
the  permanence  of  continents,  these  conceptions  in  regard  to 
drainage  have  been  the  most  characteristic  contribution  to 
geologic  science  which  this  country  has  made.  Nowhere  else 
in  the  world  could  these  ideas  have  been  so  well  developed  as 
in  presence  of  the  gigantic,  yet  strangely  simple,  features  of 
the  plateau  country  through  which  the  Colorado  and  its  tribu- 
taries have  carved  their  way.  The  doctrine  of  base  levels  is 
as  natural  a  development  of  the  American  cordillera  as  the 
notion  of  plains  of  marine  denudation  is  of  the  wave-beaten 
island  of  Great  Britain. 

It  is,  indeed,  probable  that  the  course  of  the  Green  River 
through  the  Uinta  Mountains  is  not  a  perfectly  uncomplicated 
example  of  antecedent  drainage.  Probably  Davis  is  correct  in 
saying  that  "the  mountains  wrenched  the  saw  that  afterwards 
cut  them  in  two."  ^  It  may  even  be  true,  as  supposed  by  Em- 
mons,^ that  the  river  is  superimposed,  rather  than  antecedent. 
But,  however  this  may  be,  the  formulation  of  the  general  prin- 
ciples of  drainage  in  the  exploration  of  the  Colorado  has  been 
no  less  truly  epoch-making  in  its  influence. 

III.     THE    NATIONAL    MUSEUM 

The  collections  of  the  National  Museum  have  exerted  a  potent 
influence  in  the  advancement  and  diffusion  of  knowledge  in 
the  oreoloofic  as  in  other  scientific  fields.  The  treasures 
gathered  by  the  various  exploring  expeditions,  and  studied 
under   the   direction    of  the   Institution    by   specialists    both 

1  Natiotuil  Geographic  Magazine,  Volume  II,  page  103. 
2  "  Report  of  the  Geological  Exploration  of  the  Fortieth  Parallel,"  Volume  II,  page  197. 


644  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

within  and  without  its  walls,  have  yielded  rich  results.  Ref- 
erence has  already  been  made  to  the  work  of  Leidy  and  Meek, 
respectively,  on  the  vertebrate  and  invertebrate  fossils  from 
the  West. 

The  exhibition  collections,  with  their  systems  of  arrange- 
ment and  labeling  continually  improved  by  earnest  work  on 
the  part  of  the  curators,  under  the  inspiration  of  that  genius 
for  museum  administration  which  distinguished  the  late  di- 
rector, the  lamented  Doctor  Goode,  have  been  widely  and 
beneficently  influential  for  good.  Apart  from  their  value  as  a 
means  of  scientific  information  to  the  general  public,  they  have 
been  an  object-lesson  to  geological  instructors  in  colleges  and 
schools,  and  to  curators  of  geological  collections  in  local 
museums.  Thus  they  have  served  to  increase  the  educa- 
tional value  of  geological  collections  throughout  the  country. 

Particular  attention  may  well  be  called  to  the  collection 
illustrating  dynamical  geology,  interestingly  described  by 
Doctor  Merrill  in  his  "  Preliminary  Handbook  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Geology."  Collections  in  mineralogy,  lithology,  and 
paleontology  are  to  be  found  in  about  all  museums.  But 
systematically  arranged  and  well-labeled  collections  illustrat- 
ing the  subject  of  dynamical  geology  have  scarcely  existed 
in  the  past,  and  are  still  comparatively  few.  Yet  a  good 
collection  of  dynamical  geology  can  be  made  far  more  intelli- 
gible, and  therefore  far  more  instructive,  to  the  general  pub- 
lic, than  collections  in  any  other  department  of  geological 
science  ;  while  its  value  to  the  student  is  inestimable.  The 
example  of  so  instructive  a  collection  of  this  sort  in  the 
National  Museum  cannot  fail  to  exert  a  wide  influence  upon 
the  schools  and  local  museums  of  the  country. 

In  still  another  way  the  National  Museum  has  richly  con- 
tributed to  the  diffusion  of  knowledge  in  geology  and  the 
cognate    sciences  —  namely,    by    the    liberal    distribution    of 


Geology  mid  Mineralogy  645 

material  to  the  small  museums  scattered  throughout  the  coun- 
try. In  many  a  school  and  in  many  a  community,  the  collec- 
tions of  minerals  and  rocks  presented  by  the  Smithsonian 
Institution,  authentically  labeled  so  as  to  serve  as  a  standard, 
have  stimulated  the  pursuit  of  the  studies  which  those  col- 
lections illustrate.  Though  no  data  are  available  for  an 
estimate  of  the  amount  of  influence  which  these  donations 
to  local  museums  have  exerted,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
it  has  been  very  considerable. 


IV.     LECTURES 

In  the  early  years  of  the  Institution,  free  public  lectures  on 
scientific  subjects  were  given  in  its  hall  and  under  its  aus- 
pices, especially  during  the  sessions  of  Congress.  The  Re- 
port for  1849  nientioned  a  course  on  "Geology,"  given  by 
Edward  Hitchcock,  President  of  Amherst  College.  In  1851 
the  elder  Silliman,  of  Yale  College,  delivered  two  lectures  on 
"  Geology,"  and  a  year  later  he  gave  a  course  of  twelve  lec- 
tures on  the  same  subject.  During  the  winter  of  i856-'57 
Joseph  LeConte,  then  of  Georgia,  delivered  three  lectures  on 
"  Coal"  and  also  three  on  "  Coral."  James  D.  Dana,  of  Yale 
Colleee,  lectured  on  "  Coral  Islands  "  durinor  the  winter  of 
i858-'59.  During  the  following  winter  T.  Sterry  Hunt,  then  of 
the  Geological  Survey  of  Canada,  delivered  five  lectures  with 
titles  as  follows  :  "  On  Chemical  and  Physical  Geology";  ''  In- 
troduction of  Geological  Agencies";  ''  Chemistry  of  the  Earth's 
Crust";  "  Life  in  Its  Geological  Relations";  "  Geology  of  the 
Metals,  Mineral  Springs,  Metamorphism " ;  and  "Igneous 
Rocks,  Volcanoes,  Mountain  Chains."  In  1862  Fairman 
Rogers,  of  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania,  gave  three  lectures  on 
"Glaciers."  This  was  followed  in  1863  by  a  course  of  three 
lectures  on  "The  Glacial  Period,"  b)  Louis  Agassiz,  of  Harvard 


646  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

College.  Lectures  on  related  subjects  were  delivered  by  well- 
known  scientists,  including  Charles  Henry  Davis,  Henry  Dar- 
win Rogers,  Stephen  Alexander,  Daniel  Wilson,  and  Arnold 
Guyot.  The  regular  delivery  of  these  lectures  was  interfered 
with  by  the  progress  of  the  Civil  War,  and  in  1865  by  the  fire 
that  destroyed  the  lecture-room.  For  a  time  thereafter  the 
Institution  subsidized  lecture  courses  in  other  institutions 
in  the  City  of  Washington.  In  the  early  years,  when  science 
had  scarcely  naturalized  itself  in  this  country,  these  lectures 
in  the  national  capital,  and  under  quasi-authoritative  auspices, 
served  a  most  valuable  purpose  in  stimulating  public  interest 
in  scientific  subjects. 


METEOROLOGY 

By  Marcus  Benjamin, 

Fellow  of  the  Chemical  Society  of  London 


j^MERICAN  meteorology  began  with  the  Rev- 
erend John  Campanius,  a  Swedish  clergyman 
who  settled  near  the  present  site  of  Wilming- 
ton, Delaware,  in  1643.  Campanius,  the  "first 
meteorological  observer  on  the  western  conti- 
nent," kept  an  account  of  the  weather,  day  by  day,  during 
the  years  1644-45.^ 

The  systematic  gathering  of  meteorological  information 
was  continued  by  individuals  at  different  places.  Among 
the  observers  worthy  of  special  mention  were:  Doctor  John 
Lining,  who,  from  1738  till  1750,  noted  the  climatic  condi- 
tions in  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  and  was  the  lirst  to  make 
a  series  of  instrumental  observations  in  the  United  States;^ 
John  Winthrop,  of  Harvard  College,  who  in  i  742  began  to 
collect  such  data,  and  continued  the  practice  for  more  than 
twenty  years;  ^  and  John  Bartram,  the  botanist,  who  made 
observations  in  his  famous  gardens  on  the  Schuylkill  in  i  748, 

1  Henry,  Alfred  J.,"  Early  Individual  Ob-  Meteorological  Congress  held  in  Chicago, 
servers  in  the  United  Stales."  See  page  293  Illinois,  August  21-24,  1893."  Washington, 
of  Part  2,  "  Bulletin,  No.  11,  of  the  Weather       1895. 

Bureau,"  being  a  "  Report  of  the  International  -  Ibidem,  page  295.        3  Ibidem,  page  296. 

647 


648  The  Smithsonian  htstitntion 

and  again  in  1758-59  and  in  1761-77.  His  manuscript  is 
preserved  by  the  American  Philosophical  Society  in  Philadel- 
phia.^ Of  conspicuous  interest  are  the  series  of  observations 
made  by  Thomas  Jefferson  in  Monticello  in  1772-78,  and 
toward  the  close  of  this  period  he  instituted,  with  James 
Madison,  a  series  of  simultaneous  observations  in  Monticello 
and  at  William  and  Mary  College,  Williamsburg,  Virginia. 
These,  it  is  believed,  were  the  first  simultaneous  observations 
made  in  this  country.^ 

In  i8i4the  Army  Medical  Department  issued  a  rule,  mak- 
ing it  the  duty  of  each  hospital  surgeon  and  director  of  a 
department  "to  keep  a  diary  of  the  weather."^  The  collec- 
tion of  these  observations  was  fostered  by  Surgeon- General 
Joseph  Lowell,  and  a  systematic  gathering  of  reports  of  tem- 
perature, pressure,  and  moisture  of  the  air,  the  amount  of 
rain,  direction  and  force  of  wind,  appearance  of  the  sky,  and 
other  phenomena  ensued,  resulting  in  the  publication  of  three 
volumes  of  "  Meteorological  Registers,"  the  last  of  which, 
issued  in  1851,  covered  the  period  from  1831  to  1842.  The 
active  operations  of  this  service  continued  until  the  beginning 
of  the  Civil  War. 

Contemporary  with  the  foregoing  was  the  collection  of  me- 
teorological data  begun  in  181  7  by  Josiah  Meigs,  then  Com- 
missioner of  the  General  Land  Office.  He  issued  blank  forms 
of  a  meteoroloijical  reorister  to  the  officials  of  the  various  local 
land  offices  scattered  through  the  States.  This  service  be- 
came, in  time,  the  parent  of  the  observations  made  under  the 
direction  of  the  Patent  Office,  and  continued  until  1859.* 

1  Henry,  Alfred  J.,  "  Early  Individual  Ob-       iiient  of  Meteorology  in  the  United  States." 
servers  in  the  United  States."     Page 297.  Page  208,  "Bulletin  No.  11  of  the  Weather 

2  Harrington,  Mark  W.,"  History  of  the       Bureau."    Washington,  1S95. 

Weather  Map,"  page  327,  "  Bulletin  No.  n,  1  Goode,  G.   Brown, '•  The    Origin   of  the 

of  the  Weather  Bureau."    Washington,  1895.  National  Scientific  and  lulucational  Institu- 

3 Smart,  Charles,  "The  Connection  of  tlie  tions  of  the  United  States."     Report  of  the 

Army  Medical  Department  with  the  Depail-  American  Historical  Society,  1889,  page  138. 


Meteorology  649 

During  the  decade  in  which  the  Smithsonian  Institution 
came  into  formal  existence  three  distinguished  American 
meteorologists  —  perhaps  the  three  most  distinguished  that 
this  country  has  ever  known  —  were  actively  studying  the 
phenomena  of  storms.  These  men  were  Redfield,  Espy,  and 
Loomis.  It  was  Redfield  who  advanced  the  circular  theory 
of  storms,  and  it  was  Espy  who  accounted  for  their  existence 
by  convectional  indrafts,  while  the  patient  Loomis  gathered 
the  essential  truths  from  both  and  formulated  them  in  his 
"  Contributions  to  Meteorology,"  which  he  later  gave  to 
the  world  through  the  medium  of  the  "  American  Journal  of 
Science."  Redfield  was  occupied  with  many  interests,  and 
Loomis  was  professor  of  mathematics  in  the  University  of 
the  City  of  New  York.  Espy,  on  the  other  hand,  was  a 
professional  meteorologist,  and  of  the  three  he  concerns 
us  the  most. 

The  publication  of  his  papers  had  gained  for  Espy  a  high 
reputation,  extending  across  the  ocean,  and  in  1840  he  was 
invited  to  explain  his  theory  of  storms  before  the  British  As- 
sociation. From  England  he  crossed  to  the  Continent,  and  in 
Paris  he  spoke  so  acceptably  before  the  French  Academy  of 
Sciences  that  the  great  Arago  exclaimed:  "  England  has  its 
Newton,  France  its  Cuvier,  and  America  its  Espy."  ^ 

On  his  return  to  the  United  States  he  settled  in  Washing- 
ton, and  from  1840  till  within  a  few  years  of  his  death  he  was 
continuously  engaged  by  the  government  in  meteorological 
work.^  In  1841  he  published  his  "Philosophy  of  Storms." 
and  he  was  familiarly  known  as  the  "  Storm  King."     Accord- 

1 "  A  Few  Incidents  in  the  Life  of  Profes-  Secretary  of  War  under  act  of  Congress, 
sor  James  P.  Espy,  "  by  his  niece,  Mrs.  L.  August  23,  1842.  The  records  of  the  Na\y 
M.  Morehead.  Cincinnati,  1888.  Page  17.  Department  show  that  he  was  appointed  Pro- 
s''The  records  of  the  War  Department  fessor  of  Mathematics  in  the  United  States 
show  that  James  P.  Espy  was  appointed  Navy  on  May  7,  1842,  which  place  he  held 
clerk  August  26,  1842,  and  resigned  June  30,  until  July  5,  1845.  ^^  ^'so  served  the  Na\-y 
1847."  He  was  employed  to  perform  meteor-  Department  as  Meteorologist  from  August 
ological    work,   and  was   appointed   by   the  10,  1848,  until  the  close  of  the  year  1857. 

42 


650  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

ing  to  the  memoirs  of  John  Quincy  Adams,  a  letter  from  Espy 
was  received  in  1842  by  the  Committee  on  the  Smithsonian 
Bequest,  in  which  he  proposed  that  "a  portion  of  the  fund 
should  be  appropriated  for  simultaneous  meteorological  ob- 
servations all  over  the  Union,  with  him  for  central  national 
meteorologist,  stationed  at  Washington,  with  a  comfortable 
salary."  ^ 

In  December,  1846,  Henry  was  elected  Secretary  of  the 
Smithsonian  Institution,  and,  already  familiar  with  the  meteor- 
ological work  done  at  the  Albany  Academy^  during  his  ad- 
ministration there,  he  was  quick  to  urge  in  his  "programme 
of  organization  "  "a  system  of  extended  meteorological  obser- 
vations for  solving  the  problem  of  American  storms." 

In  a  letter  to  Jared  Eliot,  dated  Philadelphia,  July  16,  1747, 
Franklin,  our  first  great  scientist,  expressed  the  opinion,  not 
original  with  him,  however,^  that  "  the  course  of  the  storm  is 
from  southwest  to  northeast,"  The  work  of  subsequent  me- 
teorologists had  all  tended  to  show  that  storms  did  progress 
in  accordance  with  definite  laws,  and  that  most  storms  began 
in  the  west  and  traveled  toward  the  east.  Henry  was  not 
satisfied  with  simply  urging  this  matter  upon  the  authorities, 
for  he  returns  to  it  in  his  first  report  and  says:  "Of  late  years, 
in  our  country,  more  additions  have  been  made  to  meteorol- 

1  "  The  Smithsonian  Institution  :  Docu-  tural  Report  for  1855,"  P^g^  369.  Among  the 
ment  Relative  to  Its  Origin  and  History."  academies  where  meteorological  observations 
Edited  by  William  J.  Rhees.  Page  784.  were  taken  was  the  Albany  Academy.  See 
Washington,  1879.  also  page  212,  "  Memorial  of  Joseph  Henry." 

2  "  A  local  system  of  meteorological  ob-  3  Abbe,  Cleveland,  "  Historical  Notes  on 
serrations  was  established  in  the  State  of  the  Systems  of  Weather  Telegraphy,  and 
New  York,  in  1825,  and  has  been  uninter-  Especially  Their  Development  in  the  United 
ruptedly  continued  from  that  time  until  the  States."  American  Journal  of  Science, '\o\- 
present.  Each  of  the  academies,  which  par-  ume  II,  page  82,  August,  1871.  In  a  foot- 
ticipated  in  the  literature  fund  of  the  State,  note  Abbe  says,  "Earlier  than  Franklin  must 
was  furnished  with  a  thermometer  and  rain  have  been  Lewis  Evans,  who,  according  to 
gauge,  and  directed  to  make  three  daily  ob-  Hon.  T.  Povvnall,  M.  P., published  in  1749  in 
servations  relative  to  the  temperature,  the  di-  Philadelphia,  the  brief  statement  of  this 
reclion  of  the  wind,  cloudiness,"  etc.  Joseph  general  law."  See  also  Lorin  Blodget's 
Henry  in  his  paper,  "  Meteorology  in  its  "  Climatology  of  the  United  States,"  page 
Connection  with  Agriculture,"  in  "Agricul-  379,   Philadelphia,  1S57. 


Meteorology  65 1 

ogy  than  to  any  other  branch  of  physical  science."^  Then  he 
unfolds  his  plan  :  "  It  is  proposed  to  organize  a  system  of 
observations  which  shall  extend  as  far  as  possible  over  the 
North  American  continent,"^ 

In  the  accomplishment  of  this  purpose  he  wisely  calls  to 
his  assistance  "  the  most  experienced  American  meteorolo- 
gists,"^ Espy  and  Loomis,  both  of  whom  prepared  reports 
on  the  subject,  which  are  given  as  appendices  two  and  three 
to  the  first  annual  Report.  The  first,  by  Loomis,  is  a  mas- 
terly summary  of  all  the  knowledge  then  possessed  on  the 
subject.  He  showed  what  advantages  might  be  expected 
from  the  study  of  storms,  what  had  been  already  done  in  this 
country  toward  making  the  necessary  observations,  and  finally, 
what  encouragement  there  was  to  a  further  prosecution  of  the 
same  researches.  He  then  presented  in  detail  a  plan  for  uni- 
fying the  work  done  by  existing  observers,  and  for  supple- 
menting it  by  that  of  new  observers  at  needed  points,  for  a 
systematic  supervision,  and,  finally  for  a  thorough  discussion 
of  the  observations  collected.* 

The  communication  from  Espy  is  a  shorter  one,  but  it  is 
of  much  value  and  specially  pertinent  in  that  it  refers  to  his 
"  circular  to  the  friends  of  science "  sent  out  from  the  Sur- 
geon-General's office  before  1843,  i'"*  which  he  urged  the 
keeping  of  meteorological  journals  upon  voluntary  observers, 
and  requested  cooperation  in  his  efforts  to  develop  the  phases 
of  storms.  It  was  also  in  this  letter  that  he  announced  his 
"  intention  to  lay  down  on  skeleton  maps  of  the  United  States. 
by  appropriate  symbols,  all  the  most  important  phases  of 
great  storms  which  might  come  within  the  range  of  our  sim- 
ultaneous observations ;  and  thus  it  was  hoped  that  we 
should  be  able  to  determine  the  shape  and  size  of  all  storms ; 

1 "  Smithsonian  Report,"  1846,  page  25.  Work  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution."    Page 

-  Ibidem.  217,"  Bulletin  No.  1 1  of  the  Weather  Bureau. " 

iJ  Langley,    S.    P.,   "The    Meteorological  4"  Smithsonian  Report,"  1S46,  page  28. 


652  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

whether  they  are  round  or  oblong,  and  if  oblong  whether 
they  move  sideforeniost  or  e7idfore7nost,  or  obliq^iely ;  and  to 
ascertain  their  velocity  and  direction  in  all  the  different  sea- 
sons of  the  year ;  the  course  of  the  wind  in  and  beyond  the 
borders  of  the  storm  ;  the  fluctuation  of  the  barometer  and 
change  of  temperature  which  generally  accompany  storms, 
and  the  extent  to  which  their  influence  is  felt  beyond  their 
borders."  ^ 

Henry's  request,  sustained  by  the  weighty  opinions  of  such 
eminent  authorities,  easily  convinced  the  Board  of  Regents 
of  the  value  of  the  proposition,  and  on  December  15,  1847, 
that  body  appropriated  "  for  instruments  and  other  expenses 
connected  with  meteorological  observations,  one  thousand 
dollars."  ^  Such  was  the  beginning  of  the  meteorological 
work  of  the   Smithsonian   Institution. 

With  this  very  small  appropriation  it  was  impossible  to  put 
into  active  operation  the  plan  proposed  by  Loomis,  if  in- 
deed, such  was  ever  the  intention  of  Henry,  and  the  money 
was  properly  diverted  to  the  purchase  of  instruments.  With- 
out accurate  appliances  for  the  determination  of  observations, 
no  true  results  are  possible  in  science,  and  no  one  knew  this 
fact  better  than  Henry. 

It  was  the  policy  of  the  Institution  then  as  now  to  seek  aid 
"from  every  quarter  whence  it  maybe  obtained,"^  and  the 
cooperation  of  the  meteorological  services  then  in  existence 
was  the  evident  ambition  of  Henry.  In  August,  1848,  Espy 
was  appointed  Meteorologist  in  the  Navy  Department,  and 

1 "  Smithsonian  Report,"    1846,  page  47.  I  am  inclined  to  believe  that  the  introduction 

See  also  "  Memoir  of  Elias  Loomis,"  by  Hu-  of  this  simple  method  of  representing  and  dis- 

bert  A.  Newton,  contained  in  "  Smithsonian  cussing  the  phenomena  of  a  storm  was  the 

Report,"  for  1890,  page  754,  where  Professor  greatest  of  the  services  which  our  colleague 

Newton  calls  attention  to  the  weather  maps  rendered  to  science." 

made  by  Loomis  in  the  year  1842,  and  points  2  Rhees,  William  J.,  "  The  Smithsonian  In- 

out  the  great  similarity  between   the  maps  stitution  :  Journals  of  the  Board  of  Regents, 

now  in  use  by  the  Weather  Bureau  and  those  Reports    of    Committees,    Statistics,    etc.," 

invented  by  Loomis.     He  says  :  "The  great-  page  43,  Washington,  1879. 

est  inventions  are  oft-times  the  simplest,  and  3  «  Smithsonian  Report,"  1849,  page  14. 


Meteorology  65 


o 


in  that  year  an  appropriation  was  made  by  Congress  for 
meteorology  under  the  direction  of  the  Secretary  of  the 
Navy.  According  to  the  Smithsonian  Report  for  1848,  "in 
order  that  the  observations  thus  estabhshed  may  not  interfere 
with  those  undertaken  by  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  that 
officer  [the  Secretary  of  the  Navy]  has  directed  Professor 
Espy  to  cooperate  with  the  Secretary  of  the  Institution."^ 

The  plan  had  now  reached  that  stage  of  development  when 
it  could  be  definitely  formulated,  and  Henry  continues :  "  It 
is  contemplated  to  establish  three  classes  of  observers  among 
those  who  are  disposed  to  join  in  this  enterprise.  One  class, 
without  instruments,  to  observe  the  face  of  the  sky  as  to  its 
clearness,  the  extent  of  cloud,  the  direction  and  force  of  wind, 
the  beginning  and  ending  of  rain,  snow,  etc.  A  second  class, 
furnished  with  thermometers,  who,  besides  making  the  obser- 
vations above  mentioned,  will  record  variations  of  tempera- 
ture. The  third  class,  furnished  with  full  sets  of  instruments, 
to  observe  all  the  elements  at  present  deemed  important  in 
the  science  of  meteorology.  It  is  believed  that  much  valu- 
able information  may  be  obtained  in  this  way  with  reference 
to  the  extent,  duration,  and  passage  of  storms  over  the  coun- 
try, though  the  observer  may  be  possessed  of  no  other  ap- 
paratus than  a  simple  wind-vane.  With  the  instruments 
owned  by  private  individuals,  with  those  at  the  several  mili- 
tary stations,  and  with  the  supply  of  the  deficiency  by  the 
funds  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  it  is  believed  that  ob- 
servations can  be  instituted  at  important  points  over  the 
whole  United  States,  and  that  with  the  observations  which 
we  can  procure  from  Mexico  and  the  British  possessions  of 
North  America,  data  will  be  furnished  for  important  additions 
to  our  knowledge  of  meteorological  phenomena."^ 

For   the   accomplishment  of  this  plan   there  was   required, 

1 " Smithsonian  Report,"  1847,  page  15.  "^Ibidem. 

42* 


654  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

first  of  all,  a  corps  of  meteorological  observers,  and  a  circular 
signed  by  Henry  and  Espy,  requesting  the  cooperation  of 
those  interested  in  the  subject  was  issued  on  November  i, 
1848.  This  document  was  distributed  by  members  of  Con- 
gress^ during  the  winter  of  i848-'49,  to  such  of  their  constit- 
uents as  were  judged  to  be  favorable  to  the  undertaking, 
including  a  list  of  all  persons  who,  as  far  as  they  were  known, 
had  hitherto  been  accustomed  to  make  meteorological  obser- 
vations in  North  America.  These  names  were  furnished  by 
Professor  James  H.  Coffin,  of  Lafayette  College.^  Coopera- 
tion was  also  solicited  from  the  existing  systems  under  the 
direction  of  the  Surgeon-General  and  of  those  in  the  States 
of  New  York  and  Pennsylvania.^ 

A  large  number  of  communications  were  received  in  reply 
to  this  circular,  and  in  February,  1849,  the  necessary  answers 
were  prepared  and  sent  out  with  blank  forms  for  the  register 
of  the  weather.  The  number  of  persons  who  volunteered 
their  assistance  at  that  time,  or  from  whom  cooperation  might 
be  expected,  was  412,  of  which  143  were  correspondents  of 
Professor  Espy,  and  had  been  previously  engaged  in  collecting 
observations  under  the  direction  of  the  Navy  Department* 
At  once  the  service  came  into  active  operation,  and  as  a  re- 
sult Henry  was  able  to  report  in  1849  that  already  "from  lo- 
calities widely  separated  from  each  other,  and  distributed  over 
the  greater  portion  of  the  United  States,  about  one  hundred 
and  fifty  monthly  returns  are  now  regularly  received,"^  and 
"it  will  be  seen  we  are  in  a  fair  way  of  establishing  a  general 
system  of  meteorology,  extending  over  a  great  portion  of 
North  America,  including  many  stations  furnished  with  com- 
pared instruments  referred  to  the  same  standard."* 

1 "  Smithsonian  Report,"  1 851,  page  68.  legislature.    See  Agricultural  Report  for  1855, 

2  Thidein,  1847,  page  15.  P^ge  370. 

3  A  system  of  State  observation  was  estab-  4  "  Smithsonian  Report,"  185 1,  page  68. 
lished  in  Pennsylvania  in  1837,  by  the  ap|)ro-  5  f/iidcin,  184S,  page  12. 

priation  of  the  sum  of  .$4,000  by  the  State  ^Ibidem,  1848,  page  15. 


Meteorology  655 

In  1848  Arnold  Guyot  came  to  the  United  States,  and  at 
the  meeting  of  the  American  Association  held  in  Philadel- 
phia in  that  year  he  met  Henry,  who  at  once  consulted  him  in 
regard  to  the  development  of  the  collection  of  meteorological 
observations.  Guyot  was  charged  with  the  selecting  and  or- 
dering of  the  improved  instruments  that  were  required.^  He 
rejected  the  old  barometers  in  favor  of  the  cistern  barometer 
of  Fortin  as  improved  by  Ernst,  and  further  improved  in  ac- 
cordance with  his  own  suggestion  as  regards  safety  of  trans- 
portation, resulting  in  the  instrument  made  by  James  Green, 
of  New  York,  and  known  as  the  "  Smithsonian  barometer." 
Each  instrument  made  according  to  this  pattern  was  num- 
bered and  accurately  compared  with  a  standard.^  The  set  of 
instruments  sent  out  consisted  of  a  barometer,  thermometer, 
hydrometer,  wind-vane,  and  snow  and  rain  gauge. ^  In  the 
Smithsonian  Report  for  1850,  from  which  so  much  has 
been  quoted,  Henry  says:  "The  most  important  service  the 
Smithsonian  Institution  has  rendered  to  meteorology  during 
the  past  year,  has  been  the  general  introduction  into  the 
country  of  a  more  accurate  set  of  instruments  at  a  reason- 
able price."*  The  distribution  of  these  sets  of  standard  in- 
struments accomplished  much  in  the  way  of  disseminating  a 
greater  knowledge  of  meteorolog)-,  for  there  were  many  per- 
sons who  were  glad  to  purchase  them  for  their  private  use, 
but  who  were  unwilling  to  bind  themselves  to  the  strict  com- 
pliance required  by  the  rules  of  the  service.  The  result  was 
the  establishment  of  numerous  small  meteorological  observa- 
tories  scattered  throughout  the  country  that  became  local 
centers  of  scientific  observation  and  contributed  toward  the 
development  of  the  science. 

Guyot  was    further    intrusted   with    the    preparation    of  a 

1  Dana,   James    D.,  "Memoir    of  Arnold  '-'"  Smithsonian  Report,"  1850,  page  17. 

Guyot,"    Biographical     Memoirs,     National  3  Ibidem. 

Academy  of  Sciences,  Volume  11,  page  338.  *  Ibidevi, 


656  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

pamphlet  of  "Directions  for  Meteorological  Observations,"^ 
which  was  issued  in  1850,  and  he  was  also  invited  to  compile 
"  A  Collection  of  Meteorological  Tables,"  which  was  issued 
in  1852.  The  latter,  consisting,  when  first  published,  of  only 
2 1 2  pages,  passed  through  four  editions  ^  under  Professor 
Guyot,  the  last  of  which,  appearing  in  1884,  contained  748 
pages.  Although  designed  primarily  for  the  meteorological 
observers  reporting  to  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  the  tables 
obtained  a  much  wider  circulation  and  were  extensively  used 
by  a  large  number  of  meteorologists  and  physicists  in  Europe 
and  the  United  States. 

In  1847  Henry  had  recognized  the  value  of  the  application 
of  the  electric  telegraph^  as  "  a  ready  means  of  warning  the 
more  northern  and  eastern  observers  to  be  on  the  watch  for 
the  first  appearance  of  an  advancing  storm  " ;  *  and  a  year 
later  he  wrote,  "  As  a  part  of  the  system  of  meteorology,  it  is 
proposed  to  employ,  as  far  as  our  funds  will  permit,  the 
magnetic  telegraph  in  the  investigation  of  atmospheric  phe- 
nomena," and  then,^  "The  advantage  to  agriculture  and 
commerce  to  be  derived  from  a  knowledge  of  the  approach 
of  a  storm,  by  means  of  the  telegraph,  has  been  frequently 
referred  to  of  late  in  the  public  journals."^  Realizing  that 
the  time  for  action  had  arrived,  Henry,  in  1849,  personally 
requested  the  presidents  of  a  number  of  telegraph  companies 

1  Dana,  James  D.,  "Memoir  of  Arnold  says:  "In  the  Atlantic  ports  of  the  United 
Guyot,"  Biographical  Memoirs,  National  States,  the  approach  of  a  gale  when  the 
Academy  of  Sciences,  Volume  il,  page  338.  storm  is  yet  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  or  in  the 

2  The  second  edition  was  issued  in  1859.  Southern  or  Western  States,  may  be  made 
Concerning  this  volume  Guyot  wrote  to  known  by  means  of  the  electric  telegraph, 
Henry  in  1858  "that  two-fifths  of  the  pages  which,  will  probably  soon  extend  from  Maine 
of  tables,  representing  68,000  computed  re-  to  the  Mississippi."  This  is  the  first  known 
suits,  were  wholly  new  and  were  prepared  published  suggestion  of  the  use  of  telegraphy 
for  the  volume."  Also,  "  It  is  essentially  a  for  the  transmission  of  meteorological  infor- 
work  of  patience,  in  doing  which  the  idea  mation,  and  is  doubtless  the  source  from 
of  saving  much  labor  to  others  and  facilitat-  which  Loomis  obtained  his  idea,  which,  in 
ing  scientific  research  is  the  only  encourag-  turn,  was  passed  on  to  Henry. 

ing  element."     Dana's  Memoir,  page  338.  4  "Smithsonian  Report,"  1846,  page 25. 

3  In  the  American  Journal  of  Science  for  5  Ibidem,  1848,  jjage  15. 
September,  1846  (page  334),  W.  C.  Redfield  6  Ibidem,  1848,  page  16. 


Meteorology 


657 


to  allow  the  Smithsonian  Institution  "at  a  certain  period  of 
the  day,  the  use  of  their  wires  for  the  transmission  of  meteor- 
ological intelligence."^ 

This  request  was  favorably  considered  and  thereafter,  until 
the  beginning  of  the  civil  war,  the  system  of  daily  telegraphic 
weather  reports  thus  inaugurated  was  continued.  Such  was 
the  beginning  of  the  telegraphic  weather  service,  and  by  means 
of  these  reports  predictions  of  coming  storms,  with  all  the 
recognized  advantages  to  the  country  at  large,  were  made 
possible.^  It  is  of  this  service  that  Cleveland  Abbe  has  so 
well  said:  "However  frequently  the  idea  may  have  been 
suggested  of  utilizing  our  knowledge  by  the  employment  of 
the  electric  telegraph,  it  is  to  Professor  Henry  and  his  assist- 
ants in  the  Smithsonian  Institution  that  the  credit  is  due  of 
having  first  actually  realized  this  suggestion."^ 

The  next  step  was  an  important  one,  and  in  the  annual 
Report  for  1850  Henry  wrote:  "For  the  better  comprehen- 
sion of  the  relative  position  of  the  several  places  of  observa- 
tion, now  embraced  in  our  system  of  meteorology,  an  outline 
map  of  North  America  has  been  constructed,  by  Professor 
Foreman.  This  map  is  intended  also  to  be  used  for  present- 
ing the  successive  phases  of  the  sky  over  the  whole  country, 
at  different  points  of  time,  as  far  as  reported  to  us,  and  we 


1  "  Smithsonian  Report,"  1849,  P^ge  15. 

2 1  am  not  unmindful  of  the  fact  (for 
which  I  am  indebted  to  Professor  Abbe)  that 
in  March,  1848,  the  American  Journal  of 
Science,  page  297,  contains  the  following  item : 

"Telegraphic  Reports  of  Meteoro- 
logical Phenomena. 
"  Messrs.  Jones  &  Co.,  Merchants'  Ex- 
change, New  York,  have  made  arrangements 
to  give  daily  and  hourly  reports  of  meteoro- 
logical phenomena,  by  telegraphic  messages 
from  all  parts  of  the  country  which  are  in 
telegraphic  communication  with  New  York. 
This  novel  and  important  enterprise  will  fur- 
nish more  extensive  means  of  synchronous 


comparison  of  the  state  of  the  barometer,  di- 
rection of  the  wind,  and  generally  of  all 
meteorological  phenomena,  than  were  ever 
before  possessed  by  the  scientific  world.  It 
is  hoped  the  colleges,  scientific  institutions, 
and  individuals  favorably  situated  will  com- 
bine their  efforts  to  give  efficiency  to  this 
scheme,  which  if  properly  encouraged  by 
proper  hands,  cannot  fail  of  interesting  re- 
sults." With  this  brief  notice  the  service 
mentioned  seems  to  have  passed  away  —  per- 
haps even  before  it  came  into  existence,  for 
no  traces  of  it  are  to  be  found,  even  after  a 
most  careful  search. —  M.  B. 

3  American  Journal  of  Science,  Volume  li, 
page  83,  August,  1871. 


658  The  Smithsonian  rnstitiition 

have  been  waiting  for  its  completion  to  commence  a  series  of 
investigations,  with  the  materials  now  on  hand,  relative  to  the 
progress  of  storms."  ^ 

The  value  of  this  map  soon  became  apparent,  and  it  is  not 
too  much  to  say  that  the  ambition  of  Espy  "to  lay  down  on 
skeleton  maps  of  the  United  States,  by  appropriate  symbols, 
all  the  most  important  phases  of  great  storms  "  ^  became  an 
actuality  under  the  administration  of  the  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion. As  the  data  from  various  sources  were  received,  the 
meteorological  conditions  were  indicated  on  the  map ;  and  a 
current  weather  map  was  the  final  culmination  of  the  idea. 

It  is  thus  described  by  Henry  himself:  "The  first  practical 
application  which  was  attempted  of  the  principle  we  have 
mentioned  was  made  by  this  Institution  in  1856;  the  infor- 
mation conveyed  by  telegraphic  despatches  in  regard  to  the 
weather  was  daily  exhibited  by  means  of  differently-colored 
tokens,  on  a  map  of  the  United  States,  so  as  to  show  at  one 
view  the  meteorological  condition  of  the  atmosphere  over  the 
whole  country.  At  the  same  time  publication  of  telegraphic 
despatches  was  made  in  the  newspapers."^  This  map  was  hung 
where  the  public  could  have  general  access  to  it  to  observe 
the  changes,  and  its  indications  were  first  published  at  large 
by  signals  displayed  from  the  high  tower  of  the  Institution.* 

The  annual  Report  for  1858  describes  it  somewhat  in  de- 
tail. It  says:  "An  object  of  much  interest  at  the  Smithsonian 
building  is  a  daily  exhibition  on  a  large  map  of  the  condition 
of  the  weather  over  a  considerable  portion  of  the  United 
States.  The  reports  are  received  about  ten  o'clock  in  the 
morning,  and  the  changes  on  the  maps  are  made  by  tempora- 
rily attaching  to  the  several  stations  pieces  of  card  of  different 

1  "  Smithsonian  Report,"   1850,   page   19.  4  Langley,    S.    P.,    "  The    Meteorological 

<2  Page  651,  this  volume.  Work  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,"  page 

3 "  Scientific  Writings  of  Joseph  Henry,"  219,    "Bulletin    No.     11     of    the    Weather 

Volume  II,  page  453,  being  an  extract  from  Bureau,"  being  a  "  Report  of  the  Interna- 

the  "  Smithsonian  Report  "  ft)r  1865,  page  56.  tional  Meteorological  Congress,"  held  in  1893. 


Meteorology  659 

colors  to  denote  different  conditions  of  the  weather  as  to  clear- 
ness, cloudiness,  rain,  or  snow."^  Soon  an  improvement  fol- 
lowed by  the  adoption  of  circular  disks  of  different  colors, 
which  were  attached  to  the  maps  by  pins  at  each  station  of 
observation,  and  indicating  by  their  color  the  state  of  the  at- 
mosphere, white  signifying  clear  weather;  gray,  cloudy;  black, 
rain;  etc.  The  disks  had  an  arrow  stamped  upon  them,  and 
as  they  were  so  arranged  that  they  could  be  attached  to  the 
map  in  any  direction,  the  motion  of  the  wind  at  each  station 
was  shown  by  them.^  Henry  wrote:  "This  map  is  not  only 
of  interest  to  visitors  in  exhibiting  the  kind  of  weather  which 
their  friends  at  a  distance  are  experiencing,  but  is  also  of  im- 
portance in  determining  at  a  glance  the  probable  changes 
which  may  soon  be  expected."  ^ 

It  was  also  in  1856,  to  again  quote  Henry,  that  "several  of 
the  observers  publish  the  results  of  their  observations  in  the 
newspapers  of  their  vicinity,"  concerning  which,  he  adds:  "We 
would  commend  this  custom  to  general  adoption."*  With 
the  growth  of  the  telegraph  came  also  a  development  of  its 
usefulness  to  the  meteorological  work  of  the  Smithsonian  In- 
stitution, and  the  next  step  was  the  publication  in  the  daily 
newspapers  of  the  telegraphic  reports  of  the  weather.  In 
1857  Henry  acknowledges  his  indebtedness  "to  the  National 
Telegraph  line  for  a  series  of  observations  from  New  Orleans 
to  New  York,  and  as  far  westward  as  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  which 
have  been  published  in  the  *  Evening  Star '  of  this  city. 
These  reports  have  excited  much  interest,  and  could  they  be 
extended  further  north,  and  more  generally  to  the  westward, 
they  would  furnish  important  information  as  to  the  approach 
of  storms.     We  hope  in  the  course  of  another  year  to  make 

1  This  description  is  from  "Smithsonian  219,    "Bulletin    No.     11    of    the    Weather 

Report,"  185S,  page  32.  Bureau." 

2Langley,    S.    P.,    "The    Meteorological  3"  Smithsonian  Report,"  1858,  page  32. 

Work  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,"  page  ^Ibidem,  1856,  page  35. 


66o  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

such  an  arrangement  with  the  telegraph  lines  as  to  be  able  to 
give  warning  on  the  eastern  coast  of  the  approach  of  storms, 
since  the  investigations  which  have  been  made  at  the  Insti- 
tution fully  indicate  the  fact  that  as  a  general  rule  the  storms 
of  our  latitude  pursue  a  definite  course,"  ^  The  last  quota- 
tion shows  the  results  accomplished  by  the  meteorological 
service  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution.  That  storms  pursue 
a  definite  course  was  now  an  established  fact,  and  the  propo- 
sition of  Franklin  that  the  storms  of  the  southeast  advance 
in  a  northeasterly  direction  was  recognized  as  a  law.  Of 
practical  value  is  the  acknowledgment  that  the  announcement 
of  the  progress  of  storms  by  the  telegraph  had  been  accom- 
plished, while  the  original  simultaneous  publication  in  the 
newspapers  and  on  a  daily  weather  map  of  their  advance  are 
incidental  results  in  the  development  of  the  science.  "  It 
will  thus  be  seen  that  without  material  aid  from  the  govern- 
ment, but  through  the  enlightened  policy  of  the  telegraph 
companies,  and  with  the  assistance  of  the  munificent  bequest 
of  James  Smithson,  *  for  the  increase  and  dift'usion  of  know- 
ledge,' the  Smithsonian  Institution,  first  in  the  world,  organ- 
ized a  comprehensive  system  of  telegraphic  meteorology,  and 
has  thus  given  first  to  Europe  and  Asia,  and  now  to  the 
United  States,  that  most  beneficent  national  application  of 
modern  science,  the  Storm  Warnings."^ 

In  that  which  has  preceded  an  attempt  has  been  made  to 
show   the    development    of  the  meteorological  work    of  the 

1 "  Smithsonian  Pvcport,"  1857,  page  26.  the   great   system  of  observations,  has   im- 

2  Abbe,  Cleveland,  American  Journal  of  ported  standard  instruments,  and  rated  and 

Science,  Volume  II,  page  85,  August,  1871.  constructed  hundreds  of  barometers  and  ther- 

The  following  from  Norton's  Literary  Register  mometers  used  all  over  the  continent.     It  has 

and Book-B/tyers^  A /manac  {or  lS$^,p3-ge  4<)  published  full  directions  for  observing,  has 

is  also  pertinent  as  shown  in  the  workings  of  now  in  press  a  series  of  hygrometrical,  baro- 

the  Smithsonian  at  that  time :  "  No  institution  metrical,  hypsometrical  and  many  other  tables 

or  government  in  the  world  is  now  doing  any-  of  prime  importance,  amounting  to  upward 

thing  like  as  much  for  meteorology  as  the  of  three  hundred   pages.     This   and    much 

Smithsonian.     It  has  planned  and  executed  more  for  meteorology  alone." 


Meteorology  6  6 1 

Smithsonian  Institution  in  the  direction  of  reporting  the  con- 
dition of  the  weather.  That  was  not  its  only  function.  In 
an  excerpt  from  the  "Transactions  of  the  American  Medical 
Association,"  quoted  by  Henry,  is  the  following  description : 
"The  primary  object  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  is  the 
advancement  of  the  science  of  meteorology  and  the  elucida- 
tion of  the  laws  of  atmospheric  phenomena ;  that  of  the 
Patent  Office,  to  collect  facts  and  deduce  therefrom  laws 
which  have  immediate  reference  to  agriculture ;  while  the 
system  of  the  Medical  Department  is  intended  to  be  pri- 
marily subservient  to  the  health  of  the  troops  and  the  ad- 
vancement of  medical  science.  These  three  Institutions  are 
now  in  harmonious  cooperation,  and  it  is  believed  that  it  is 
no  exaggeration  to  say  that  under  their  auspices  more  is  now 
being  done  to  advance  meteorology  than  has  ever  before 
been  attempted  under  any  government."  ^  Of  the  work 
accomplished  by  the  Patent  Office  a  few  words  are  necessary. 
From  1854  to  i860  an  annual  appropriation  was  made  by 
Congress  for  "the  collection  of  agricultural  statistics,  investi- 
gations for  promoting  agriculture  and  rural  economy,  etc."^ 
A  portion  of  this  income  during  the  years  mentioned  was 
devoted  by  the  Commissioner  of  Patents  to  assisting  the 
Smithsonian  Institution  in  collecting  and  reducing  meteoro- 
logical observations.  Charles  Mason,  who  was  Commis- 
sioner of  Patents  in  1853-57,  says  in  his  Report  for  1856 
"that  the  degree  of  heat,  cold,  and  moisture  in  various  locali- 
ties, and  usual  periods  of  their  occurrence,  together  with  their 
effects  upon  different  agricultural  productions,  are  of  incal- 
culable importance  in  searching  into  the  laws  by  which  the 
growth   of  such  products  is   regulated,  and  will   enable   the 

1  Preface  of  "  Results  of  Meteorological  inclusive,  being  a  report  of  the  Commissioner 

Observations  made  under  the  direction  of  the  of  Patents  made  at  the  first  session  of  the 

United  States  Patent  Office  and  the  Smith-  Thirty-sixth  Congress,"  Volume  I  (l86l). 
sonian  Institution  from  the  year  1854  to  1859  -  "  Smithsonian  Report,"  i860,  page  34. 


662  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

agriculturist  to  judge  with  some  degree  of  certainty  whether 
any  given  article  can  be  profitably  cultivated."  ^ 

It  was  with  this  congenial  cooperation  that  in  1855  a  new 
set  of  blank  reports  were  prepared  by,  and  distributed  under, 
the  frank  of  the  Patent  Office.  They  were  also  returned, 
when  filled  out,  to  Washington,  under  a  similar  frank,  thus 
accomplishing  a  large  saving  in  the  item  of  postage.  From 
the  Smithsonian  Institution  the  registers  were  sent  to  Profes- 
sor James  H.  Coffin,  of  Lafayette  College,  and  by  him  they 
were  reduced  and  discussed.  According  to  the  annual  Re- 
port of  1857  "from  twelve  to  fifteen  persons,  many  of  them 
females,  have  been  almost  constantly  employed,  under  the 
direction  of  Professor  Coffin,  in  bringing  up  the  arrears,  and 
in  reducing  the  current  observations."  ^  Some  idea  of  the 
enormous  amount  of  work  involved  may  be  gathered  from 
the  following  statement  contained  in  the  Report  for  1857: 
"During  1856  the  records  of  upwards  of  half  a  million  of 
separate  observations,  each  requiring  a  reduction  involving 
an  arithmetical  calculation,  were  received  at  the  Institution. 
Allowing  an  average  of  one  minute  for  the  examination  and 
reduction  of  each  observation,  the  amount  of  time  consumed 
will  be  nearly  7,000  hours,  or,  at  the  rate  of  seven  hours  per 
day,  it  will  be  1,000  days  or  upwards  of  three  years,  or,  in 
other  words,  to  keep  up  with  the  reduction  of  the  current  ob- 
servations the  whole  available  time  of  three  expert  comput- 
ers is  required.  This  is  independent  of  the  labor  expended 
in  the  correspondence,  preparation  and  distribution  of  blank 
forms,  and  the  deduction  of  general  principles."^  This  was 
subsequently  increased  quite  materially,  and  while  in  1854 
there  were  234  stations,  in  1856  there  were  320  and  in  1859 
the  number  had  increased  to  531.* 

1  Quoted  in  "Smithsonian  Report,"  i860,  2  "  Smitlisonian  Report,"  1857,  page  28. 

page   34,   where  the  entire  subject   is   fully  3  Ibidem,  1857,  page  27. 

discussed.  4  Ibidem,  1861,  j>age  36. 


Meteorology  663 

In  the  annual  Report  for  i860  it  appears  that  the  appro- 
priation from  the  Commissioner  of  Patents  was  "  suddenly 
and  unexpectedly  suspended,"^  so  that  thereafter  it  was  im- 
possible to  continue  the  reduction  of  the  results.  Fortunately, 
however,  the  general  results  of  all  the  observations  for  six 
years  had  already  been  presented  to  Congress  in  the  joint 
name  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  and  the  Patent  Office, 
and  were  in  the  hands  of  the  Pul^lic  Printer.  The  first  vol- 
ume, with  the  title  of  "  Results  of  Meteorological  Observa- 
tions made  under  the  direction  of  the  United  States  Patent 
Office  and  the  Smithsonian  Institution  from  the  year  1854  to 
1859  inclusive,  being  a  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Pat- 
ents made  at  the  First  Session  of  the  Thirty-sixth  Congress," 
was  published  in  1861.^ 

The  second  volume  of  these  "  Results  of  Meteorological 
Observations"  was  issued  in  1864,  and,  although  it  bore  the 
same  title  as  the  earlier  volume,  the  subject  matter  was 
entirely  different,  for  it  consisted  chiefly  of  a  digest  of  "  Ob- 
servations upon  Periodical  Phenomena  in  plants  and  ani- 
mals from  1 85 1  to  1859,  with  tables  of  the  dates  of  opening 
and  closing  of  lakes,  rivers,  harbors,  etc.,"^  arranged  by 
Doctor  Franklin  B.  Hough,  and  also  a  critical  study  of  three 
storms  of  1859  made  from  data  collected  from  the  records  in 
the  institution  and  prepared  for  publication  by  Professor 
James  H.  Coffin,  of  Lafayette  College. 

The  first  of  the  three  papers  demands  more  careful  con- 
sideration. Mention  has  already  been  made  of  the  blanks 
sent  out  in  181  7  by  Josiah  Meigs  when  in  charge  of  the  Land 
Office,  calling  for  information  concerning  the  time  of  the 
unfolding  of  the  leaves  of  plants,  the  time  of  flowering,  the 
immigration  of  birds  whether  from  North  or  South  ;   the  im- 

1 "  Smithsonian  Report,"  iS6o,  page  3 }.  tiie  year  in  meteorology  appears  on  page  36  of 

2  A  discussion  of  its  contents  together  with       the  "  Smithsonian  Report  "  for  1861. 
an  account  of  the  work  accomplislied  during  3"  Smithsonian  Report,"  1864,  page  25. 


664  The  Smithsonian  Instihition 

migration  of  fishes  ;  and  similar  information.  No  continuous 
record  of  the  results  collected  by  Meigs  has  ever  been  pub- 
lished, and  it  is  not  even  definitely  known  what  became  of 
the  originals  after  his  death  in  1822.^  It  remained  for  the 
Smithsonian  Institution  to  revive  the  collection  of  such  infor- 
mation, and  therefore  in  1851  a  circular  entitled  "Registry 
of  Periodical  Phenomena "  was  sent  to  all  of  its  observers. 
It  was  prepared  by  Doctor  John  Torrey  and  Doctor  Ed- 
ward Foreman  and  gave  a  list  of  plants  to  be  observed  for 
the  period  of  flowering  and  fruiting.  Later  the  circular  was 
made  to  include  information  concerning  phenomena  of  animal 
life.  The  gathering  of  such  facts  was  continued  until  1859, 
and  the  material  was  then  tabulated  by  Doctor  Hough.  He 
classified  the  observations  under  the  following  headings : 
Dates  of  foliation  or  leafing  of  plants  ;  dates  of  blossoming  of 
plants  ;  dates  of  ripening  of  fruits  ;  dates  of  defoliation  or  fall 
of  leaf  in  plants ;  dates  of  first  appearance  of  birds ;  dates  of 
first  appearance  of  other  animals  (reptiles,  fishes,  and  insects), 
and  a  series  of  miscellaneous  records,  having  to  do  chiefly 
with  the  opening  and  closing  of  navigation  at  certain  stations. 
Doctor  Hough  in  the  introduction  says :  "  These  results  will 
be  found  to  have  a  more  direct  application  to  meteorological 
science,  by  indicating  the  progress  of  the  seasons  in  different 
localities,  and  their  relative  variability  in  different  years.  For 
this  purpose  plants  and  animals  afford  indications  as  signifi- 
cant as  meteorological  instruments  as  to  temperature,  and 
other  climatic  conditions,  because  strictly  dependent  upon 
them,  and  in  the  absence  of  all  other  records  they  would 
furnish  a  reliable  chronicle  of  the  passing  year."  ^  At  the 
time  of  the  publication  of  this  second  volume,  Henry  said : 
"  These  two  quarto  volumes  of  meteorological  results  for  the 

1  Henry,  Alfred  J.,  "Early  Individual  Ob-       "Report  of  the  International  Meteorological 
servers  in  the  United  States,"  page  301,  "Bui-       Congress."     Washington,  1895. 
letin  No.  11  of  the  Weather  Bureau,"  being  a  2  Page  6  of  the  introduction. 


Meteorology  665 

six  years  1854  to  1859  inclusive,  embracing  nearly  two  thou- 
sand pages,  together  with  a  volume  covering  very  nearly  the 
same  period  of  time  published  by  the  War  Department, 
probably  form  an  unsurpassed  body  of  materials  for  the 
investigation  of  meteorological  phenomena  over  so  wide  an 
extent  of  country."  ^ 

The  corps  of  observers  was  in  many  respects  a  remarkable 
body,  and  a  cursory  examination  of  the  list  shows  the  names 
not  only  of  men  eminent  in  science  at  that  time,  but  also  of 
men  who  have  since  become  noted,  and  perhaps  whose  first 
contributions  to  science  consisted  in  meteorological  observa- 
tions. The  training  that  was  thus  acquired  developed  the 
powers  of  close  observation  and  had  much  to  do  with  the  suc- 
cess of  the  individual  that  came  later.  Indeed  it  could  hardly 
be  otherwise.  Only  a  student  of  nature  would  be  intrusted 
with  the  proper  filling  out  of  the  "Registry  of  Periodical  Phe- 
nomena." The  botanist  would  watch  for  the  first  budding  of 
plants,  and  the  young  naturalist  would  be  equally  alert  to  re- 
cord new  facts  in  regard  to  animal  life.  A  few  names  taken 
from  the  hundreds  on  record  are  therefore  of  special  interest. 
They  include  Cleveland  Abbe,  Michigan,  i ;  ^  Major  J.  \V. 
Abert,  South  Carolina,  i ;  Spencer  F.  Baird,  Pennsylvania, 
I ;  F'rank  Baker,  Illinois,  2  ;  Adolf  F.  Bandelier,  Illinois,  5  ; 
William  M.  Beauchamp,  New  York,  9 ;  Lorin  Blodget,  Penn- 
sylvania, 3  ;  William  C.  Bond,  Massachusetts,  4 ;  Parker 
Cleaveland,  Maine,  4 ;  John  L.  Campbell,  Virginia,  2  ;  Alexis 
Caswell,  Rhode  Island,  18;  John  Chappelsmith,  Illinois,  22; 
P.  A.  Chadbourne,  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut,  2;  George 
H.  Cook,  New  Jersey,  5  ;  Doctor  Elliott  Coues,  Arizona,  i ; 
W.  H.  Dall,  Alaska,  2  ;  Reverend  J.  Owen  Dorsey,  Dakota, 
I ;   John  D.  Easter,  Georgia,  3  ;   Doctor  George  Engelmann, 

1  "  Smithsonian  Report,"  1864,  page  26.  during  which  continuous  observations  were 

2  This  figure  indicates  the  number  of  years       carried  on. 

43 


666  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

Missouri,  14;  M.  C.  Fernald,  Maine,  4;  L.  R.  Gibbes,  South 
Carolina,  i ;  Donald  Gunn,  British  America,  5  ;  C.  F.  Hartt, 
Nova  Scotia,  2  ;  Jed  Hotchkiss,  Virginia,  7  ;  Charles  A.  Joy, 
New  York,  6 ;  Alexis  A.  Julien,  Antilles  and  New  York,  4 ; 
Robert  C.  Kedzie,  Michigan,  1 1 ;  W.  C.  Kerr,  North  Caro- 
lina, 2  ;  Jared  P.  Kirtland,  Ohio,  i ;  S.  A.  Lattimore,  New 
York,  I ;  Increase  A.  Lapham,  Wisconsin,  20 ;  Captain  John 
Henry  Lefroy,  Canada,  3  ;  W.  W.  Mather,  Ohio,  3 ;  Alfred 
M.  Mayer,  Maryland  and  Pennsylvania,  5  ;  J.  Meehan,  Penn- 
sylvania, 1 5 ;  Marshall  Macdonald,  West  Virginia,  i ;  W.  A. 
Norton,  Delaware,  i;  David  D.  Owen,  Indiana,  4;  Reverend 
Roswell  Park,  Wisconsin,  i  ;  Henry  W.  Ravenel,  South  Car- 
olina, 5  ;  Professor  Orin  Root,  New  York,  i ;  Charles  Sarto- 
rius,  Mexico,  14;  A.  P.  S.  Stuart,  Nova  Scotia  and  Illinois, 
6;  James  M.  Tower,  New  York,  3;  Bela  White,  Nebraska, 
4;  R.  B.  Warder,  Ohio,  2  ;  Alexander  Winchell,  Alabama,  2; 
Theodore  G.  Wormley,  Ohio,  2  ;  Charles  A.  Young,  Ohio,  6; 
and  Ira  Young,  New  Hampshire,  2. 

Among  those  who  reported  on  periodical  phenomena  in 
plants  and  animals  were  not  only  many  of  the  foregoing,  but 
also  the  following  well-known  names :  James  G.  Cooper, 
Washington  Territory ;  William  Darlington,  Pennsylvania ; 
Chester  Dewey,  New  York ;  Franklin  B.  Hough,  New 
York ;  Robert  W.  Kennicott,  Illinois ;  A.  S.  Packard,  Jr., 
Maine ;  F.  Peyre  Porcher,  South  Carolina  ;  John  M.  Ord- 
way,  Missouri,  and  N.  B,  Webster,  Virginia. 

Of  these  men  Baird  has  well  said : 

*'  The  interest  of  the  observers  was  maintained  by  a  con- 
stant correspondence  with  the  Institution.  Copies  of  the 
Smithsonian  Reports  and  other  publications  were  duly  trans- 
mitted to  them,  and  any  inquiries  or  communications  from 
them  on  scientific  subjects  were  promptly  responded  to.  In 
this  way  a  body  of  collaborators  was  secured  to  the  Institu- 


GEORGE  BANCROFT. 

REGENT  OP  THE  SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION. 

1874-1878. 


''hsOni  .cuii 


:wey, 


rica,  5 ;  '^   ^    u^  — 
ork,  4  : 

.,    - . ..  w 

id  Pe  ania,  5;   J.  Meehan,  Penn- 

all  Macdoi. 

David  D,  Owen,  Indiai    ,    ,  ,     .everend 
'\  i;   Henry  W.  Tf?-^  ---^    South  Car- 
New  YorK,  I ;   L^narles  Sarto- 

•braska, 

i^ma.  2; 


la  in 
of  the  foregoing-,  but 


!an 

If 

.,.r, 

oi:k  ; 

r  r  an  ivuu    13 

I,    i\ew 

Illinois;  A. 

',   Jr., 

la  ; 

■ 

aic'LuLitii  ,    ci    cOn- 

tion.  -^  ^^- 


mj  iiunicatiGUS 

th<  responded  to.      in 


^W' 


L/ 


.MOITTTTlTriKi  MAIWOWllTIMg  HHT  10  T"/iaf)aH 

.8T8J:-:t'V8I 


Meteorology  667 

tion,  whose  services  cannot  be  overestimated,  since  they  not 
only  furnished  information  relating-  to  meteorology,  but  they 
were  always  ready  to  supply  information  and  assistance  in 
other  directions.  To  that  body  of  men  the  National  Museum 
owes  a  very  large  part  of  the  extensive  and  complete  series 
of  illustrations  of  North  American  natural  history  that  gives 
to  it  so  great  a  prominence,  this  being  the  result  of  succes- 
sive applications  for  aid  from  particular  classes.  Thus,  when- 
ever the  attention  of  the  Institution  was  directed  to  the  fact 
that  some  particular  branch  of  natural  history  required  its 
fostering  care,  circulars  were  prepared  and  issued  to  the 
meteorological  correspondents,  invoking  cooperation,  and 
asking  them  to  collect  objects  of  the  kind  that  might  be  found 
in  their  neighborhood,  so  that,  not  only  all  North  y\merican 
species  might  be  gathered,  but  accurate  determinations  made 
of  their  geographical  distribution.  Very  extensive  responses 
usually  followed  these  appeals,  and  in  many  cases  sufficient 
material  was  secured  to  place  the  subject  on  a  permanent  and 
satisfactory  basis.  The  works  of  the  Institution  on  many 
orders  of  insects  and  on  fresh-water  and  land  shells,  reptiles, 
birds,  mammals,  etc.,  were  all  based  more  or  less  entirely  on 
collections  and  information  obtained  by  the  Smithsonian  ob- 
servers. 

"As  a  result,  therefore,  of  over  twenty-five  years'  observa- 
tions by  such  men,  the  mass  of  meteorological  information 
obtained  became  very  great,  and  even  though  a  certain  per 
cent,  of  the  observations  could  not  lay  claim  to  that  minute 
accuracy  which  is  generally  required,  yet  it  was  found  that, 
for  many  purposes,  such  as  the  general  indications  of  varia- 
tions in  temperature,  barometrical  pressure,  rainfall,  etc.,  in 
the  collation  of  all  observations  the  errors  disappeared,  and 
an  average  was  secured  which  did  not  differ  essentially  from 
what  would  have  been  derived  from  more  accurate  obser- 
vations." ^ 

The  Smithsonian  Institution  is  also  entitled  to  credit  for 
gathering  the  following  material  relating  to  the  climate  of  the 

1"  Smithsonian   Report,"  1878,  pages  25,  26. 


668  The  Sniithsotiian  Institution 

North  American  continent:  i.  A  miscellaneous  collection  of 
manuscripts  and  other  tables  relative  to  the  climate  of  the 
United  States;  2.  The  observations  made  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  subsequent  to  1849;  3- 
A  series  of  observations  made  by  Doctor  Luis  Berlandier  in 
Mexico ;  4.  Observations  made  in  the  British  Possessions ; 
5.  The  record  of  observations  made  by  government  and 
other  exploring  expeditions ;  6.  Copies  of  the  observations 
made  under  the  direction  of  the  Surgeon -General  at  the  mili- 
tary posts ;  7.  Copies  of  the  observations  made  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  States  of  New  York,  Massachusetts,  Pennsylva- 
nia, Maine,  and  Missouri ;  and  8.  A  series  of  observations 
from  Bermuda  and  the  West  Indies.  ^  It  was  intended  to 
systematically  arrange  and  reduce  these  observations  so  that 
the  results  might  be  summarized  into  general  laws,  but  the 
civil  war  put  an  end  to  such  work,  and  ultimately  the  col- 
lected material  was  transferred  to  the  custody  of  what  is  now 
the  Weather  Bureau, 

Certain  special  meteorological  investigations  were  also  car- 
ried on  in  the  Institution.  During  1850  Espy  conducted  a 
series  of  experiments  on  the  variations  of  temperature  pro- 
duced by  a  sudden  change  in  the  density  of  atmospheric  air. 
The  investiofation  was  carried  on  in  one  of  the  rooms  of  the 
Smithsonian  Institution  "  with  articles  of  apparatus  belong- 
ing to  the  collection  which  constituted  the  liberal  donation 
of  Doctor  Hare.""  It  was  during  the  same  year  that  a 
special  circular  was  issued  to  the  observers  asking  for  infor- 
mation relating  to  the  aurora,  and  a  valuable  collection  of 
returns  was  received,  which  were  placed  in  the  hands  of  Cap- 
tain J.  Henry  Lefroy,  then  in  charge  of  the  meteorological 
work  in  Toronto,  to  be  "  incorporated  with  observations 
of  a    similar    kind,  which    he    had   collected    in    the    British 

1 "  Smithsonian  Report,"  1857,  page  65.  '^  Ibidem,  1S50,  page  16. 


Meteorology  669 

Possessions  of  North  America."  ^  Another  early  illustration 
of  meteorological  investigation  may  be  mentioned :  Soon 
after  the  occurrence  of  an  earthquake  in  the  central  part  of 
the  United  States  on  April  29,  1852,  a  circular  was  issued, 
requesting  a  report  of  any  observations  which  had  been  made 
or  could  be  gathered  relative  to  that  event.  Numerous  re- 
plies were  received,  embodying  facts  suHicient  to  enable  the 
Institution  to  mark  the  point  of  chief  intensity  and  trace  out 
the  diverging  lines  along  which  the  earth-wave  passed.^ 

Bare  mention  must  be  made  of  the  reduction  of  the  series 
of  Temperature  Tables  begun  in  1851  by  Lorin  Blodget;  and 
also  of  Tables  of  Precipitation.  Ultimately  the  entire  mass  of 
material,  excepting  of  course  that  which  was  published  under 
the  joint  auspices  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  and  the  Pat- 
ent Office,  was  given  into  the  hands  of  Charles  A.  Schott  for 
reduction  and  discussion.  Three  volumes  resulted,  of  which 
the  first,  issued  in  1872,  consisted  of  "Tables  and  Results  of 
the  Precipitation  in  Rain  and  Snow  in  the  United  States, 
and  at  some  stations  in  adjacent  parts  of  North  America,  and 
in  Central  and  South  America."  ^  The  second  was  issued  in 
1876  and  bore  the  title  of  "Tables,  Distribution,  and  Varia- 
tions of  the  Atmospheric  Temperature  in  the  United  States 
and  some  adjacent  parts  of  America."*  A  third  volume,  issued 
in  1 88 1,  was  essentially  a  reprint  of  the  first  and  had  for  its 
title  "  Tables  and  Results  of  the  Precipitation  in  Rain  and 
Snow  in  the  United  States,  and  at  some  stations  in  adjacent 
parts  of  North  America,  and  in  Central  and  South  America."  ^ 
It  is  manifestly  impossible  at  this  place  to  attempt  any  discus- 
sion of  the  contents  of  these  volumes,  but  it  is  suggestive  of 
the  magnitude  of  the  undertaking  to  repeat  from  the  preface 

1 "  Smithsonian  Report,"  1850,  page  19.  arc  discussed  at  length  on  page  23  of  the 

^Ibidem,  1852,  page  74.  "  Smithsonian  Report,"  1875. 

'^Ibidem,  1872,  page  21.  6  See  description  on  page  26  of  "  Smith- 

4  The  character  and  extent  of  this  work  sonian  Report,"  1881. 


6/0  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

of  one  of  them  ^  that  of  the  eight  sources  of  information  from 
which  the  tables  were  derived,  the  300  and  over  foho  vohmies 
of  the  registers  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  was  a  single 
source.  They  were  published  in  the  Contributions  to  Know- 
ledge. In  this  connection  mention  must  be  made  of  the 
"Three  Rain  Charts  of  the  United  States,  showing  the  dis- 
tribution by  Isohyetal  lines  of  the  mean  precipitation  in  rain 
and  melted  snow:  (i)  for  the  summer  months,  (2)  for  the  winter 
months,  (3)  for  the  year"  (1870);  "Temperature  Chart  of 
the  United  States,  showing  the  distribution,  by  isothermal 
lines,  of  the  mean  temperature  for  the  year"  (1873)  ;  "Three 
Temperature  Charts  of  the  United  States,  showing  the  dis- 
tribution by  isothermal  curves  of  the  mean  temperature  of 
the  lower  atmosphere:  (i)  for  the  summer  months,  (2)  for  the 
winter  months,  (3)  for  the  year"  (1874);  "Temperature  Chart 
of  the  United  States,  showing  the  distribution  of  isothermal 
lines  of  the  mean  temperature  for  the  year  (1874);  and  a 
Base  Chart  of  the  United  States"  (1880).  All  of  which 
were  published  by  the  Smithsonian  Institution  in  the  years 
indicated  by  the  parenthesis. 

Mention  has  already  been  made  of  the  valuable  collection 
of  Meteorological  Tables,  by  Arnold  Guyot,  the  fourth  edition 
of  which  was  published  in  1884.  This  edition  was  exhausted 
in  a  very  few  years,  and  Secretary  Langley  then  decided  to 
recast  the  work  entirely  and  publish  it  in  three  parts,  one  of 
meteorological,  one  of  geographical,  and  one  of  physical  tables, 
each  representative  of  the  latest  knowledge  in  the  field  and 
independent  of  the  others,  but  the  three  forming  a  homogene- 
ous series.  The  "  Smithsonian  Meteorological  Tables,"  the 
first  volume  of  the  new  series  was  issued  in  1893.^ 

Among  the  early  volumes  of  the  "  Contributions  to  Know- 
ledge" are  numerous  papers  containing  discussions  of  meteor- 

1  "  Smithsonian  Report,"  1875,  page  25.  2  Ibidem,  1894,  page  9. 


Meteorology 


671 


ological  observations.  They  include  the  series  made  by 
Alexander  D.  Bache,  in  the  Girard  College  Observatory,  in 
Philadelphia,  during  i840-'45  and  were  published  in  six  parts 
issued  between  the  years  1859  and  1865;^  those  made  by 
Doctor  Alexis  Caswell  in  Providence,  Rhode  Island,  from 
December,  1830,  till  December,  1876;^  those  made  by  Parker 
Cleaveland  in  P)runswick,  Me.,  during  1807-59  I^  those  made 
by  Samuel  P.  llildreth  and  Joseph  Wood  from  181  7  to  1823 
and  from  1826  to  1859,*  and  those  made  by  Doctor  Nathan 
D.  Smith  in  Washington,  Ark.,  from  1840  to  1859.^ 

The  meteorological  observations  made  in  the  Arctic  regions 
were  all  reduced  and  discussed  by  Charles  A.  Schott.  They 
included  those  gathered  by  Elisha  K.  Kane  during  1853-55  ;  ^ 
those  collected  by  Sir  Francis  L.  McClintock  during  1857 
and  1859;^  and  last  of  all,  those  obtained  by  Doctor  Isaac  I. 
Hayes  during  1860-61.^ 

Of  more  special  meteorological  interest  are  the  following 
memoirs,  likewise  contained  in  the  Smithsonian  publications, 
and  for  the  most  part  written  by  scientists  who  were  also  in- 
cluded among  the  staff  of  observers.  They  include  "Winds 
of  the  Northern  Hemisphere,"  by  James  H.  Coffin  (1853);^ 
"Account  of  a  Tornado  near  New  Harmony,  Indiana,  April 
30,  1852,"  by  John  Chappelsmith  (1855);^*'  "On  the  Recent 
Secular  Period  of  the  Aurora  Borealis,"  by  Dennison  Olmsted 


1  Full  descriptions  of  these  parts  may  be 
found  on  page  i8  "  Smithsonian  Report," 
1859;  page  26  "Smithsonian  Report,"  i860; 
page  17  "  Smithsonian  Report,"  1862;  page 
16  "  Smithsonian  Report,"  1863  ;  and  page  18 
"Smithsonian  Report,"  1864. 

2  See  "  Smithsonian  Report,"  1859,  page 
31 ;  "  Smithsonian  Report,"  i860,  page  21 ; 
and  "  Smithsonian  Report,"  18S2,  page  21, 
for  description. 

3  See  "  Smithsonian  Report,"  1867,  pages 
23  and  28,  for  description. 

4  See  "  Siuitlisoniau  Report,"  1867,  page  32, 
for  detailed  description. 


5  See  "  Smithsonian  Report,"  i860,  page  22, 
for  detailed  description. 

<>  See  "  Smithsonian  Report,"  1859,  page  22, 
for  detailed  description. 

7  See  "  Smithsonian  Report,"  1S61,  page  16, 
for  detailed  description. 

8  See"  Smithsonian  Report,"  1865, page 26, 
for  description. 

9  This  most  important  work  costing  many 
years'  labor  is  described  in  the  "Smithsonian 
Report,"  1851,  page  12,  and  "Smithsonian 
Report,"  1S53,  page  13. 

10  See  "  Smithsonian  Report,"  1853,  page 
14,  for  analysis. 


672  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

(1856);^  "Record  of  Aurora  Phenomena  observed  in  die 
Higher  Northern  Ladtudes,"  by  Peter  P^orce  (1856);'"  "On 
Certain  Storms  in  Europe  and  America,"  by  EHas  Loomis 
(1860);^  "The  Orbit  and  Phenomena  of  a  Meteoric  P"ire 
Ball  seen  July,  i860,"  by  James  H.  Coffin  (1869),^  and  "The 
Winds  of  the  Globe,"  by  James  H.  Coffin  (1875).^  To  this 
splendid  collection  of  meteorological  works  there  might  well  be 
added  certain  smaller  monographs  that  are  contained  in  the 
Miscellaneous  Collections  and  Smithsonian  Reports,  but  space 
is  wanting.^  In  the  series  of  Records  of  Scientific  Progress, 
meteorology  was  not  neglected,  and  from  1879  till  1884^  the 
admirable  summaries  of  this  science  that  were  contributed  to 
the  Smithsonian  Reports  were  from  the  able  pen  of  Professor 
Cleveland  Abbe. 

With  the  beginning:  of  the  civil  war  came  the  loss  of  the 
appropriation  by  means  of  which  it  had  been  up  to  that  time 
possible  to  secure  the  reduction  of  the  observations.  At  the 
same  time  the  telegraphic  service  became  unsatisfactory.  In 
the  annual  Report  for  i860  Henry  says:  "We  regret  that 
frequent  intermissions  take  place  in  the  receipt  of  the  tele- 
grams from  places  direcdy  west  of  the  city  of  Washington, 
especially  as  we  are  more  immediately  interested  in  these, 
since  they  afford  the  means  of  predicting  with  considerable 
certainty  the  character  of  the  weather  sometimes  a  day  or 
more  in  advance."^  A  year  later  the  popular  system  of  daily 
telegraphic  reports  of  the  condition  of  the  weather  from  dis- 
tant parts  of  the  United  States  had  been  discontinued  ;    "  the 

ISee  "Smithsonian  Report,"   1854,  page           6 "The    Scientific    Writings     of    Joseph 

12,  for  analysis.  Henry  "  contain  his  Meteorological  Essays 

2  Ibidem.  and  cover  more  than  400  pages,  and  consist 

3  See  "  Smithsonian  Report,"  1859,  page       chiefly  of  those  published  during  the  years 
28,  for  detailed  description.  1855  -  '59. 

4  See  "Smithsonian  Report,"   1868,  page           7  These  were  contained  in  the  annual  Re- 
49,  for  description.  ports  for  1881, 1S82, 18S3, 1884,  and  1885,  and 

5  See   "  Smithsonian  Report,"   1875,  page       were  also  issued  as  separates. 

20,  for  detailed  description.  8"  Smithsonian  Report,"  i860,  page  36. 


Meteorology  673 

continuity  of  thti  lines  to  the  South  having  been  interrupted, 
and  the  wires  from  the  North  and  West  being  so  entirely  occu- 
pied by  public  business  that  no  use  of  them  could  be  obtained 
for  scientific  purposes."^ 

Toward  the  close  of  1862  "the  daily  telegraphic  bulletin 
of  the  state  of  the  weather""  was  partially  resumed,  and  in 
1864  an  important  addition  to  the  means  at  the  command  of 
the  Institution  for  meteorological  purposes  was  received  by 
the  liberal  action  of  the  North  American  Telegraphic  Asso- 
ciation, which  gave  the  free  use  of  all  its  lines  for  the  scien- 
tific objects  of  the  Institution.  "The  association  embraces  the 
Western  Union,  the  American,  the  Montreal,  the  Southwest- 
ern, and  the  Illinois  and  Mississippi  Telegraph  companies, 
covering  the  entire  United  States  and  Canada,  including  the 
overland  line  to  San  Francisco,  which,  by  its  charter,  is  re- 
quired to  transmit  without  charge  scientific  despatches  for 
the  Institution."^  The  same  report  adds  that  "the  telegra])h 
companies  on  the  Pacific  Coast  have  also  liberally  granted 
the  same  privileges."* 

In  1863  came  the  culmination  of  the  misfortunes  that  al- 
ready so  seriously  interfered  with  the  development  of  the 
meteorological  service.  It  came  in  the  way  of  a  law  passed 
by  Congress  which  prevented  "  the  correspondents  on  agri- 
culture and  meteorology  from  sending  their  reports  by  mail 
unless  prepaid."^  Henry  adds :  "This  arrangement  almost 
entirely  stops  the  reception  of  these  articles,  for,  since  the 
service  rendered  is  ofratuitous,  the  observers  cannot  be  ex- 
pected  to  bear  this  additional  burden."  Also,  "owing  to  this 
restriction,  the  number  of  meteorological  registers  received 
during  the  past  year  has  been  diminished,  and  the  transmis- 
sion of  nearly  all  of  them  would  have  been  discontinued  had 

1 "  Smithsonian  Report,"  1861,  page  35.  ^  IbiJe/u. 

- /(^/(/<v//,  1S62,  page  29.  B  See  "Smithsonian   Report,"   1863,  page 

3  Ibidem,  1864,  page  28.  31,  where  the  entire  subject  is  discussed. 


674  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

not  the  Commissioner  of  Agriculture,  in  view  of  their  vahie 
to  his  department,  decided  to  advance  to  some  of  the  observ- 
ers the  necessary  postage  stamps  to  affix  to  their  registers."  ^ 

This  condition  of  affairs  was  not  long  continued,  and  the 
law  was  changed  so  that  the  meteorological  registers  could 
be  sent  to  the  Commissioner  of  Agriculture  without  pay- 
ment of  postage.  With  the  organizing  of  the  Department 
of  Agriculture  and  the  appointment  of  a  commissioner  inter- 
ested in  the  collection  of  meteorological  statistics,  it  was  de- 
cided to  begin  the  publication  of  "  a  monthly  bulletin  giving 
the  state  of  the  crops,  the  conditions  of  the  weather  and  vari- 
ous other  items  of  importance  which  are  daily  received  from 
observers,  and  which  would  lose  a  considerable  portion  of 
their  value  were  they  suffered  to  remain  unpublished  until 
the  end  of  the  year."  For  this  bulletin  the  Smithsonian  In- 
stitution supplied  "  the  meteorological  materials,  consisting 
of  the  mean,  maximum,  and  minimum  temperature  and 
amount  of  rain  for  each  month  in  different  States,  and  also, 
for  the  purpose  of  comparison,  the  mean  temperature  and 
amount  of  rain  for  a  series  of  five  years,  grouped  by  States ; 
together  with  tables  of  important  atmospheric  changes,  and 
notices  of  auroras,  meteors,  and  other  periodical  phenomena."^ 

Step  by  step  the  history  of  the  meteorological  work  of  the 
Smithsonian  Institution  has  been  traced  in  these  pages  from 
its  inception  down  to  the  beginning  of  1866.  In  the  Report 
for  1865  Henry  summarizes  the  work  accomplished  in  the 
followingr  succinct  manner : 

"The  Smithsonian  meteorological  system  was  commenced 
in  1849,  and,  with  occasional  aid  in  defraying  the  expenses,  has 
continued  in  operation  until  the  present  period.      It  was,  how- 

1  "Smithsonian  Report,"  1863,  page  32.  discontinued  in   1S71,  by  order  of  Commis- 

"^  Ibidem,  1863,  page  33.      Tiiis  Monthly       sioner  Watts.     See  "Smithsonian   Report," 
Bulletin  of  the  Agricultural  Department  was       1871,  page  105. 


Meteorology  675 

ever,  much  diminished  in  efficiency  during  the  war,  since  from 
the  Southern  States  no  records  were  received,  and  many  of 
the  observers  at  the  North  were  called  to  abandon  such  pur- 
suits for  military  service  in  the  field.  The  efforts  of  the  in- 
stitution in  this  line  have  been  directed  to  supplementing  and 
harmonizing  all  the  other  systems,  preparing  and  distributing 
blank  forms  and  instructions,  calculating  and  publishing  ex- 
tensive tables  for  the  reduction  of  observations,  introducinor 
standard  instruments,  and  collecting  all  public  documents, 
printed  matter,  and  manuscript  records  bearing  on  the  mete- 
orology of  the  American  continent,  submitting  these  materials 
to  scientific  discussion  and  publishing  the  results.  In  these 
labors  the  Institution  has  been  in  continued  harmonious  coop- 
eration with  all  the  other  efforts  made  in  this  country  to  ad- 
vance meteorology,  except  those  formerly  conducted  by  the 
Navy  Department  under  Lieutenant  Maury."  ^ 

The  reestablishment  of  the  meteorological  observations  in- 
terrupted by  the  civil  war  was  somewhat  impeded  by  the  fire 
that  occurred  in  1865  destroying  very  many  of  the  records  and 
instruments.  This  catastrophe  naturally  diverted  funds  from 
the  meteorological  work  owing  to  the  expenses  incurred  for 
repairs,  so  that  beyond  the  gradual  restoration  of  the  ser- 
vice nothing  worthy  of  note  occurred  subsequent  to  1866. 
It  may  even  be  mentioned  that  during  1867  the  attempt 
made  by  the  Institution  to  resume  by  the  cooperation  of 
the  telegraph  lines  the  system  of  telegraphic  indications  of 
the  weather,  which  was  interrupted  b)-  the  war,  was  unsuc- 
cessful. "Indeed,"  says  Henry,  "it  can  scarcely  be  expected 
that  without  some  remuneration  to  the  companies,  the  use 
of  the  telegraphic  wires  and  the  time  of  the  operators  should 
be  given  for  the  purpose."^ 

Meanwhile  agritation  was  beine  created  in  favor  of  "a  me- 

lit  is   proper  to  say  that  the  quotation       thosemadeat  the  same  time  on  land,"  "Smith- 
continues  :    "  These   were    confined    exclu-       sonian  Report,"  1S65,  page  52. 
sively  to  the  5ea,  and  had  no  ref?r?nce  to  2  «  Smithsonian  Report,"  1867,  page  28. 


676  The  Smithsonian  Instihition 

teorological  department  under  one  comprehensive  system  with 
an  adequate  appropriation  of  funds."  In  1865  Henry  wrote: 
"  The  present  would  appear  to  be  a  favorable  time  to  urge 
upon  Congress  the  importance  of  making  provision  for  reor- 
ganizing all  the  meteorological  observations  of  the  United 
States  under  one  combined  plan,  in  which  the  records  should 
be  sent  to  a  central  depot  for  discussion  and  final  publication. 
An  appropriation  of  $50,000  annually  for  this  purpose  would 
tend  not  only  to  advance  the  material  interest  of  the  country, 
but  also  to  increase  its  reputation.  It  would  show  that  al- 
though the  administration  of  our  government  is  the  expres- 
sion of  the  popular  volition,  it  is  not  limited  in  its  operation 
merely  to  objects  of  instant  or  immediate  utility,  but  that,  with 
a  wise  prevision  of  the  future,  it  withholds  its  assistance  from 
no  enterprise,  however  remote  the  results,  which  has  for  its 
end  to  advance  the  well-being  of  humanity."  ^ 

It  was  not,  however,  until  1869  that  Congress  took  final 
action  on  this  matter.  During  the  winter  of  that  year  Hon. 
Halbert  E.  Paine,  of  Wisconsin,  secured  the  passage  of  a  joint 
resolution  creating  the  Weather  Bureau  of  the  United  States 
Signal  Service.  This  resolution  was  approved  on  February  9, 
1870.  It  appropriated  $25,000  for  "  taking  meteorological 
observations  at  the  military  stations  in  the  interior  of  the  con- 
tinent, and  at  other  points  in  the  States  and  Territories  of  the 
United  States,  and  for  giving  notice  on  the  Northern  Lakes 
and  the  seacoast  of  the  United  States  by  magnetic  telegraph 
and  marine  signals  of  the  approach  and  force  of  storms."  ^ 
The  general  direction  of  this  service  was  given  to  General 
Albert  J.  Myer. 

In  the  Report  for  1870  Henry  expresses  his  gratification  at 
the   culmination   of  his   desires   by  the  creation   of  the  new 

1 "  Smithsonian  Report,"  1865,  page  57.  1870  to  1891."     "Bulletin  No.  il,  Weather 

2  Abbe,  Cleveland,   "The   Meteorological       Bureau,"  page  236.    Report  of  Meteorological 
Work  of  the  United  States  Signal  Service       Congress  held  in  Chicago,  1893. 


Meteorology  677 

Weather  Bureau.  He  suggests  that  "a  still  larger  appropri- 
ation be  made  by  Congress  to  the  War  Department  for  estab- 
lishing, besides  the  reports  for  weather  signals,  a  series  of 
intermediate  stations,  also  furnished  with  compared  instru- 
ments, to  record  daily  observations  to  be  transmitted  to  Wash- 
ington weekly  or  monthly,  and  also  that  provision  be  made 
for  the  support  of  a  number  of  competent  persons  to  carry  on 
the  reductions  and  prepare  the  results  for  publication."  ^ 
And  in  conclusion  he  says:  "It  has  been  the  policy  of  this 
Institution  from  the  first  to  do  nothintr  which  can  be  done  as 
well  or  better  by  other  means,  and  in  accordance  with  this 
policy  the  Institution  would  willingly  relinquish  the  held  of 
meteorology,  which  it  has  so  long  endeavored,  though  im- 
perfectly, to  cultivate,  turning  over  to  the  Signal  Office  all  the 
material  which  it  has  accumulated  up  to  a  given  epoch."  - 
The  transfer  of  the  meteorological  work  of  the  Smithsonian 
Institution  alluded  to  in  the  foregoing  paragraph  was  accom- 
plished in  1873,  and  in  the  Report  for  that  year  Henry  refers 
to  it  as  follows:  "This  transfer,  which  has  just  been  made,  we 
trust  will  meet  the  approbation  of  the  observers  generally,  and 
we  hope  they  will  continue  their  voluntary  cooperation,  not 
with  the  expectation  of  being  full)-  rej)aid  for  their  unremitted 
labor,  in  many  cases  for  a  long  series  of  years,  but  from  the 
gratification  which  must  result  from  the  consciousness  of  hav- 
ing- contributed  to  increase  the  sum  of  human  knowledofe."  ^ 
The  work  of  publishing  the  results  obtained  by  the  reduc- 
tion of  meteoroloirical  observations  continued,  and  for  the 
most  part  these  have  been  specihcall)-  mentioned  elsewhere 
in  this  chapter.  As  a  contribution  to  the  physical  part  of  the 
science.  Doctor  Langley's  "Internal  Work  of  the  Wind" 
may  be  cited  as  "the  last  word"  on  this  important  subject. 

1 "  Smithsonian  Report,"  1870,  page  44.  •*  On  page  31  of  the  Report  for  1S73,  the 

-  Ibidem.  details  of  the  transfer  are  given. 


678  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

In  1 89 1  Secretary  Langley  deposited  in  the  United  States 
Signal  Office  all  the  voluminous  monthly  records  of  the  Insti- 
tution and  all  the  manuscripts  and  printed  observations  re- 
lating to  meteorology,  subject  to  recall,  but  with  the  under- 
standing that  the  entire  official  record  of  research  and  pro- 
gress in  this  connection  should  be  preserved  intact  by  that 
office,  now  the  Weather  Bureau,  which  has  these  investiga- 
tions in  charge.^ 

1  "Smithsonian  Report,"  1891,  page  13. 


PALEONTOLOGY 


By  Edward  Drinker  Cope 

Professor  of  Mineralogy  and  Geology,  University  of  Pennsylvania. 

^i^^^OTH  in  its  quarto  and  octavo  publications  the 
Smithsonian  Institution  has  made  important 
contributions  to  the  Hterature  of  the  science 
of  paleontology.  A  number  of  able  paleontol- 
ogists have  been  associated  with  it,  and  since 
the  establishment  of  the  United  States  Geological  Survey,  its 
paleontologists  have  been  among  the  honorary  curators  of  the 
United  States  National  Museum. 

The  publications  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  concerning 
the  fossil  flora  of  the  United  States  date  from  1882.  The 
first  works  issued  were  Lesquereux'  "  Miocene  Flora  of 
Alaska"  and  Newberry's  "Tertiary  Fossil  Plants  from  West- 
ern North  America,"  both  of  which  appeared  in  the  "  Proceed- 
ings of  the  United  States  National  Museum  "  for  that  year. 
Lesquereux'  descriptions  and  determinations  of  the  material 
then  in  the  National  Museum  were  published  from  1887  to 
1890,  inclusive.  It  was  at  this  time,  also,  that  Frank  H. 
Knowlton's  interesting  studies  in  paleobotany  were  issued  in 
a  series  of  papers,  beginning  in  1888.  The  first  of  these  re- 
lates to  material  which  came  from  the  vicinity  of  P'ort  Win- 

679 


68o  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

gate,  New  Mexico,  consisting  of  three  specimens  of  fossilized 
tree  trunks.  The  specimens  were  described  as  a  new  species, 
and  called  Arancarites  Arizonicum. 

The  second  paper,  issued  in  1888,  is  founded  on  coniferous 
specimens,  and  describes  two  species  of  the  genus  Cnpressi- 
noxylon.  The  horizon  of  one  of  the  species  is  probably  Cre- 
taceous, the  other  is  Laramie. 

A  third  paper,  published  in  1889,  embraces  descriptions  of 
fifty  species  of  the  genus  Araucarioxylon  of  Kraus,  with 
compiled  descriptions  and  partial  synonymy  of  the  species. 
As  the  evidence  which  has  led  to  the  separation  of  Cordaites 
is  of  interest,  Knowlton  presents  it  in  full. 

Descriptions  of  new  species  of  fossil  plants  from  the  Fort 
Union  group  of  Montana  appeared  in  1893,  and  a  review  of 
the  extinct  flora  of  Alaska  in  1894. 

The  latter  paper  gives  a  historical  review  of  works  and 
papers  relating  to  the  fossil  flora  of  Alaska,  and  incident- 
ally shows  the  geographical  distribution  of  the  plant  beds. 
This  is  followed  by  a  systematic  enumeration  of  the  fossil 
plants,  with  descriptions  of  new  species  from  Herendeen 
Bay,  a  table  showing  the  distribution  of  the  plants  in  other 
parts  of  the  world  ;  and,  finally,  a  discussion  of  the  geological 
age  of  the  beds  as  indicated  by  the  plants. 

Other  important  works  during  this  period  were  Lester 
F.  Ward's  "  Paleontologic  History  of  the  Genus  Platanus," 
published  in  1888,  and  Holm's  "Notes  on  the  Leaves  of 
Liriodendron,"  issued  in  1890.  The  object  of  the  latter  is  to 
prove  that  there  is  no  greater  diflerence  in  the  foliage  between 
many  of  the  extinct  species  of  Liriodendron  than  between  a 
series  of  leaves  from  a  very  young  tree  or  from  a  branch  of 
an  older  plant  of  recent  species. 

The  list  of  paleobotanical  papers  published  up  to  date  ends 
with  D.  P.  Penhallow's  "Notes  on  Some  Devonian  Plants  from 


Paleontology  68 1 

the  Eastern  United  States"  (1893);  W.  M.  Fontaine's  "De- 
scriptions of  Fossil  Plants  from  the  Great  Falls  Coal  Field, 
Montana"  (1892)  ;  and  notes  by  the  same  author  on  "  Fossil 
Plants  from  the  Trinity  Division  of  the  Comanche  Series  in 
Texas"  (1893).  The  species  described  in  the  latter  paper 
are  known  as  the  Glen  Rose  fossils.  From  a  tabular  state- 
ment it  is  seen  that  all  the  species  of  Glen  Rose  fossils 
hitherto  known  occur  in  the  Lower  Cretaceous,  ranging 
from  the  Wealden  to  the  Urgonian.  The  Potomac  includes 
both  these  epochs.  Omitting  the  species  that  have  no  value 
for  fixing  the  age  of  the  flora,  because  they  are  not  sufficiently 
characterized,  the  author  has  nineteen  for  comparison.  Four 
of  these  are  peculiar  to  the  Trinity  division  ;  of  the  fifteen 
remaining,  no  fewer  than  twelve  are  identical  with  plants  from 
the  older  Potomac,  or  so  near  them  that  nearness  in  age  of 
the  two  formations  is  extremely  probable.  The  circumstances 
under  which  the  basal  Trinity  beds  were  laid  down  indicate 
that  the  fossils  entombed  in  them  form  a  portion  of  a  flora 
that  was  established  on  the  land  that  was  encroached  upon 
by  the  Trinity  sea.  It  is  probable  that  this  same  flora  ex- 
tended northward  to  Virginia,  where,  somewhat  later,  it  was 
preserved  by  a  similar  encroachment. 

The  publications  on  invertebrate  animals  antedate  those 
concerning  fossil  flora  by  almost  a  score  of  years,  the  record 
showingr  that  Meek's  check-lists  of  North  American  inverte- 
brate  fossils  were  issued  in  1864.  These  form  part  of  the 
"  Miscellaneous  Collections,"  and  consist  of  check-lists  of  all 
the  species  of  Cretaceous,  Jurassic,  and  Miocene  invertebrate 
fossils  of  North  America  which  had  been  described  up  to  the 
end  of  1863.  They  constitute  an  important  aid  in  the  labor 
of  cataloQ^uino-  and  labelino-  collections.  Meek's  lists  were 
supplemented  by  those  of  Conrad  in  1866,  and  his  in  turn  by 
Marcou  in  1885  and  1886. 

44 


682  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

Conrad's  work  contains  a  list  of  all  the  species  from  the 
Eocene  formations  of  North  America  up  to  its  publication, 
and  is  intended  to  facilitate  the  distribution  of  duplicate  speci- 
mens, while  Marcou  listed  the  Mesozoic  and  Cenozoic  in- 
vertebrate types  in  the  collections  of  the  National  Museum. 

These  different  series  of  check -lists  have  fully  answered 
the  purpose  intended,  in  supplying  a  want  long  felt  by  stu- 
dents of  natural  history. 

The  year  1865  is  marked  by  two  important  publications: 
Leidy's  "  Cretaceous  Reptiles,"  which  will  be  referred  to 
again,  and  Meek  and  Hayden's  report  on  the  "  Paleontol- 
ogy of  the  Upper  Missouri." 

The  latter  work  is  in  quarto  form,  and  contains  figures  and 
descriptions  of  the  various  geological  formations  of  Idaho, 
Dakota,  Nebraska,  and  portions  of  Kansas.  About  three 
hundred  and  seventy  species  of  invertebrates,  nearly  all  of 
which  are  new,  are  fully  described,  and  the  descriptions  are 
accompanied  by  remarks  on  the  relations  of  each  species  to 
allied  forms  from  other  districts  in  this  country  and  Europe, 
both  living  and  fossil  —  their  geological  range  and  geograph- 
ical distribution.  The  illustrations  consist  of  about  one  thou- 
sand figures,  occupying  forty-five  quarto  plates. 

A  considerable  number  of  the  specimens  described  and  fig- 
ured were  collected  by  Doctor  F.  V.  Hay  den  in  the  several 
expeditions  into  the  regions  of  the  Upper  Missouri  and  Yel- 
lowstone, sent  by  the  government  under  the  command  of 
Lieutenant  G.  K.  Warren,  of  the  United  States  Topographical 
Engineers,  to  whose  scientific  zeal  and  liberal  encouragement 
science  is  indebted  for  much  of  the  material  upon  which  the 
work  is  founded.  But  besides  these,  a  large  number  were 
collected  by  Doctor  Hayden  himself,  previous  to  his  connec- 
tion with  the  exploring  expeditions  of  the  government.  The 
specific  descriptions  of  the  fossils  described  in  this  work  are 


Paleontology  683 

to  be  regarded  as  appearing  in  the  joint  names  of  IVIeek  and 
Hayden,  while  the  descriptions  of  the  genera  and  famiHes, 
and  the  discussion  of  their  relations,  geological  range,  and 
geographical  distribution,  are  by  Meek. 

From  1865  to  1878  there  is  another  period  during  which 
paleontological  publication  ceased.  During  this  time,  how- 
ever, specialists  in  this  province  were  not  idle.  Dall  was 
working  up  the  Plistocene  and  other  Tertiary  invertebrate 
fauna  of  California,  and  his  results,  embodied  in  three  sepa- 
rate papers,  were  published  in  1878  in  the  "  Proceedings." 
Later  communications  by  Dall  to  the  same  medium,  entitled 
"A  Subtropical  Miocene  Fauna  in  Arctic  Siberia,"  "A  Mono- 
graph of  the  Genus  Gmithodon,  Gray  (^Rangia,  Desmoulins)," 
and  "  New  Tertiary  Fossils  from  the  Southern  United 
States,"  appeared  respectively  in  1893,  1894,  and  1895. 

The  Miocene  fauna,  referred  to  in  the  first  of  these  papers, 
included  six  species  of  fossil  shells,  of  which  five  were  new 
and  belonged  to  the  following  genera :  Semele,  Siphonaria 
Conus,  Cerithium,  and  Diloma.  They  were  assigned  to  a 
Miocene  age.  P'aunally,  the  species  point  to  a  distinct  anal- 
ogy with  those  of  the  China   and   South  Japan  seas. 

While  Dall's  work  was  in  progress  the  Paleozoic  and 
Mesozoic  material  collected  by  the  museum  from  the  south- 
ern and  western  United  States  was  being  studied  by  Charles 
A.  White.  The  results  of  his  work  were  published  in  the 
"Proceedings"  from  1879-1894. 

Heilprin's  "Eocene  Mollusca"  appeared  in  1880.  It  con- 
tains descriptions  of  species  from  southern  United  States, 
now  in  the  National  Museum. 

In  1888  the  publication  of  Walcott's  brilliant  series  of 
papers  on  the  Cambrian  and  pre- Cambrian  fauna  was  begun, 
and  continues  up  to  the  present.  The  first  of  the  series 
contains  descriptions  of  thirteen  species  and  varieties,  referred 


684  The  SmitJisonimi  Institution 

by  the  author  to  nine  genera,  two  of  which,  Karlia  and 
Ogygopsis,  are  new.  The  latter  genus  is  founded  on  Ogygia 
klotsii,  Rominger.  It  differs  from  Ogygia  in  having  a  well- 
defined  ocular  ridge,  and  in  the  narrow  palpebral  lobe. 

A  second  paper,  issued  in  the  same  year,  describes  a  fossil 
Lingula  which  preserves  the  cast  of  the  peduncle.  The 
specimen  shows  the  interior  of  the  anterior  portion  of  the 
ventral  valve  of  the  Lingtila  ceqiialis,  Hall,  collected  near 
Rome,  New  York,  from  the  upper  portion  of  the  Lorraine 
Terrane.  The  portions  of  the  shell  remaining  in  the  mat- 
rix show  the  median  ridge  extending  back  from  the  divari- 
cator  muscular  scar,  the  reflex  portion  of  the  shell  forming 
the  false  area  and  the  groove  for  the  passage  of  the  peduncle. 
The  portion  of  the  peduncle  preserved  is  nearly  as  long  as 
the  entire  length  of  the  shell. 

The  "  Proceedines  of  the  National  Museum  "  for  the  fol- 
lowing  year  (1889)  contains  descriptions  by  the  same  author 
of  new  invertebrate  forms  from  the  Trenton  limestone,  and 
from  the  Olenellus  zone  of  North  America.  The  material 
from  the  latter  horizon  consists  of  corals,  trails,  burrows,  and 
tracks  of  animals,  shells,  and  trilobites.  Twenty-four  new 
species  were  recognized,  which  were  referred  to  twenty-two 
genera.  Of  the  latter  three  were  new,  comprising  one  trilo- 
bite,  Avalonia,  and  two  shells,  Coleoloides  and  Helenia. 

New  forms  of  Upper  Cambrian  fossils  appeared  in  1890, 
and  the  discovery  of  Oldhamia  in  America  was  published  in 
1894.  The  specimens  referred  to  in  the  latter  paper  are  pre- 
served as  casts  on  the  surface  of  a  smooth  siliceous  slate. 
They  were  found  in  great  abundance  in  the  gorge  of  the 
Poestenkill,  near  Troy,  New  York.  The  slates  are  post- 
Lower  Cambrian  and  pre-Trenton,  but  their  exact  strati- 
graphic  position  is  not  fully  determined.  But  one  species  is 
described.      It  is  closely  related  to  Oldhamia  antiqna  of  the 


Paleontology  685 

Cambrian  rocks  of  Ireland,  but  differs  in  some  particulars,  so 
that  the  author  considers  it  a  distinct  species,  and  proposes 
for  it  the  name  Oldhamia  {Murchiso7iites)  occidens. 

Another  important  work  issued  during  this  period  is  "The 
Genesis  of  the  Arietidte,"  contained  in  the  twenty-sixth 
"  Smithsonian  Contributions  to  Knowledge,"  by  Alpheus 
Hyatt.  This  memoir  forms  a  quarto  volume  of  over  two 
hundred  pages,  including  introduction,  index,  and  explanation 
of  plates.  The  general  plan  of  tlie  treatise  is  a  discussion  of 
the  genealogy,  genesis  of  characteristics,  geologic  and  faunal 
relations,  and,  finally,  descriptions  of  genera  and  species  of 
Arietid  Ammonitoidea. 

The  work  sets  forth  the  successional  development  of  the 
different  types  of  the  ammonites  of  this  division  through  the 
successive  geologic  ages,  and  is  an  important  contribution  to 
the  general  doctrine  of  evolution,  since  these  forms  illustrate 
the  nature  of  direct  evolution  in  definite  directions,  or  ortho- 
genesis, as  it  is  called. 

The  illustrations  consist  of  thirty-five  figures  in  the  text, 
six  folding  charts  or  tables,  and  fourteen  plates,  of  which  ten 
are  heliotypes. 

Simpson's  papers  on  "  Fossil  Unionidct  "  complete  the  list 
of  invertebrate  publications.  These  appeared  in  1893  and  in 
1896,  respectively.  The  first  contains  descriptions  of  Unios 
and  other  fresh-water  shells  from  the  Drift  at  Toronto,  Can- 
ada, and  a  review  of  the  distribution  of  the  Unionidae  of 
northeastern  North  America.  The  second  paper  comprises 
diagnoses  of  some  new  Triassic  Unios  from  the  Staked  Plains 
of  Texas.  The  material  on  which  this  paper  is  based  was 
obtained  from  the  Dockum  beds,  an  extensive  Triassic  fresh- 
water formation  deposited  in  shallow  water,  underlying  the 
Staked  Plains  of  Texas.  Four  species  are  recognized.  Taken 
as  a  whole,  these  Unios  closely  resemble  in  form,  and  are 
44* 


686  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

apparently  nearly  related  to  those  of  the  Jurassic  beds  of 
North  America,  while  three  of  the  species  bring  to  mind 
most  strongly  the  species  which  now  inhabit  Europe  and 
western  Asia,  and  a  small  group  belonging  to  the  Mississippi 
area.  The  variety  of  characters  displayed  by  these  Triassic 
Unios  go  to  show  that  the  genus  must  have  been  well  estab- 
lished at  the  time  the  Dockum  beds  were  laid  down,  thus 
tending  to  overthrow  Neumayer's  theory  that  the  Unionidse 
were  derived  from  the  genus  Trigonia,  which  probably  does 
not  date  back  to  a  period  earlier  than  that  of  the  shells  under 
consideration. 

The  first  work  published  by  the  Institution  in  vertebrate 
paleontology  was  a  memoir  of  the  Mosasaurus  and  three 
new  genera,  Holcodus,  Conosaurus,  and  Amphorosteus,  by 
Robert  W.  Gibbes,  and  was  issued  in  1850. 

The  material  upon  which  this  memoir  is  based  was  found 
in  the  Cretaceous  and  Eocene  marls  of  South  Carolina  and 
Alabama,  The  review  of  the  literature  of  the  subject  is 
accompanied  by  two  plates,  showing  the  five  species  of  Mos- 
asaurus then  known,  and  a  third  displaying  the  three  new 
genera.     This  memoir  was  a  quarto. 

In  1852  Joseph  Leidy's  "Memoir  on  the  Extinct  Species 
of  American  Ox"  was  published,  and  was  followed  in  1853 
by  his  celebrated  report  upon  the  Bad  Land  collections,  enti- 
titled  "  Ancient  Fauna  of  Nebraska."  Both  of  these  works 
belong  to  the  "  Contributions  to  Knowledge  "  series,  and  are 
handsomely  illustrated. 

In  the  first  paper  Doctor  Leidy  indicates  the  former  existence 
of  four  species  of  ox,  which  were  probably  contemporaneous 
with  the  Mastodon  and  the  Megalonyx.  Fossil  remains  of 
these  animals  had  been  frequently  found  in  the  United  States, 
and  descriptions  of  them  are  scattered  through  various  works; 
but  no  approach  had   before  been   made   to   a   correct  view 


Paleontology  687 

of  the  number  and  character  of  the  species.  Two  of  the 
species  of  ox  described  by  Doctor  Leidy  belong  to  the 
genus  Bison,  and  one  of  these  is  of  gigantic  size.  The  other 
two  species  belong  to  a  new  genus  called  Bootherium,  which 
has  been  shown  to  be  identical  with  Ovibos. 

The  material  upon  which  the  ancient  fauna  of  Nebraska  is 
based  came  from  the  drainage  region  of  the  Missouri,  from  the 
tract  of  country  known  by  the  name  of  "  Mauvaises  Terres,"  or 
the  "  Bad  Lands."  This  at  one  time  was  the  bottom  of  an  im- 
mense lake,  in  which  thousands  of  animals,  having  no  repre- 
sentatives at  this  time  on  the  surface  of  the  earth,  perished. 
The  age  of  the  beds  is  lower  Miocene  or  Oligocene,  and  their 
special  name  in  the  closer  divisions  of  formations  is  the  White 
River  Beds  of  Hayden. 

This  region  having  been  brought  to  notice  by  a  few  fossil  re- 
mains procured  through  the  agents  of  the  American  Fur  Com- 
pany, an  appropriation  of  about  $200  for  its  exploration  was 
made  by  the  Smithsonian  Institution  to  Mr.  Thaddeus  Cul- 
bertson,  who  was  about  to  visit,  on  account  of  his  health,  the 
sources  of  the  Missouri.  The  specimens  of  fossil  remains  which 
were  thus  procured,  together  with  a  collection  subsequently 
presented  to  the  Institution  by  Captain  Stewart  \^an  Miet, 
of  the  United  States  army,  and  several  specimens  kindly  lent 
by  Doctor  Front,  of  Missouri,  were  referred  to  Doctor  Leidy 
for  examination.  In  addition  to  these  he  had  the  use  of  a  col- 
lection lent  by  Frofessor  O'Loghland,  of  Missouri,  specimens 
belonging  to  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences,  Fhiladelphia, 
and  a  collection  made  by  Doctor  Evans,  at  the  instigation  of 
Doctor  D.  Dale  Owen,  the  whole  embracing  all  the  specimens 
which  had  yet  been  brought  to  the  East  from  the  Bad  Lands. 
The  bones  were  completely  petrified,  and  their  cavities  filled 
with  silicious  matter.  They  were  preserved  in  various  degrees 
of  integrity,  some  being  beautifully  perfect  and  others  broken 


688  The  Smithsonian  Instihttion 

and  imperfect,  the  latter  having  been  evidently  subjected  to 
violence  while  imbedded  in  a  soft  mud.  Of  hoofed  animals, 
there  were  seven  species  of  four  genera,  belonging  to  the 
Booidea,  or  cud-chewing  animals  ;  two  species  of  one  genus  be- 
lono-ing  to  the  Suoidea,  or  hog-like  animals;  one  species  of  the 
Solipedia,  or  solid-hoofed  animals;  and  four  species  of  three 
genera  belonging  to  the  Perissodactyla,  or  uneven-toed  animals. 

The  first  specimen  described  belonged  to  a  peculiar  genus 
of  ruminants  which,  among  recent  animals,  is  more  nearly 
allied  to  the  musk-deer,  and  was  hornless.  The  next  is  of 
a  remarkable  genus  of  ungulata,  representing  a  type  which 
occupies  a  position  in  the  wide  interval  existing  between 
recent  ruminants  and  the  anomalous  fossil  animal  called  the 
Anoplotherium.  Another  genus  was  called  Oreodon,  and  con- 
stituted one  of  the  links  necessary  to  fill  up  the  very  wide  gap 
between  existing  ruminants  and  an  exceedingly  aberrant 
form  of  the  same  family  now  extinct.  There  were  also  two 
remarkable  species  of  rhinoceros,  differing  from  any  remains 
of  this  animal  found  in  other  parts  of  the  globe. 

Another  fossil  belonged  to  the  feline  family,  about  a  fifth 
smaller  than  the  American  panther,  and  is  probably  the  most 
ancient  known  eenus  of  this  animal.  Hundreds  of  fossil 
turtles  were  found  in  the  "  Bad  Lands,"  belonging  to  the 
genus  Stylemys,  of  which  five  species  are  described.  The 
memoir  occupies  one  hundred  and  twenty-six  pages,  and  is 
illustrated  by  twenty-four  plates,  one  of  which  is  a  folio. 

In  1855  a  third  memoir  by  Doctor  Leidy,  on  "The  Ex- 
tinct Sloth  Tribe  of  North  America,"  was  issued  in  the  same 
series.  This  work  forms  an  interesting  addition  to  our  know- 
ledoe  of  the  extinct  o^io^antic  sloth  tribe  of  North  America. 
It  comprises  a  description  of  remains  of  the  genera  Megal- 
onyx,  Mylodon,  Megatherium,  and  of  a  new  genus  which  he 
called  Ereptodon. 


Paleontology  689 

The  scientific  world  is  indebted  for  the  first  account  of  the 
remains  of  a  large  extinct  quadruped  of  the  sloth  tribe  to  Presi- 
dent Jefferson.  He  described  them  in  a  memoir  published  in 
the  "Transactions  of  the  American  Philosophical  Society"  in 
Philadelphia,  in  1797,  and  gave  to  the  animal  to  which  they 
belonged  the  name  of  Megalonyx,  or  the  great  claw.  The 
materials  in  his  possession,  however,  were  too  scanty  to  allow 
of  his  determining  the  true  character  of  the  quadruped.  Doctor 
Wistar,  of  Philadelphia,  suspected  the  animal  to  have  been  a 
gigantic  sloth  ;  and  this  opinion  was  confirmed  by  Cuvier,  from 
the  ample  materials  for  comparison  at  his  command.  The 
original  bones  described  by  Jefferson  are  preserved  in  the 
collection  of  the  Philosophical  Society ;  but,  besides  these. 
Doctor  Leidy  had  access  to  specimens  of  the  remains  of  the 
same  animal  found  in  different  parts  of  the  United  States. 
P>om  the  study  of  all  these  he  was  enabled  to  throw  much 
additional  light  upon  the  characters  of  Megalonyx.  He  con- 
sidered that  the  only  remains  of  this  animal  yet  known  were 
those  found  in  the  United  States,  and  satisfactorily  proved 
that  the  lower  jaw  of  an  extinct  quadruped  discovered  by 
Charles  Darwin  in  South  America,  and  referred  by  naturalists 
to  the  Megalonyx  of  Jefferson,  does  not  belong  to  an  animal 
of  the  same  genus. 

The  remains  of  the  Mylodon,  or  gigantic  sloth,  were  first 
discovered  by  Darwin  in  his  researches  in  the  southern  part 
of  South  America.  Remains  of  another  species  found  in  North 
America  were  described  by  Doctor  Harlan,  but  were  erron- 
eously referred  to  the  Megalonyx.  Doctor  Leidy,  in  his 
memoir,  described  the  collection  of  the  remains  of  this  animal 
belonging  to  the  New  York  Lyceum. 

The  Megatherium,  which  is  the  largest  of  all  the  extinct 
sloth  tribe,  when  full  grown,  was  more  than  fourteen  feet  long, 
including  the  tail,  and  eight  feet  high.      It  was  first  discovered 


690  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

in  South  America,  but  has  since  been  found  in  Georgia ;  and 
it  was  from  this  locahty,  the  only  one  in  the  United  States 
then  known,  that  the  remains  described  by  Doctor  Leidy 
were  obtained. 

The  fourth  and  new  genus  of  American  sloths,  called  the 
Ereptodon  by  the  author,  was  established  upon  a  peculiar 
form  of  teeth  which  belonged  to  an  animal  of  about  the  size 
of  the  Megalonyx,  the  bones  of  which  were  also  found  in 
the  state  of  Georgia. 

Doctor  Hays,  one  of  the  commission  to  which  this  memoir 
was  submitted,  says  in  his  report,  that  "the  author  has  not 
only  made  valuable  additions  to  our  knowledge  of  an  inter- 
esting tribe  of  animals,  but  has  also  collected  and  arranged 
the  facts  previously  known  so  as  to  throw  new  light  on  the 
subject,  and  to  render  his  memoir  an  important  starting-point 
for  future  investigfators." 

A  fourth  memoir  by  Doctor  Leidy  was  published  in  1865. 
It  consists  of  descriptions  of  remains  of  reptiles  discovered  in 
the  Cretaceous  formations  of  the  United  States,  and,  like  the 
preceding  ones,  is  one  of  the  quarto  series. 

Multitudes  of  fossils  are  found  in  the  American  Cretaceous 
formations,  though  the  species  appear  not  to  be  so  numerous 
as  in  those  of  Europe.  The  mollusks  are  particularly  abun- 
dant, and  among  them  are  a  great  many  species  of  cham- 
bered shells.  A  species  of  ammonite  was  found  on  the  Upper 
Missouri  as  large  as  an  ordinary  fore-wheel  of  a  wagon. 
Remains  of  fishes  were  likewise  numerous,  sometimes  in  excel- 
lent preservation  and  sometimes  fragmentary.  The  teeth  of 
sharks  were  especially  numerous.  Bones  of  reptiles  were  also 
abundant,  and  their  remains  form  the  subject  of  Doctor 
Leidy's  valuable  memoir. 

Nothing  further  was  published  in  vertebrate  paleontology 
until  1883,  when  Edward  D.  Cope's  memoir  on  "The  Con- 


Paleontology  69 1 

tents  of  a  Bone  Cave  in  the  Island  of  Anguilla  "  (West  In- 
dies) appeared  in  the  quarto  series.  This  memoir  gives  a 
description  of  the  fossil  vertebrates,  shells,  and  also  of  the 
indications  of  human  occupation  discovered  during  the  exca- 
vation of  a  cave  in  the  West  Indian  island  of  Anguilla.  The 
remains  were  discovered  in  1868,  and  notices  of  them  made, 
but  the  publication  of  a  full  account  was  delayed,  in  the  hope 
that  other  objects  might  be  added  to  the  collection. 

The  importance  of  the  subject  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  it 
is  the  first  investigation  of  the  life  of  the  cave  age  in  the 
West  Indies  ;  that  it  gives  the  first  reliable  indication  of  the 
period  of  submergence,  and  hence  of  separation,  of  the  West 
Indian  islands,  and  that  it  describes  some  very  peculiar 
forms  of  animal  life  not  previously  known. 

The  paper  consists  of  thirty-four  pages,  and  contains  five 
plates,  with  one  hundred  and  five  figures,  the  illustrations 
being  made  particularly  full  on  account  of  the  archaeological 
interest  attaching  to  these  animals,  which  were  probably  the 
contemporaries  of  the  earliest  men  of  tropical  America. 

A  second  work  by  Professor  Cope  was  published  in  1891 
in  the  "  Proceedings."  This  paper  is  a  discussion  of  the 
"  Characters  of  Some  Paleozoic  Fishes."  It  contains,  in  addi- 
tion, descriptions  of  five  new  species  and  one  new  genus 
(Styptobasis)  of  fishes,  and  the  cranial  structure  of  Macropet- 
alichthys  is  given  for  the  first  time.  The  author  first  referred 
this  genus  to  the  Placodermata  (Arthrodira),  in  a  review  of 
Professor  Newberry's  work  on  "The  Paleozoic  Fishes  of 
North  America,"  in  "The  American  Naturalist"  for  Septem- 
ber, 1890,  and  the  view  has  been  adopted  by  A.  Smith 
Woodward,  and  later  authors. 

In  addition  to  the  foregoing,  the  following  reprinted  papers 
from  the  annual  Reports,  and  elsewhere,  have  been  published 
as  separates:   Marcou's  "Bibliographies  of  American    Natu- 


692  The  SmitJisonian  Institution 

ralists "  (1885);  "Records  of  North  American  Paleontol- 
ogy," compiled  for  the  years  1884,  1885,  and  1886  by  John  B. 
Marcou,  and  for  1887-88  by  Henry  S.  Williams. 

The  first  of  these  works  forms  the  third  volume  of  the 
"  Bibliographies  of  American  Naturalists,"  and  is  devoted 
entirely  to  a  catalogue  of  the  writings  of  those  who  have 
labored  in  the  field  of  invertebrate  paleontology,  in  connec- 
tion with  the  researches  and  collections  made  by  the  Insti- 
tution and  the  National  Museum.  The  list  of  memoirs 
embraces  :  first.  The  published  writings  of  Fielding  B.  Meek, 
numbering  one  hundred  and  five  titles  of  papers  (of  which  one 
was  in  conjunction  with  James  Hall,  seventeen  in  conjunction 
with  F.  V.  Hayden,  and  twenty-five  in  conjunction  with  A.  H. 
Worthen),  and  occupying  one  hundred  pages ;  second.  The 
published  writings  of  Charles  A.  White,  numbering  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty-one  papers  (of  which  two  were  in  conjunction 
with  H.  A.  Nicholson  and  two  in  conjunction  with  O.  H.  St. 
John),  and  occupying  sixty-six  pages;  third.  The  published 
writings  of  Charles  D.  Walcott,  numbering  twenty-seven 
papers  and  occupying  fifteen  pages ;  and  fourth,  A  collection 
from  fifteen  authors  of  "  Publications  Based  upon  the  Paleon- 
tological  Collections  of  the  United  States  Government,"  in- 
cluding the  titles  of  three  papers  by  Jacob  W.  Bailey,  twelve 
papers  by  T.  A.  Conrad,  five  papers  by  James  D.  Dana,  two 
papers  by  Christian  G.  Ehrenberg,  seven  papers  by  James 
Hall  (one  in  conjunction  with  F.  B.  Meek,  above  referred  to), 
two  papers  by  Angelo  Heilprin,  three  papers  by  Alpheus 
Hyatt,  ten  papers  by  Jules  Marcou,  two  papers  by  John  S. 
Newberry,  one  paper  by  I.  N.  Nicollet,  four  papers  by  David 
Dale  Owen,  and  five  by  Owen  and  Shumard,  two  papers  by 
Hiram  A.  Prout,  one  paper  by  James  Schiel,  seven  papers  by 
Benjamin  F.  Shumard,  and  five  in  conjunction  with  Owen 
(above   referred   to);     and    lasdy,   five   papers   by   Robert   P. 


Paleontology  693 

Whitfield,  these  occupying  seventy-two  pages.  An  index  of 
genera  and  species  of  invertebrate  fossils  occupies  fifty-two 
pages.  The  work  is  supplied  with  a  general  index  of  sub- 
jects and  authors,  and  forms  an  octavo  volume  of  over  three 
hundred   pages. 

In  accordance  with  its  policy,  the  Institution  subscribed  in 
1857  for  a  few  copies  of  a  work  on  "The  Pleiocene  Fossils  of 
South  Carolina,"  by  M.  Tuomey  and  F.  S.  Holmes.  This 
work  received  the  commendation  of  some  of  the  distino^uished 
members  of  the  American  Association  for  the  Advancement 
of  Science,  at  its  meeting  in  Charleston,  in  1850,  and  its  pub- 
lication was  undertaken  at  the  risk  and  cost  of  the  authors. 
To  aid  this  enterprise,  the  Institution  was  induced  to  make 
the  subscription  above  mentioned  for  copies  to  be  distributed 
to  foreign  societies. 

In  1856  the  Institution  considered  favorably  the  proposition 
made  by  Doctor  James  Deane,  of  Greenfield,  Massachusetts, 
to  publish  a  memoir  containing  a  series  of  illustrations  of  his 
researches  relative  to  the  celebrated  fossil  foot-prints  in  the 
sandstone  of  the  Connecticut  valley.  The  number  of  plates 
required  to  illustrate  the  memoir,  as  originally  proposed,  would 
have  involved  too  great  an  expense  to  be  met  in  one  or  even 
two  years  by  the  portion  of  the  income  of  the  Institution  which 
could  be  appropriated  to  any  single  publication.  It  was, 
therefore,  concluded  that  Doctor  Deane  should  continue  his 
investigations,  and  endeavor,  by  means  of  photography,  to 
produce  representations  of  all  the  most  important  specimens, 
and  that  from  these  a  selection  should  be  made  sufficient  to 
illustrate  the  characteristics  of  the  different  species  of  animals 
by  which  the  impressions  had  been  left.  To  assist  in  the 
experiments  of  photography  and  in  lithographing  the  illus- 
trations, a  small  appropriation  was  made,  with  which  about 
fifty  drawings  were  finished  on  stone  by  Doctor  Deane  before 


694  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

his  career  was  suddenly  terminated  by  death.  The  work, 
however,  was  in  such  an  unfinished  condition  that  it  could 
not  be  published. 

During  the  years  1852-56,  inclusive,  the  Smithsonian  In- 
stitution acquired  a  number  of  collections  of  fossils,  partly  as 
gifts,  but  chiefly  through  the  diligence  of  its  own  collectors 
in  the   field. 

In  connection  with  the  survey  of  Governor  Stevens,  Doctor 
Evans  revisited  the  Mauvaises  Terres  in  1852,  and  collected 
a  large  number  of  specimens  of  the  fossil  vertebrata  of  that 
region.  These  were  put  into  the  hands  of  Doctor  Leidy, 
who  detected  the  presence  of  some  additional  new  species. 
In  1853  Alexander  Winchell  sent  quite  a  full  series  of  the 
Cretaceous  and  Tertiary  fossils  of  Alabama,  and  Major  Em- 
ory the  same  of  Texas.  In  1854  an  interesting  series 
from  the  vicinity  of  Satow  was  forwarded  by  the  Reverend 
L.  Vortisch  ;  G.  Lambert,  of  Mons,  presented  a  series  of  car- 
boniferous fossils  of  Belgium  ;  specimens  from  Texas  were 
sent  in  by  Lieutenant  J.  G.  Benton,  United  States  army,  and 
by  Doctor  Julius  Froebel ;  from  Panama,  by  Doctor  E.  L. 
Berthoud;  from  Illinois,  by  Doctor  R.  P.  Stevens;  from  North 
Carolina,  by  J.  L.  Bridger.  A  complete  set  of  minerals  and 
fossils  of  the  remarkable  Brown-coal  beds  of  Brandon,  Ver- 
mont, was  received  from  David  Buckland  ;  sharks'  teeth 
and  mastodon  bones  of  Florida,  from  Captain  T.  L.  Casey, 
United  States  army  ;  fossil- wood  of  California,  from  W.  F. 
Langton,  and  infusorial  earth  of  Monterey,  from  Major  T.  G. 
Barnard.  The  following  year  Doctor  Hayden  procured  a 
number  of  fossil  mammals  from  the  Mauvaises  Terres  of 
White  River  and  of  the  Blackfoot  country,  and  a  very  valu- 
able collection  of  minerals  and  fossils  was  received  from  the 
Lake  Superior  mining  region.  This  collection  was  made  by 
Foster  and  Whitney,  to  illustrate  their  government  report, 


Paleontology  695 

and  with  other  government  geological  collections,  previously 
secured,  furnished  rich  material  for  representing  the  geologi- 
cal features  of  the  country.  The  Thomas  Barnett  set  of 
Niagara  fossils  and  minerals  was  also"  received  in  this  year. 

Various  private  collections  were  received  in  1856,  the  prin- 
cipal ones  being  contributed  by  Doctor  Ferdinand  V.  Haydcn  ; 
I.  Lippmann  of  Saxony;  the  Koenigliche  Leopoldina  Carolina 
Akademie  of  Breslau,  Prussia,  and  the  Natilrforschende  Ge- 
sellschaft  of  Emden,  Hanover. 

In  1868  and  1871  important  accessions  were  made  to  the 
invertebrate  department.  William  H.  Dall  sent  part  of  the 
collection  made  by  him  in  Alaska,  the  Aleutian  Islands,  and 
Eastern  Siberia  in  1865-67,  and  other  specialists  contributed 
Permian  material  from  Kansas  and  Lower  Silurian  fossils 
from  Ohio.  In  1875  the  collections  of  fossil  vertebrata  from 
New  Mexico,  obtained  by  Edward  D.  Cope,  Paleontologist 
of  the  United  States  Geographical  Survey  West  of  the  looth 
Meridian,  were  sent  to  the  Museum.  These  collections  form 
the  basis  of  the  report  by  Professor  Cope  contained  in  the 
fourth  volume  of  the  Reports  of  the  above  survey  under 
Lieutenant  George  M.  Wheeler,  of  the  United  States  Engi- 
neers. The  collections  were  from  three  horizons,  and  included 
one  hundred  and  six  species,  of  which  eighty-one  were  new. 

During  1878,  1879,  and  1880,  the  following  valuable  dona- 
tions were  received:  Black  Hills  fossils,  from  Professor  Henry 
Newton  ;  Californian  fossils,  from  Senator  Sargent ;  and  the 
large  collection  of  invertebrate  fossils  made  by  Lieutenant 
Wheeler,  presented  by  B.  H.  Lyon  and  other  paleontologists. 

In  1884  the  most  important  accession  was  that  of  Devonian 
and  carboniferous  fossils  from  the  United  States  Geological 
Survey,  many  of  them  types  of  new  species.  Collections 
were  also  received  of  Mesozoic  and  Cenozoic  fossils  from 
California,  Oregon,  New  Jersey,  Florida,  Alabama,  and  Mis- 


696  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

sissippi,  and  fifteen  miscellaneous  lots  were  sent  from  private 
sources  to  the  museum. 

The  F.  W.  Taylor  collection,  consisting  of  rare  minerals 
and  fossils  from  the  vicinity  of  Lake  Valley,  New  Mexico,  was 
acquired  in  1885,  and  the  Jordan  series  of  cretaceous  fossils  in 
1889.  During  the  latter  year  also  C.  D.  Walcott  collected 
and  presented  to  the  museum  a  large  series  of  Lower  Cam- 
brian fossils  from  Conception  Bay,  Newfoundland. 

A  few  selections  from  the  collections  of  vertebrate  fossils 
were  made  by  the  United  States  Geological  Survey,  under 
direction  of  O.  C.  Marsh,  and  placed  in  the  United  States 
National  Museum  in  1893.  These  included  some  specimens 
of  Dinosauria  of  the  Laramie  formation  of  the  family  Agath- 
aumidae;  skulls  of  Menodontidae  from  the  White  River  beds; 
skulls  and  bones  from  the  Loup  Fork  beds  of  rhinoceroses  of 
the  genus  Aphelops.  When  these  collections  are  placed  in 
the  museum,  the  vertebrata  of  America  will  be  as  well  repre- 
sented as  in  any  museum  in  the  world. 

In  1895  a  valuable  collection  of  remains  of  Zeuglodon  was 
made  by  Charles  Schuchert,  and  work  on  this  material  is  now 
in  progress. 


BOTANY 


By  William  Gilson  Farlow 

Professor  of  Cryptogamic  Botany,  Harvard  University. 


^^]\HE  numerous  and  important  services  rendered 
to  botanical  science  by  the  Institution  may  be 
considered  under  the  following  heads:  First,  the 
development  of  the  knowledge  of  the  phreno- 
^al^^C^^^  gamic  flora,  especially  of  unexplored  or  little 
known  regions  of  the  South  and  West,  through  grants  made 
to  collectors  in  those  regions,  and  more  particularly  by  the 
publication  in  the  "Contributions  to  Knowledge"  and  the  mis- 
cellaneous publications  of  a  series  of  important  monographs 
on  the  North  American  flora  by  eminent  American  botanists; 
secondly,  contributions  to  the  knowledge  of  the  algae  of  the 
United  States  and  of  other  low  cryptogamous  plants  ;  thirdl)-, 
the  diffusion  of  information  in  reofard  to  the  local  flora  of 
Washino^ton  and  certain  exotic  floras,  toefether  with  miscella- 
neous  papers,  either  original  or  translated,  on  various  botanical 
subjects  printed  in  the  different  annual  Reports  or  as  Bulletins 
of  the  United  States  National  Museum;  and  lastly,  the  forma- 
tion of  a  National  Herbarium. 

The  earliest  reference  to  botanical  work  undertaken  under 

45  '''' 


698  The  Smithsonian  Instihition 

the  direction  of  the  Institution  is  to  be  found  in  1848/  where 
mention  is  made  of  some  drawings  and  engravings  of  a  paper 
on  the  botany  of  Oregon,  for  which  a  small  advance  had  been 
made,  and  in  the  same  volume  ^  it  is  said  that  a  "  report  on 
the  forest  trees  of  North  America,"  by  Professor  Asa  Gray, 
is  in  progress.  The  paper  on  the  botany  of  Oregon  refers 
apparently  to  the  work  on  the  plants  of  the  Wilkes  expedi- 
tion, of  which  the  part  by  Gray  appeared  in  1854  and  that  by 
Torrey  in  1873.  The  Report  of  1849  again  mentions  the 
"report  on  the  forest  trees  of  North  America,"  and  says  that 
"  this  work  will  be  completed  in  three  parts,  in  octavo,  with 
an  atlas  of  quarto  plates, —  the  first  part  to  be  published  next 
spring."^  Numerous  delays  in  the  work  are  mentioned  in 
the  different  Reports,  and  in  that  of  1856,*  after  referring  to 
the  pressing  demands  on  the  author's  time  and  the  difficulty 
of  obtaining  the  necessary  drawings  from  the  artist,  Isaac 
Sprague,  it  is  said  that  "the  work  will  be  ready  for  the  press 
during  this  year."  Nothing  more  is  heard  of  the  projected 
flora  beyond  the  statement  in  1864  that  work  was  to  be  re- 
sumed upon  it  by  Professor  Gray,  until  1884,  when  its  final 
abandonment  by  Gray  was  announced,  and  it  was  reported 
that,  although  a  proposition  which  had  previously  been  made 
by  Professor  C.  S.  Sargent  to  take  up  and  complete  the  work 
had  been  accepted,  its  magnitude  had  proved  too  great  for 
the  funds  at  the  disposal  of  the  Institution,  and  that  it  had 
been  arranged  with  Professor  Sargent  that  he  should  refund 
the  cost  of  the  drawings  which  had  been  made  by  C.  E. 
Faxon  and  receive  them  for  publication  with  a  private  pub- 
lisher. In  1 89 1,  the  twenty-three  beautifully  colored  plates 
which  had  been  drawn  by  Mr.  Sprague  between  1849  ^^'^^^ 
1859  were  issued  by  the  Institution  without  text;  and  thus 
what  was,  as  originally  planned,  to  have  been  the  first  botan- 

1  "  Smithsonian  Report,"  1848,  page  16.  3  Ibidem,  1849,  page  18. 

2  Ibidem^  page  19.  4  Jbidem,  1856,  page  32. 


ASA   GRAY. 

REGENT  OP  THE  SMITflSONIAN  INSTITUTION, 

1874-1888. 


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Botany  699 

ical  publication  of  the  Institution,  in  reality  formed  its  last 
quarto  publication  on  a  botanical  subject. 

In  1849  ^^  Institution  contributed  $150  toward  defraying 
the  expenses  of  the  botanist,  Charles  Wright,  on  an  ex- 
pedition to  El  Paso,  Texas,  and  in  1852  appeared  the  first 
contribution  to  phaenogamic  knowledge,  entitled  "  Plantae 
Wrightianai  Texano-Neo-Mexicanai,"  containing  a  description 
by  Gray  of  the  plants  collected  by  Wright,  together  with  many 
of  those  collected  by  Wislizenus  in  the  valley  of  the  Rio 
Grande  and  Chihuahua,  and  by  Doctor  Gregg  in  the  same 
district  and  the  northern  part  of  Mexico.  A  second  part  of 
the  "  Plantai  Wrightianae  "  appeared  the  following  year,  both 
parts  with  illustrations  by  Mr.  Sprague.  In  rapid  succession 
appeared  three  other  "  Contributions  to  Knowledge"  by  Profes- 
sor John  Torrey.  It  had  been  hoped  that  arrangements  would 
be  made  by  the  government  for  publishing  a  general  account 
of  the  botany  of  California,  including  the  plants  collected  by 
Fremont  on  his  different  expeditions  from  1842  to  1848,  but 
there  being  no  immediate  prospect  of  such  a  work,  Professor 
Torrey  published  in  1854,  in  the  sixth  volume  of  the  "Con- 
tributions to  Knowledge,"  a  monograph  entitled  "Plantoe  Fre- 
montianai,"  in  which  he  gave  an  account  of  twelve  of  the  most 
characteristic  genera  and  species  collected  by  Fremont  in 
California,  including  the  new  genera  Spraguea,  Fremontia, 
Coleogyne,  Emplectocladus,  Carpenteria,  and  Sarcodes,  the 
type  of  the  latter  being  the  then  remarkable  but  now  familiar 
snow-plant  of  the  Sierras,  S.  sa7iguinea. 

In  the  same  volume  are  two  other  important  papers  by 
Torrey.  In  the  first,  "  Observations  on  the  Batis  maritima 
of  Linnaeus,"  he  gave  the  first  full  account  of  this  anomalous 
species,  which  is  widely  diffused  in  the  West  Indies  and 
South  America,  and  placed  it  in  a  new  order  which  he  con- 
sidered  related   to   Empetracese.      Although   the   genus   was 


700  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

afterward  placed  in  Chenopodiacea^  by  Grisebach  in  his 
"  Flora  of  the  British  West  Indian  Islands"  (1864),  the  genus 
was  still  kept  as  the  type  of  a  distinct  order  by  Bentham  and 
Hooker  in  their  "  Genera  Plantarum,"  and  also  by  Engler 
and  Prantl  in  "  Die  Natiirlichen  Pflanzenfamilien,"  its  natural 
position  being  near  Amarantacese  and  Polygonaceae. 

In  the  second  paper  Torrey  described  the  curious  and 
characteristic  pitcher-plant,  Darlingtonia  Catiforjiica,  of 
which  the  first  sterile  specimens  had  been  collected  in  Cali- 
fornia by  W.  D.  Brackenridge,  of  the  Wilkes  Exploring 
Expedition.  Flowering  specimens  were  collected  afterward 
by  Doctor  G.  W.  Hulse,  and,  with  this  material,  Torrey  was 
able  to  recognize  the  plant  as  the  representative  of  a  new 
genus  of  the  curious  order  Sarraceniacese. 

For  many  years  the  Institution  had  intended  to  publish  for 
the  use  of  those  engaged  in  the  study  of  Western  plants  a 
complete  list,  with  synonyms,  of  all  the  species  known  in  the 
region  west  of  the  Mississippi,  and  in  1870  Doctor  Sereno 
Watson,  who  had  acted  as  botanist  of  the  Fortieth  Parallel 
Expedition,  was  engaged  to  prepare  such  a  work.  The 
expense  of  preparation  was  to  be  borne  by  private  subscrip- 
tion, the  Institution  paying  for  the  clerical  labor  and  for  the 
publication.  Work  on  the  Index  progressed  until  1877,  and 
one  hundred  and  eighty- four  pages  had  been  stereotyped 
when  Doctor  Watson  found  his  time  much  occupied  with 
other  work,  and  it  was  decided  to  publish  the  portion  then 
finished,  which  included  the  orders  of  Polypetalai,  as  Part  i. 
This  part  appeared  in  1878  under  the  title  of  "Bibliograph- 
ical Index  to  North  American  Botany,"  as  one  of  the  "  Smith- 
sonian Miscellaneous  Collections,"  forming  an  octavo  volume 
of  four  hundred  and  eighty-four  pages.  The  "  Index "  was 
very  carefully  and  critically  prepared,  but,  although  of  great 
service  to  working  botanists,  the  character  of  the  work  was 


Botany  70 1 

so  laborious  that  Doctor  Watson  did  not  feel  able  to  continue 
it  beyond  the  Polypetalae. 

The  "  Flora  of  North  America,"  by  Torrey  and  Gray,  of 
which  the  first  volume,  including  the  Polypetalae,  appeared  in 
1838-40,  had  never  been  continued  beyond  the  second  vol- 
ume, including  the  Gamopetalce,  from  Caprifoliaceee  through 
the  Compositce,  issued  in  1841-43.  At  that  point  the  pub- 
lication was  suspended,  for  so  large  an  amount  of  new  mate- 
rial had  been  brought  together  by  the  different  government 
expeditions  and  by  numerous  private  collectors,  that  it  was 
decided  by  Professor  Gray  that,  instead  of  completing  the 
"Flora"  in  its  original  form,  the  orders  already  published 
should  be  entirely  revised  and,  with  the  remaining  orders, 
treated  in  a  more  condensed  form,  omitting  the  longer  notes 
of  the  first  edition,  but  retaining  the  essential  part  of  the  syn- 
onymy and  reducing  the  descriptions  to  as  few  words  as 
possible.  The  synoptical  plan  was  adopted  as  being,  all 
things  considered,  the  briefest  and  best.  Since  the  cost  of 
printing  such  a  synoptical  flora  was  too  great  for  private 
resources,  and  since  the  work  offered  no  prospect  of  pecu- 
niary profit  to  publishers,  the  Institution  determined  to 
aid  the  undertaking,  and  expended  several  thousand  dollars 
in  furthering  this  important  botanical  work,  which  probably 
cost  its  author  nearly  as  much  more.  In  consideration  of 
this.  Professor  Gray  was  allowed  to  issue,  for  his  own  benefit, 
a  first  edition  of  five  hundred  copies  of  the  work  before  the 
Institution  attempted  to  publish  its  own  edition.  The  order 
of  publication  was  arranged  so  that  the  first  part  should  in- 
clude the  Gamopetalae  after  Compositae,  the  subject  treated 
being,  therefore,  a  direct  continuation  of  the  original  "  Flora" 
of  Torrey  and  Gray.  This  part,  with  the  title  of  "  Synoptical 
Flora  of  North  America,"  Volume  11,  Part  i,  was  issued  by  the 
author  in  May,  1878,  and  formed  a  volume  of  four  hundred 

45* 


702  The  Smithsonian  Instihttion 

octavo  pages.  The  next  part  to  appear,  including  Capri- 
foliaceae-Compositae,  being  a  revision  of  the  second  volume  of 
the  Torrey  and  Gray  "  Flora,"  was  called  Volume  i.  Part  ii, 
of  the  "  Synoptical  Flora,"  and  was  published  by  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution  in  July,  1884.  In  January,  1886,  an  addi- 
tional part  of  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  pages  was  published 
by  the  Institution,  and  contained  supplements  and  indexes  to 
the  two  parts  previously  issued.  The  death  of  Professor 
Gray  occurred  on  January  2,'^,  1888,  and  later  in  that  year 
the  two  parts  already  published,  together  with  the  supple- 
ments, were  bound  together  in  one  large  volume  and  issued 
as  one  of  the  "Smithsonian  Miscellaneous  Collections."  The 
further  prosecution  of  the  work  was  intrusted  to  Professor 
Gray's  successor.  Doctor  Sereno  Watson  ;  but  his  death,  a 
few  years  later,  delayed  the  appearance  of  any  part  of  the 
"Synoptical  Flora"  until,  in  October,  1895,  Doctor  B.  L. 
Robinson,  the  successor  of  Doctor  Watson  as  Curator  of  the 
Gray  Herbarium  of  Harvard  University,  issued  the  first 
fascicle  of  Volume  i,  Part  i,  including  Polypetalae,  from 
Ranunculacese  to  Frankeniaceae,  prepared,  in  part,  from  the 
manuscripts  of  Professor  Gray  and  Doctor  Watson. 

The  "  Contributions"  relating  to  cryptogams,  which  have 
been  published  by  the  Institution,  treat  mainly  of  algae.  The 
second  volume  of  the  "Contributions"  included  a  paper  by 
Professor  J.  W.  Bailey  on  "  Microscopical  Examination  of 
Soundings  made  by  the  United  States  Coast  Survey  off  the 
Atlantic  Coast  of  the  United  States,"  and  another  on  "Micro- 
scopical Observations  made  in  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  and 
P"lorida."  These  were  the  first  papers  published  by  the  Insti- 
tution in  which  reference  was  made  to  plant-life.  Since  they 
did  not  treat  exclusively  of  plants,  but  of  animals  as  well, 
only  passing  notice  is  required  in  this  connection.  In  these 
two  papers,  as  well  as  in  a  later  paper,  "  Notes  on  New  Spe- 


Botany  703 

cies  and  Localities  of  Microscopical  Organisms,"  contained  in 
the  third  volume  of  the  *'  Contributions,"  Professor  Bailey  in- 
cluded numerous  lists  of  Desmids,  Diatoms,  and  other  small 
marine  and  fresh-water  algae,  with  descriptions,  notes,  and 
figures  of  the  more  interesting  species  and  a  few  references 
to  marine  Florideae. 

We  find  in  the  Report  for  1850,^  the  first  reference  to  one 
of  the  most  extensive  and  important  botanical  memoirs  pub- 
lished by  the  Institution,  namely,  that  of  William  H.  Harvey, 
on  the  "  Marine  Algae  of  the  United  States."  Professor  Har- 
vey, of  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  distinguished  for  his  exten- 
sive knowledge  of  marine  plants,  was  invited  in  1849  ^o  &^^'^ 
a  course  of  lectures  at  the  Lowell  Institute  in  Boston,  and, 
taking  advantage  of  the  presence  of  this  expert  algologist  in 
our  country,  arrangements  were  made  with  him  by  the  In- 
stitution for  preparing  a  complete  marine  flora  of  our  coast. 
In  preparation  for  the  work  Professor  Harvey  spent  several 
months  on  the  Eastern  coast,  at  Halifax,  Massachusetts  Bay, 
Long  Island,  Charleston,  and  Key  West,  studying  the  algae 
and  examining  the  herbaria  of  local  collectors.  On  his  return 
to  Dublin  he  worked  up  the  rich  material  he  had  brought  to- 
gether, and  completed  with  his  own  hands  the  colored  draw- 
ings to  be  used  as  illustrations.  The  expense  of  printing  the 
text  and  plates  being  great,  it  was  decided  to  issue  the  work 
in  three  parts.  The  first  part,  including  the  Melanospermae, 
was  published  in  1852  in  the  third  volume  of  the  "Contribu- 
tions," with  one  hundred  and  fifty  pages  and  twelve  plates. 
The  second  part,  including  the  Rhodospermae,  appeared  in 
the  sixth  volume  the  following  year,  but  the  third  part,  including 
the  Chlorosperma^  and  supplement,  did  not  appear  until  1858. 
The  three  parts  were  then  bound  in  one  volume,  entitled 
"Nereis  Boreali- Americana ;   or.  Contributions  to  a  History 

1 "  Smithsonian  Report,"  1850,  page  12. 


704  The  Smithsonian  Instihition 

of  the  Marine  Algae  of  North  America."  The  memoir  of  Pro- 
fessor Harvey  forms  the  basis  of  our  knowledge  of  the  marine 
flora  of  North  America,  and,  although  the  study  of  algae  has 
advanced  very  much,  the  "  Nereis"  is  still  a  classic  work, 
showing  the  skill  of  the  author  as  a  systematist. 

In  Harvey's  "Nereis"  there  were  included  but  a  small  num- 
ber of  fresh-water  algae.  Professor  H.  C.  Wood,  Jr.,  who  had 
published  in  1869  a  "  Prodromus  of  a  Study  of  North  Ameri- 
can Fresh-water  Algae  "  ^  completed  a  more  elaborate  memoir 
on  the  subject,  which  was  accepted  by  the  Institution  and 
published  in  volume  nineteen  of  the  "Contributions,"  1874, 
under  the  title  "A  Contribution  to  the  History  of  the  Fresh- 
water Algae  of  North  America."  The  classification  adopted 
by  Professor  Wood  was,  in  the  main,  that  of  Rabenhorst's 
"  Flora  Europaea  Algarum  Aquae  Dulcis  et  Submarinae,"  in 
which  the  generic  and  specific  limitations  differed  consider- 
ably from  those  of  the  present  day;  but  the  work  of  Professor 
Wood  has  special  value  from  the  large  number  of  new  and 
interesting  species,  particularly  the  two  orders  Nostochineae 
and  CEdogonieae. 

Probably  no  work  published  by  the  Institution  awakened 
more  interest  in  its  day  than  the  "  Flora  and  Fauna  within 
Living  Animals,"  published  in  1853  in  the  fifth  volume  of  the 
"  Contributions,"  by  Professor  Joseph  Leidy.  The  subject 
was  a  novel  one,  and  the  vegetable  parasites  described  by 
Leidy  were  exceedingly  curious  and  quite  perplexing.  The 
species  grow  attached  to  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  cavities 
in  which  they  are  found,  and  occasionally  form  the  exterior 
covering  of  worms  infesting  the  cavities.  They  were  con- 
sidered by  Leidy  to  be  algoid  in  character,  and  some  of  them, 
at  least,  appear  to  be  related  to  certain  genera  formerly 
placed  in   Nostochineae  but  now  included  in   Schizomycetes. 

"^Proceedings  of  the  American  Philosophical  Society,  1871,  Volume  xi,  page  119. 


Botany  705 

The  systematic  position  of  the  five  new  genera,  Enterobryus, 
Eccrina,  Arthromitus,  Cladophytum,  and  Corynocladus,  must 
be  said  to  be  still  in  doubt,  for  during  the  last  forty  years 
neither  mycologists  nor  algologists  have  ventured  to  assign 
them  definitely  to  their  proper  order,  nor  have  they  been  able 
to  add  much  to  the  account  first  given  by  Leidy. 

Of  the  less  elaborate  botanical  publications  we  may  mention 
three  papers  on  exotic  floras:  the  "Flora  of  Alaska,"  published 
in  the  Report  for  1867,  by  Doctor  J.  T.  Rothrock,  who  gave 
an  enumeration  of  the  species,  both  of  pha;nogams  and  cryp- 
togams, collected  by  himself,  as  well  as  of  those  collected  by 
previous  explorers;  the  "Flora  of  St.  Croix  and  the  Virgin 
Islands,"  by  Baron  H.  F.  A.  Eggers,^  being  an  enumeration 
of  phaenogams  and  higher  cryptogams  of  that  region,  with 
notes  and  introduction;  and  the  "Botany  of  Bermuda,"  by 
General  Sir  John  Henry  Lefroy,  formerly  Governor  of  Ber- 
muda,^ a  work  similar  in  character  to  the  preceding.  A 
"Guide  to  the  Flora  of  Washington  and  Vicinity,"^  by  Pro- 
fessor Lester  F.  Ward,  was  also  a  museum  publication.  An 
introduction,  giving  statistics  and  general  character  of  the 
local  flora,  was  followed  by  a  list  of  one  thousand  three  hun- 
dred and  eighty-four  species,  excluding  Thallophytes,  to- 
gether with  a  "Check-List"  and  "Descriptions  for  Collect- 
ing and  Preserving  Plants,"  which  were  issued  separately  the 
following  year. 

Scattered  through  the  annual  Reports  of  the  Institution 
are  several  miscellaneous  botanical  papers  which  deserve  no- 
tice. The  Report  of  1859  contains  a  paper  by  Doctor  J.  G. 
Cooper  on  the  "  Distribution  of  the  Forests  and  Trees  of 
North  America,"  prepared  in  connection  with  some  meteoro- 
logical observations  in  progress  under  the  direction  of  the  In- 

1 "  Bulletin  No.  13  of  the  United  States  National  Museum,"  1879. 

2  "Bulletin  No.  25  of  the  United  States  National  Museum,"  1884. 

3  "Bulletin  No.  22  of  the  United  States  National  Museum,"  18S1. 


7o6  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

stitLition.  The  Report  for  1889  has  a  reprint  of  the  address 
of  W.  T.  Thiselton-Dyer,  F.  R,  S.,  on  "  Botanical  Biology," 
delivered  at  the  meeting  of  the  British  Association  in  1888, 
and  in  1890  there  is  a  translation  of  a  paper  by  Professor  M. 
Treub,  "A  Tropical  Botanic  Garden,"  giving  an  account  of 
the  Botanic  Garden  at  Buitenzorg,  Java,  of  which  he  was  the 
director.  The  Report  for  1891  contains  a  paper  by  Professor 
G.  L.  Goodale,  "  Some  Possibilities  of  Economic  Botany,"  an 
address  delivered  before  the  American  Association  in  1891, 
and  a  paper  by  James  Rodway,  "The  Struggle  for  Life  in  the 
Forest,"  reprinted  from  the  "Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricul- 
tural Society  of  British  Guiana."  We  may  also  mention  the 
account  of  "  Progress  in  Botany  "  in  various  Reports  :  the  ac- 
counts from  1879-83  by  William  G.  Farlow  and  those  of 
i887-'88  by  Frank  H.  Knowlton. 

The  first  step  taken  by  the  Institution  toward  the  forma- 
tion of  a  national  herbarium  was  the  arrangement  made 
with  Charles  Wright,  mentioned  in  the  Report  for  1849, 
to  which  we  have  previously  referred.  In  consideration  of 
the  $150  subscribed  toward  defraying  the  expenses  of  Mr. 
Wright  on  his  botanical  trip  to  El  Paso,  the  Institution  was 
to  be  entitled  to  a  full  set  of  all  the  plants  he  collected.  At 
about  the  same  date,  a  set  of  the  plants  collected  by  Fendler 
in  1847  i'"*  ^^  vicinity  of  Santa  Fe  was  purchased,  and  it  was 
proposed,  further,  to  assist  him  by  the  purchase  of  a  set  of  the 
collections  he  might  make  in  the  future.  The  policy  of  the 
Institution  in  regard  to  giving  aid  to  collectors  and  receiving 
in  return  sets  of  the  plants  collected  was  expressed  in  the 
Report  for  1849  in  the  following  words:  "  By  cooperating  in 
this  way  with  individuals  and  institutions,  we  are  enabled,  at 
a  small  expense,  materially  to  advance  the  cause  of  science."  ^ 
The  Report  for   1851,  referring  again  to  the  sets  of  Wright 

1 "  Smithsonian  Report,"  1849,  page  6. 


Botany  707 

and  Fendler,  states  that  these  sets,  together  with  plants  col- 
lected by  Lindheimer,  "  form  the  nucleus  of  an  important  and 
authentic  North  American  herbarium."  ^  The  Reports  for 
1853  and  1856  refer  to  several  additions  to  the  herbarium  — 
mainly  phainogams  from  Oregon,  Alabama,  and  other  locali- 
ties, a  small  collection  from  the  Dead  Sea,  and  fungi  from 
South  Carolina  collected  by  Ravenel.  Other  additions  were 
from  time  to  time  reported,  the  most  important  being  a  set 
of  Doctor  Berlandier's  Texas  plants,  in  1855,  and  the  unique 
set  of  ferns  collected  by  Bracken  ridge  on  the  Wilkes  Explor- 
ing Expedition  in  1862. 

Previous  to  1868  the  policy  of  the  Institution  with  regard  to 
botanical  collections  had  been  to  purchase  sets  of  different  col- 
lectors, to  encourage  private  donations  of  plants,  and  to  act  as 
custodian  of  the  sets  of  plants  collected  on  the  different  gov- 
ernment expeditions.  In  1868,  however,  the  herbarium  con- 
tained from  15,000  to  20,000  specimens  from  different  parts  of 
the  world,  and  it  became  necessary  to  adopt  a  more  definite 
policy  with  regard  to  the  large  and  rapidly  increasing  collec- 
tion. Up  to  this  date  the  Institution  had  depended  mainly 
upon  Professor  Torrey  and  Professor  Gray  for  the  general 
arrangement  of  its  collection,  but  as  the  time  at  the  disposal 
of  those  botanists  was  limited,  it  became  evident  that  the 
constant  superintendence  of  a  competent  botanist  was  indis- 
pensable. The  funds  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  were, 
however,  far  too  meager  to  enable  it,  together  with  its 
other  important  duties,  to  undertake  the  proper  care  of  the 
herbarium.  Since  the  Agricultural  Department  required 
such  a  collection  for  continual  reference,  and  had,  in  fact, 
begun  to  form  a  collection;  and,  furthermore,  since  it  required 
the  services  of  a  practical  botanist  in  the  course  of  its  investi- 
gations, it  seemed  advisable  to  unite  the  two  collections.     The 

1 "  Smithsonian  Report,"  1851,  page  II. 


7o8  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

considerations  of  the  transfer  are  given  as  follows,  in  the 
Report  of  1868  :  "The  transfer  is  made  with  the  understand- 
ing that  the  superintending  botanist  shall  be  approved  by  the 
Institution,  that  the  collection  shall  be  accessible  to  the  public 
for  practical  or  educational  purposes,  and  to  the  Institution 
for  scientific  investigation  or  for  supplying  any  information 
that  may  be  asked  for  by  its  correspondents  in  regard  to  the 
names  and  character  of  plants.  It  is  further  stipulated  that 
due  credit  shall  be  given  to  the  Institution  in  the  publications 
of  the  department  for  the  deposit  of  the  original  specimens, 
as  well  as  for  the  additions  which,  from  time  to  time,  may  be 
made  to  them  by  the  Institution."  ^  In  return  for  this  transfer, 
the  Agricultural  Department  agreed  to  turn  over  to  the 
Institution  any  specimens  relating  to  ethnology  or  to  other 
branches  of  natural  history  than  botany  then  in  its  posses- 
sion or  which  might  thereafter  come  into  its  possession.  The 
transfer  of  the  herbarium  to  the  Agricultural  Department 
was  referred  to  again  in  the  Report^  for  1870,  where  an  ac- 
count was  given  of  the  most  important  collections  contained 
in  the  herbarium  at  the  time  of  the  transfer  in  1868  and 
those  subsequently  received. 

If  we  consider  in  its  entirety  the  botanical  work  accom- 
plished by  the  Institution  during  the  first  fifty  years  of  its  ex- 
istence we  find  that  it  gives  a  picture  of  the  gradual  progress 
of  botany  in  a  new,  and  to  a  great  extent  unexplored,  country. 
The  first  botanical  problem  to  be  solved  in  a  new  country  is 
of  necessity  the  exploration  of  its  different  parts  and  the  de- 
scription of  the  native  species.  As  the  systematic  knowledge 
of  the  native  flora  increases,  the  important  question  as  to  the 
causes  of  the  distribution  of  the  different  species,  the  effects  of 
soil,  temperature,  and  other  climatic  and  biological  conditions, 
assume  a  greater  and  greater  significance,  and  when  a  general 

1 "  Smithsonian  Report,"  1868,  page  15.  2  Ibidem,  1870,  page  36. 


Botany  709 

knowledge  of  the  flora  has  become  widely  difl"used  throughout 
a  country,  the  stage  is  reached  where  the  more  general  and 
abstract  problems  belonging  to  the  domain  of  vegetable  physi- 
ology and  the  minute  investigations  in  cytology  and  the  study 
of  life-histories  attract  the  attention  of  the  rising  generation 
of  botanists.  In  the  early  years  of  the  Institution  the  main 
object  of  botanists  was  to  find  out  what  plants  grew  in  North 
America.  Fortunately,  among  the  native  botanists  were  such 
well-trained  men  as  Torrey,  Gray,  Engelmann,  Bailey,  and 
Wood,  upon  whom  the  Institution  could  call  to  assist  in  the 
working  up  of  a  great  share  of  our  native  plants.  In  branches 
in  which  there  were  no  competent  American  experts  the  In- 
stitution did  not  hesitate  to  secure  the  services  of  foreign 
botanists,  as  in  the  case  of  the   "Nereis"  of  Harvey. 

The  most  important  service  rendered  by  the  Institution  to 
botanical  science  has  been  the  very  liberal  aid  furnished 
to  specialists  by  enabling  them  to  publish  the  various  mono- 
graphs which  appeared  in  the  "Contributions  to  Knowledge" 
and  in  the  "Miscellaneous  Collections."  No  comment  on  the 
great  value  of  this  series  of  publications  is  needed,  for  the  mere 
enumeration  of  the  works  to  which  we  have  already  referred 
is,  to  anyone  at  all  familiar  with  the  history  of  botanical  liter- 
ature, a  sufficient  indication  of  the  debt  we  owe  to  the  Insti- 
tution. In  the  scientific  presentation  of  the  subjects  treated, 
in  the  admirable  illustrations,  and  in  the  liberality  with  which 
the  memoirs  have  been  distributed  to  public  institutions  and 
private  botanists  throughout  the  world,  the  Institution  has  well 
merited  the  praise  which  it  has  received  at  home  and  abroad. 
Nor,  in  recognizing  that  the  first  desideratum  was  an  accurate 
account  of  our  native  species,  did  the  Institution  fail  to  en- 
courage, as  far  as  possible,  the  study  of  climatic  and  other 
causes  which  affect  the  distribution  of  plants,  for  certain  of  the 
botanical  papers  we  have  mentioned  were  prepared  as  collat- 


7IO  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

eral  aids  to  work  done  in  meteorology  and  other  branches  of 
science.  If  among  the  botanical  contributions  we  find  none 
on  physiological  or  histological  subjects,  it  should  be  said  that 
the  development  of  botany  in  this  country  has  been  slower 
than  that  of  zoology,  and  it  is  not  until  quite  recently  that  the 
study  of  botany  with  us  has  been  expanded  so  as  to  embrace 
all  branches  of  the  science.  The  period  we  are  now  consider- 
ing was  that  in  which  descriptive  botany  prevailed.  Circum- 
stances are  now  favorable  to  a  widening  of  the  field  in  this 
direction  in  the  future. 

The  foresight  of  the  Institution  in  collecting  and  preserving 
the  different  collections  of  plants  which  were  to  form  a  nucleus 
for  a  national  herbarium  is  greatly  to  be  commended.  Acting 
as  a  faithful  custodian  of  this  material,  so  valuable  for  future 
study,  until  a  date  when  circumstances  indicated  that  it  could 
be  intrusted  with  safety  to  other  hands,  and  leave  the  limited 
funds  at  its  disposal  to  be  spent  on  the  care  of  collections  in 
other  departments  of  science,  the  herbarium  was  transferred, 
on  conditions  which  were  liberal,  but  also  conservative,  for  the 
Institution  still  has  a  voice  in  the  selection  of  the  botanist  ap- 
pointed to  take  charge  of  the  collections.  It  is  to  be  regretted 
that  the  efforts  of  the  Institution  in  1855  to  induce  Congress 
to  establish  an  arboretum  on  its  ofrounds  did  not  meet  with  a 
favorable  response  from  that  body. 


ZOOLOGY 


By  Theodore  Gill 


Prof essor  of  Zoology ,  Columbian  University 


CCEPTING  the  terms  of  the  fundamental  or- 
ganization of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  the 
consideration  of  its  relations  to  the  progress 
of  zoology  might  be  expected  from  two  points 
of  view  :  first,  the  "  increase  of  knowledge  "  as 
the  result  of  original  investigation,  and  second,  the  "diffu- 
sion of  knowledge  among  men "  by  publication.  It  will, 
however,  become  obvious  on  reflection  that  the  relation  of 
the  Institution  to  the  increase  of  knowledge  must  be  chiefly 
through  the  stimulus  of  means  which  it  may  furnish  to  the 
original  investigator.  The  actual  increase  of  zoological 
knowledo^e  has  been  effected  throusfh  the  investisrations  of 
those  connected  with  the  Institution  directly  or  indirectly, 
and  as  the  result  of  studies  of  the  collections  amassed  in  the 
museum.  The  increase  of  knowledge  effected  by  the  Insti- 
tution is  therefore  to  be  found  in  the  aggregate  of  individual 
discoveries  resulting  from  the  study  of  material  collected 
through  its  agency,  or  first  made  known  in  its  publications. 
The  most  natural  course,  then,  will  be  to  review  the  further- 
ance by  the  Institution  of  exploration  for  zoological  material, 


711 


712  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

the  building  up  of  a  museum,  and  the  publications  which  it 
has  stimulated  or  provided  for  in  various  ways.  This  review 
will  be  a  simple  narrative  of  facts  in  which  no  criticism  or 
commendation  will  be  indulged  in. 


EXPLORATIONS 

One  of  the  most  efficient  means  by  which  the  Institution  has 
advanced  zoological  science  has  been  through  the  respect 
which  its  chiefs  have  enjoyed  from  the  heads  of  government 
departments,  and  the  consequent  readiness  with  which  the 
government  authorities  have  carried  out  suggestions  for  in- 
vestigations in  connection  with  various  operations. 

The  general  government  had  early  recognized  the  advisa- 
bility of  exploration  of  the  wild  territory  acquired  from  time 
to  time,  and  numerous  surveying  expeditions  had  been  de- 
spatched for  that  purpose.  The  first  of  special  importance 
was  the  famous  expedition  of  Lewis  and  Clarke  "performed 
during  the  years  1804-06,"  and  the  narrative  of  which  has 
been  published  in  many  editions,  culminating  in  the  luxurious 
one  recently  edited  by  Doctor  Elliott  Coues.  This  expedi- 
tion was  the  precursor  of  many  others.  Attempts  were  made 
in  connection  with  some  of  them  to  further  our  knowledge  of 
the  fauna  and  flora  of  the  countries  traversed ;  but,  with  one 
exception,  zeal  was  unaccompanied  by  knowledge,  and  the 
results  were  negative.  (The  exception  was  Major  Long's 
"Expedition  from  Pittsburg  to  the  Rocky  Mountains,  per- 
formed in  the  years  181 9-' 20,"  to  which  the  first  great  Ameri- 
can zoologist,  Thomas  Say,  was  attached  as  naturalist.)  But 
after  the  Smithsonian  Institution  had  been  housed  and  fully 
organized,  favoring  conditions  for  scientific  direction  super- 
vened. No  important  surveying  party  was  then  despatched 
without  a  naturalist  nominated  or  approved  by  the  Institu- 


Zoology  7 1 3 

tion.  Chief  of  such  expeditions  were  the  "  Explorations  and 
Survey  of  the  Valley  of  the  Great  Salt  Lake  of  Utah  "  (1852), 
by  Captain  Stansbury;  the  "Expedition  down  the  Zuni  and 
Colorado  Rivers  "  ( 1 85 1 ),  under  Captain  Sitgreaves  ;  the  ' '  Ex- 
ploration of  the  Red  River  of  Louisiana"  (1852),  by  Captains 
Marcy  and  McClellan  ;  and  the  "  United  States  and  Mexico 
Boundary  Survey"  (i857-'59),  superintended  by  Major 
Emory.  The  collections  made  by  the  peripatetic  naturalists 
were  deposited  in  the  museum  of  the  Institution,  and  the 
vertebrates  and  some  of  the  invertebrates  were  reported  upon 
by  Baird,  Girard,  and  others. 

But  by  far  the  most  important  of  the  collections  and  the 
reports  were  the  results  of  surveys  for  a  Pacific  railroad  long 
desired  and  at  length  undertaken. 

In  March,  1853,  provision  was  made  by  Congress  for  "ex- 
plorations and  surveys  to  ascertain  the  most  practicable  and 
economical  route  for  a  railroad  from  the  Mississippi  River  to 
the  Pacific  Ocean,"  to  be  made  under  the  direction  of  the 
Secretary  of  War.  Under  this  Act,  in  1853  and  1854  several 
parties,  commanded  by  officers  of  the  corps  of  topographical 
engineers  of  the  United  States  army,  were  sent  out  to  ex- 
amine different  routes  suggested  or  proposed  for  a  railroad. 
Through  the  influence  of  the  Institution,  naturalists  or  col- 
lectors  were  attached  to  the  various  parties,  and  the  collec- 
tions made  by  them  of  the  vertebrates  at  least  were  "worked 
up"  soon  after  their  reception  by  the  Institution. 

The  collections  were  mostly  studied  within  the  walls  of  the 
Smithsonian  building;  and  the  reports  were  published  at 
length  in  the  great  official  work  (extending  to  thirteen  large 
quarto  volumes)  devoted  to  the  details  of  all  the  operations 
connected  with  the  surveys.  But  these  detached  reports  had 
been  to  some  extent  anticipated  by  preliminary  accounts  of 
the  results  given  to  the  world  in  many  articles  contributed 
46 


714  The  Smithsonian  InstiUttion 

to  the  "  Proceedings  of  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences  of 
Philadelphia,"  and  other  periodicals.  The  species  and  genera 
new  to  science  were  very  numerous ;  and  the  faunal  char- 
acteristics of  reeions  little  or  not  at  all  known  before  were 
revealed  in  considerable  detail. 

Scarcely  any  long  stretch  of  coast  in  the  entire  world  was 
so  little  known,  from  a  zoological  standpoint,  as  was  that  ex- 
tending from   Alaska  to   Mexico.     Especially  true  was  this 
for   ichthyology.     A  number  of  the  fishes   of  northern   and 
Russian  America  had  been  described  by  Tilesius,  Pallas,  and 
Richardson  ;  but  only  about  a  dozen  species  had  been  authen- 
ticated from  the   great  stretch  of  coast  just  mentioned.     A 
few  species  had  been  described  in  1836  by  Sir  John  Richard- 
son, a  single  one  {Chimcera  colliei)  in  1839  by  Lay  and  Ben- 
nett,   and    another    {Syngnathns  californiensis)   in    1845  ^Y 
Storer.       The    literature    otherwise    was    confined    to    brief 
and  insufficient  indications,  too  unreliable  or  too  meager  for 
positive  identification.      In  1853  and  1854,  Louis  Agassiz  in- 
troduced  to  public   notice,  with  much  eclat,   the  remarkable 
viviparous  perch-like  fishes  inhabiting  the  California  coast, 
which  he  called  Holconoti  or  Embiotocoidse.     These  papers 
and  others  by  Gibbons  slightly  anticipated  the  publication  of 
the  results  of  the  explorations  for  the  Pacific  route.     But  in 
1854  and  following  years,  Charles  Girard  contributed  descrip- 
tions of  the  many  new  genera  and  species  of  fishes  obtained 
by  the  United  States  expeditions,  and  in  1859  a  final  report 
embracine  all  the  forms  known  from  the  Pacific  coast  of  the 
United    States  was    issued.      One   hundred   and   forty-eight 
nominal  species  of  salt-water  fishes  were  described,  and  most 
of  them  illustrated ;  and  a  fair  idea  was  thus  given  of  the  pis- 
cine fauna  of  that  previously  neglected  coast.     This  mono- 
graph of  Girard's  was  included  in  the  tenth  volume  of  the 
Pacific  Railroad  Reports. 


Zoology  715 

Still  more  important  in  some  respects,  although  less  re- 
plete with  startling  novelties,  were  two  volumes  emanating 
from  the  pen  of  Spencer  F.  Baird,  then  Assistant  Secretary 
of  the  Institution.  Many  new  species  of  mammals  and  birds 
had  been  collected  by  the  naturalists  of  the  Pacific  Railroad 
surveys,  and  the  identification  and  correct  classification  of  the 
material  obtained  necessitated  comparisons  and  consequent 
studies  of  most  of  the  species  of  the  entire  continent.  To 
such  an  extent  was  this  the  case  that  Baird  deemed  it  expe- 
dient to  extend  his  researches  to  cover  all  the  North  Ameri- 
can material  described  or  contained  in  the  Institution.  The 
result  was  the  preparation  and  publication  of  two  massive 
quarto  volumes  comprising  all  that  was  known  systematically 
of  the  mammals  and  birds  of  America  north  of  Mexico. 
These  volumes  formed  the  eighth  and  ninth  of  the  Pacific 
Railroad  Reports. 

Extra  sheets  of  the  text  of  both  of  these  volumes  on  mam- 
mals and  birds  were  subsequently  published  in  connection 
with  the  plates  already  issued  (often  retouched  and  consider- 
ably altered)  and  some  new  ones.  Copies  of  the  plates  pub- 
lished in  connection  with  the  reports  of  the  United  States 
and  Mexican   Boundary  Survey  were  also  incorporated. 

The  United  States  and  Mexican  Boundary  Survey  had 
been  organized  for  the  delimitation  of  the  boundary  between 
the  United  States  and  Mexico  under  the  conditions  provided 
for  in  the  treaty  of  1853.  Major  W.  H,  Emory  was  the 
United  States  commissioner,  and  the  field  work  of  the  com- 
mission was  performed  in  1854  (December)  and  1855.  The 
naturalists  of  the  survey  were  John  H.  Clark  and  Arthur 
Schott.  The  mammals,  birds,  and  reptiles  were  reported  on 
by  Professor  Baird,  and  the  fishes  by  Doctor  Girard.  The 
text  in  this  report  was  less  noteworthy  than  the  plates :  the 
latter  were  numerous,  and  many  of  them  very  well  executed, 


7i6  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

and  among  these  were  the  ones  subsequently  modified  to  ap- 
pear in  the  privately  published  volumes  on  the  mammals  and 
birds.  A  like  work  was  intended  for  the  reptiles,  and  forty- 
four  plates  appeared  in  the  United  States  Pacific  Railroad 
Report,  and  forty-one  in  the  United  States  and  Mexican 
Boundary  Report,  but  the  increasing  duties  devolved  on  Pro- 
fessor Baird  prevented  its  accomplishment. 

The  expeditions  thus  referred  to  have  been  specifically 
mentioned  because  they  were  the  first  provided  for  in  ac- 
cordance with  a  new  policy,  and  through  them  the  general 
peculiarities  of  the  countries  traversed  were  first  made  known. 
Innumerable  minor  expeditions  were  subsequently  sent  out, 
but  few  were  accompanied  by  naturalists  or  reported  upon  by 
experts  connected  with  the  Institution.  A  noteworthy  vol- 
ume was  Simpson's  "  Report  of  Explorations  Across  the 
Great  Basin  of  the  Territory  of  Utah  in  1859,"  but  not 
published  till  1876.  The  various  geological  surveys  may 
also  be  referred  to  in  this  connection. 

After  the  civil  war  four  independent  geological  surveys 
were  organized  within  a  short  time  of  each  other,  and 
became  for  a  time  contemporaneous.  These  were  (i)  the 
"  United  States  Geological  Survey  of  the  Territories,"  ini- 
tiated in  1867  through  the  efforts  of  Ferdinand  V.  Hayden  ; 
(2)  the  "  Geological  Exploration  of  the  Fortieth  Parallel," 
under  the  leadership  of  Clarence  King  (also  legislated  into 
existence  in  1867);  (3)  the  second  division  of  the  "United 
States  Geological  and  Geographical  Survey  of  the  Terri- 
tories," organized  by  John  W.  Powell  in  1870;  and  (4) 
the  "  United  States  Geographical  Survey  West  of  the  One 
Hundredth  Meridian,"  conducted  by  George  M.  Wheeler 
of  the  United  States  Engineers,  established  in  1871.  The 
heads  of  all  these  orofanizations  interested  themselves  more  or 
less  with  zoological  investigations,  and  cooperated  with  the 


Zoology  7 1 7 

Smithsonian  Institution  in  the  collection  of  specimens,  and 
also  published  reports  or  memoirs  on  representatives  of  the 
existing  fauna.  Eventually,  however,  all  were  superseded  by 
a  new  United  States  Geological  Survey  created  by  a  law 
approved  March  3,  1879. 


MUSEUM 

When  the  Smithsonian  Institution  finally  became  established 
it  began  to  occupy  a  place  that  had  been  previously  vacant. 
In  Washington  there  was  practically  no  museum.  The  nu- 
cleus of  one  was  existent  in  the  collections  obtained  by  the 
United  States  Exploring  Expedition  during  the  years  1838 
to  1842,  under  Commodore  Wilkes,  but  that  at  first  was 
under  no  competent  supervision.  Excellent  collections  had 
been  made  by  the  naturalists  attached  to  that  expedition, 
and  representatives  of  several  classes  had  been  placed  in  the 
hands  of  well-known  specialists.  The  mammals  and  birds 
were  referred  to  Titian  R.  Peale  and  John  Cassin,  the  rep- 
tiles and  amphibians  to  Spencer  F.  Baird  and  Charles  Gi- 
rard,  the  fishes  to  Louis  Agassiz,  the  classes  of  mollusks  to 
Augustus  A.  Gould,  and  the  crustaceans  and  zoophytes  to 
James  D.  Dana.  All  of  these,  except  Professor  Agassiz, 
made  elaborate  reports  on  the  specimens  intrusted  to  them, 
and  the  collections,  which  were  returned,  thus  became  a  very 
considerable  and  more  than  ordinarily  valuable  basis  for  a 
museum,  inasmuch  as  a  very  large  proportion  of  the  species 
collected  and  described  were  new,  and  thus  types.  The 
American  naturalists  anticipated  in  many  cases  the  results 
of  the  contemporaneous  British  expeditions. 

But  although  special  provision  was  made,  in  the  law  pro- 
viding for  the  establishment  of  the  Smithsonian   Institution, 
for  the  transfer  to  the  new  institution  of  all  of  what  may  be 
46* 


7i8  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

called  museum  material,  the  law  was  not  made  operative 
till  many  years  afterward.  Meanwhile,  the  collections  made 
by  the  Wilkes  Exploring  Expedition  and  some  minor  ac- 
cumulations remained  in  the  Patent  Office  building  under  no 
scientific  supervision,  and  suffering  from  lack  of  care  and 
want  of  appreciation  of  their  value.  Tradition  relates  that 
an  occasional  friendly  visitor  interested  in  conchology  might 
even  be  allowed  to  carry  off  desiderata  for  the  increase  of  his 
own  collection.  Little  regard,  too,  was  had  for  the  labels  or 
tickets  which  had  been  applied  by  the  describers  to  the  spe- 
cimens returned.  In  other  ways  the  collections  deteriorated. 
It  was  not  till  1856  that  the  Institution  took  advantage  of  its 
right  to  secure  what  remained. 

The  original  museum  administered  by  the  Smithsonian  In- 
stitution had  grown  up  from  humble  beginnings  and  in  spite 
of  adverse  conditions.  Its  nucleus  was  a  collection  of  verte- 
brates of  Pennsylvania  and  some  other  regions  of  the  neigh- 
boring States  which  Professor  Baird  had  made  in  his  stu- 
dent days  and  while  he  served  as  a  professor  of  natural 
sciences  in  Dickinson  College.  This  collection  consisted 
chiefly  of  skins  of  birds  and  mammals,  as  well  as  reptiles  and 
amphibians  preserved  in  alcoholic  spirits,  and  skeletons  or 
skulls  of  mammals,  some  of  birds,  and  a  few  of  reptiles,  am- 
phibians, and  fishes.  These  were  by  small  accessions  grad- 
ually added  to  by  Professor  Baird  himself,  and  by  many 
amateur  collectors. 

In  the  ninth  annual  report  it  was  even  claimed  that  "a 
museimi,  the  most  complete  of  any  in  existence  in  several 
branches  of  the  natural  history  of  the  North  American  conti- 
nent, has  been  collected,  which  has  been  valued  at  $30,000."^ 
But  the  then  chief  of  the  Institution  (Professor  Henry)  did 
not  view  with   favor   the    employment  of  the   funds   of  the 

1  "  Smithsonian  Report,"  1854,  page  9. 


Zoology  7 1 9 

establishment  for  a  general  museum.  In  the  fourth  annual 
Report  he  recalled  that,  "by  the  law  incorporating  this  In- 
stitution, '  all  objects  of  art  and  of  foreign  and  curious  re- 
search, and  all  objects  of  natural  history,  plants,  and  geologi- 
cal and  mineralogical  specimens  belonging  to  or  hereafter  to 
belong  to  the  United  States,  which  may  be  in  the  city  of 
Washington,  in  whosesoever  custody  the  same  may  be,  shall 
be  delivered  to  such  persons  as  may  be  authorized  by  the 
Board  of  Regents  to  receive  them.'"  ^  Nevertheless,  the  Sec- 
retary was  loath  to  take  advantage  of  this  law,  although,  in 
his  own  words,  it  "evidently  gives  to  the  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tution the  museum  in  the  Patent  Office,  the  conservatory  of 
plants,  and  all  specimens  of  nature  and  art  to  be  found  in  the 
several  offices  and  departments  of  the  government."^  It  was 
agreed  that  "the  act,  however,  cannot  be  construed  as  ren- 
dering it  obligatory  on  the  Regents  to  take  charge  of  these 
articles."^  It  was  considered  that  even  "an  annual  appro- 
priation for  the  support  of  the  museum  of  the  exploring  ex- 
pedition "  would  be  "objectionable,  since  it  would  annually 
bring  the  Institution  before  Congress  as  a  supplicant  for 
governmental  patronage";^  for  the  Secretary  was  "fully 
convinced  that  the  true  policy  of  the  Institution  is  to  ask 
nothing  from  Congress  except  the  safe-keeping  of  its  funds."" 
The  regents  therefore  "declined  to  accept  this  museum  as  a 
gift,"  but  "a  few  years "^  later  they  reconsidered  their  deter- 
mination. It  was  found  that  "the  cost  of  keeping  the  mu- 
seum of  the  Exploring  Expedition  "  then  in  the  Patent  Office 
was  "about  $5000"  a  year,  and  for  that  sum  the  Institution 
expressed  a  willingness  to  take  charge  of  the  natural  history 
collections  in  question. 

In    the    Report  for    1858    the    Secretary   announced    that 

1  "Smithsonian  Report,"  1849,  page  20.  "^Ibidem,  page  21. 

3  Ibidem,  1856,  page  22. 


720  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

"  this  proposition  was  agreed  to  by  the  government,  and  the 
contemplated  transfer  has  accordingly  been  made."^  But  an 
annual  appropriation  of  only  $4000  was  made,  and  this  was 
continued  for  many  years. 

The  appropriation  by  the  government  in  1858  of  $4000  a 
year  marks  an  epoch  in  the  history  of  the  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tution as  well  as  of  the  National  Museum.  By  the  Act  so 
passed  the  sustentation  of  a  special  museum  was  to  that  ex- 
tent recognized,  and  thus  the  National  Museum  may  be  con- 
sidered to  have  been  originated  by  the  Act  of  appropriation. 
It  was  indeed  on  a  very  small  and  inadequate  scale,  but 
the  beginning  was  made  of  a  national  museum. 

Up  to  this  time  the  collection  had  been  almost  exclusively 
devoted  to  vertebrates,  and  "the  following  table  exhibits  the 
additions  made  to  the  record  books  of  the  museum  in  1857, 
in  continuation  of  previous  years  : 


"  2 


1851     1852     1853     1854     1855     1856     1857 

Mammals None      114       198        351      1200  2046  3200 

Birds 4353      4425  5^55  8766 

Skeletons  and  skulls  .    .    .     911      1074      1190      1275      2050  3060  3340 

Reptiles .    .        .    .         .    .         .    .  106  239 

Fishes 155  613 

Although  the  collections  of  the  Exploring  Expedition  had 
become  much  deteriorated  and  suffered  considerably  from 
spoliation  under  incompetent  custodians,  it  was  still  a  rich 
one,  and  many  types  of  the  numerous  new  species  described 
by  Dana,  Gould,  Peale,  Cassin,  and  Girard  remained.  The 
invertebrates  of  the  sea  at  last  began  to  be  in  evidence,  and 
quite  a  respectable  nucleus  of  a  general  zoological  museum 
became  existent. 

The  subsequent  increase  was  quite  rapid,  and  resulted  from 
many  government  expeditions,  but  was  mostly  confined  to 

1 "  Smithsonian  Report,"  1858,  page  14.  2  Ibjdetn,  1857,  page  49. 


Zoology  7  2 1 

the  acquisition  of  American  material  and  to  what  was  ac- 
quired   by   donation. 

In  the  Report  for  1867  it  was  recalled  that  "when  the 
government  museum  was  transferred  to  the  Institution,  it 
was  stipulated  that  an  appropriation  should  be  annually  made 
for  it,"^  and  that  "the  appropriation  for  this  purpose  had 
been  limited  until  the  last  session  of  Congress  to  the  sum 
of  $4000."^  It  was  then  announced  that  "the  appropriation 
was,  last  year,  temporarily  increased  to  $10,000,  but,"  it  was 
added,  "even  were  this  continued,  it  would  be  still  quite  in- 
adequate to  the  suitable  maintenance  of  a  national  museum." 

During  all  these  years  there  were  no  paid  curators  for  the 
zoological  part  of  the  museum,  and  reliance  was  had  only  on 
volunteer  aid  of  persons  too  busily  engaged  in  other  pursuits 
properly  to  take  care  of  collections  of  which  they  were  nomi- 
nal curators.  The  difficulties  of  such  curators  were  much  en- 
hanced, too,  by  frequent  changes  and  removals  of  collections 
from  place  to  place  without  supervision.  The  collections  even 
suffered  also  by  the  very  willingness  to  make  them  useful;  for 
example,  in  1867  Doctor  William  Stimpson  was  authorized  to 
take  most  of  the  collection  of  American  invertebrates,  espe- 
cially crustaceans  and  east-coast  mollusks,  to  the  Chicago 
Academy  of  Science,  of  which  he  was  director,  for  purposes 
of  study.  He  had  engaged  to  prepare  manuals  of  the  marine 
mollusks  and  crustaceans  of  the  eastern  United  States,  and 
had  prepared  many  descriptions  and  illustrations  of  mollusks 
and  shells,  when  the  disastrous  fire  of  1873  destroyed  a  large 
portion  of  the  city  of  Chicago,  and  with  it  the  building  of  the 
Academy  in  which  the  collections  had  been  housed.  The 
loss  was  irretrievable.  The  long  labors  of  years  were  oblit- 
erated, and  the  life  of  the  author,  unsupported  by  hope  or 
anticipation,   and  prostrate  by  grief,   soon  succumbed. 

1  "  Smithsonian  Report,"  1867,  page  5S-  ^  Ibidem,  page  56. 


72  2  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

It  was  not  till  1876  that  systematic  provision  was  made  for 
curators  for  the  museum.  The  history  from  that  period  has 
been  given  in  the  chapter  on  the  United  States  National 
Museum,  to  which  reference  may  be  made  for  the  history  of 
its  subsequent  development. 

PUBLICATIONS 

INSTRUCTIONS    FOR    COLLECTORS    AND    ADJUNCTS 

An  important  service  has  been  rendered  by  the  Institution 
in  inducing  naturalists  of  eminence  to  prepare  manuals  or 
guides  for  the  determination  of  species  belonging  to  various 
classes  or  other  groups  of  the  animal  kingdom. 

The  activity  of  many  naturalists,  ever  increasing,  not  only 
in  the  United  States  but  elsewhere,  had  largely  added  to  the 
numbers  of  known  species  of  many  classes  of  animals,  but 
the  literature  was  very  scattered  and  to  many  students  quite 
inaccessible.  The  labor  devolved  upon  the  person  who 
would  identify  a  species  had  become  most  onerous,  and  even 
after  long  search  it  would  often  be  doubtful  whether  he  had 
exhausted  the  sources  of  information.  Thus,  on  the  one 
hand  the  Charybdis  of  imperfect  knowledge  and  slovenly 
work  threatened,  and  on  the  other  the  Scylla  of  forced  in- 
activity. The  time  had  come  when  the  scattered  informa- 
tion should  be  collected  and  an  abundant  literature  systemati- 
cally indexed.  The  Secretary  of  the  Institution  received  with 
favor  propositions  to  compile  guides  for  the  identification  of 
the  species  of  various  groups  of  animals. 

As  early  as  1851  Doctor  Charles  Girard  had  published  "A 
Monograph  of  the  Cottoids  "  as  the  first  and  only  published 
part  of  "  Contributions  to  the  Natural  History  of  the  Fresh- 
water Fishes  of  North  America."  This  was  so  well  done  that 
regret  must  be  entertained  that  it  was  not  followed  by  others 


Zoology  723 

in  like  style.  In  1853  Professor  Baird  and  Doctor  Girard 
published  a  descriptive  work  on  the  "Serpents"  of  the  coun- 
try as  the  first  part  of  a  "  Catalogue  of  North  American  Rep- 
tiles "  ;  but  this  also  was  the  last  as  well  as  the  first  of  its  kind. 
The  continuous  work  began  later,  and  the  publications,  under 
various  guises,  were  essentially  of  two  kinds  —  lists  of  spe- 
cies and  descriptive  monographs.  But  first  efforts  were  made 
to  obtain  the  requisite  material,  and  circular  letters  asking  for 
specimens,  and  often  accompanied  by  special  instructions  for 
collecting  were  sent  out  broadcast.  Entomologists  were  ap- 
pealed to  and  instructed  in  numerous  circulars  and  pam- 
phlets; the  earliest  of  which  were  published  in  the  annual 
Report  of  the   Institution   for    1858. 

These  were  followed  in  subsequent  years  by  many  others 
relating  to  insects,  mollusks,  fishes,  reptiles,  birds,  and  bird's 
eggs,  mammals,  and  skeletons. 

Intimate  relations  had  been  established  between  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution  and  officers  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Company, 
through  the  friendly  agency  of  Robert  Kennicott,  who  had 
been  for  some  time  a  sojourner  in  the  company's  territory, 
and  had  inspired  a  spirit  of  collecting  and  observation.  A 
special  "Circular  to  the  Officers  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Com- 
pany" was  therefore  published  in  i860,  indicating  desiderata 
and  contalnino-  instructions  for  collectinor  as  well  as  for  me- 
teorological  observations. 

In  1867,  when  the  United  States  acquired  from  Russia  the 
territory  subsequently  named  Alaska,  but  then  generally 
known  simply  as  Russian  America,  another  pamphlet  was 
prepared  for  an  expedition  sent  to  the  territory  by  the  Trea- 
sury Department.  This  pamphlet  was  entitled,  "Suggestions 
Relative  to  Objects  of  Scientific  Investigation  in  Russian 
America"  (1867),  and  covered  very  largely  the  same  field 
as  the  preceding  circular. 


724  The  Smithsoftian  Instittttion 

The  Institution  contributed  to  the  needs  of  its  correspon- 
dents and  collectors  in  another  way.  Under  the  title  of 
"Smithsonian  Museum  Miscellanea,"  in  1862,  it  published 
sheets  eivingf  the  abbreviated  names  of  states,  territories, 
etc.,  often  repeated,  and  intended  especially  for  insect-collec- 
tors, and  also  five  sets  of  numbers  of  different  sizes.  These 
were  frequently  called  for. 

Here,  perhaps,  is  also  the  most  apt  place  to  mention  a  work 
of  much  more  general  importance  than  any  of  the  publica- 
tions hitherto  mentioned,  but  which  belongs  to  the  category 
of  adjuncts  to  the  collector's  and  describer's  outfit.  The  work 
in  question  was  compiled  as  well  as  published  at  the  expense 
of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  and  was  entitled,  "  Nomen- 
clator  Zoologicus:  an  alphabetical  list  of  all  generic  names 
that  have  been  employed  by  naturalists  for  recent  and  fossil 
animals  from  the  earliest  times  to  the  close  of  the  year  1879." 
The  author  was  Doctor  Samuel  H.  Scudder,  and  the  com- 
pleted work  was  published  in  1882. 

It  is  a  rule  observed  by  almost  all  naturalists  not  know- 
ingly to  give  or  adopt  a  name,  already  used  for  one  genus,  to 
or  for  another.  But  the  difficulty  of  finding  out  whether  a 
given  name  had  already  been  used  would  be  very  great 
under  ordinary  circumstances,  and  the  task  of  doing  so  would 
entail  a  disproportionate  expenditure  of  time.  With  the  ad- 
vancing years  and  increasing  number  of  investigators  and 
describers,  the  uncertainty  and  labor  involved  would  be 
greatly  increased.  In  order  to  meet  the  demand  for  ready 
reference,  from  time  to  time  nomenclators  or  indexes  to  the 
genera  proposed  have  been  published.  The  first  important 
one  was  prepared  under  the  direction  of  Professor  Louis 
Agassiz,  over  half  a  century  ago  (1842-46),  and  another, 
by  Count  von  Marschall,  was  published  about  a  quarter  of  a 
century  later  (1873).     ^^^  useful  as  both  were,  another  was 


Zoology  725 

demanded.  The  names  had  increased  manyfold  since  Agas- 
siz's  work  appeared,  and  Von  Marschall's  work  was  not  only 
old,  but  much  time  had  to  be  wasted  on  account  of  its  divi- 
sion into  twenty-one  separate  lists.  The  work  of  Scudder,  in 
which  all  the  names  were  arranged  in  a  single  alphabetical 
list,  was  therefore  a  most  welcome  boon  to  naturalists.  In- 
stead of  the  twenty  thousand  (19,966)  names  of  Agassiz's 
time,  about  eighty  thousand  were  given  in  the  new  work, 
and  the  last  "  Nomenclator  Zoologicus "  became  an  indis- 
pensable adjunct  to  the  laboratory  of  every  systematic  zoolo- 
gist. Even  this  has  now  become  superannuated,  and  a  new 
edition,  or  rather  new  work,  is  already  being  prepared  under 
the  auspices  of  the  Institution,  and  may  be  expected  before 
the  close  of  the  century. 

The  earliest  of  the  bibliographical  aids  published  by  the  In- 
stitution was  by  Charles  Girard,  and  entitled,  "  Bibliographia 
Americana  Historico-Naturalis;  or.  Bibliography  of  Amer- 
ican Natural  History  for  the  year  1851  "  (1852). 

Other  aids  furnished  by  the  Institution  for  the  benefit  of 
investigators  are  the  bibliographies  published  from  time  to 
time.  Some  of  these  form  a  special  series  entitled  "  Bib- 
liographies of  American  Naturalists,"  and  five  have  been 
published,  namely : 

I.  "The  Published  Writings  of  Spencer  F.  Baird.  1843- 
1882"  (1883). 

II.  ''The  Published  Writings  of  Isaac  Lea"  (1885). 

III.  "Bibliography  of  Publications  relating  to  the  Collec- 
tion of  Fossil  Invertebrates  in  the  United  States  National 
Museum,  including  Complete  Lists  of  the  Writings  of  Field- 
ing B.  Meek,  Charles  A.  White,  and  Charles  D.  Walcott" 
(1885). 

IV.  "The  Published  WritinQs  of  Georore  Newbold  Law- 
rence "  (1891) ;  and 


726  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

V.  ''The  Published  Writings  of  Doctor  Charles  Girard  " 
(1891). 

Another  collateral  to  the  series  just  considered,  but  never- 
theless an  independent  volume,  relates  to  an  English  natural- 
ist long  very  active  in  the  study  of  American  birds.  It  is 
"The  Published  Writings  of  Philip  Ludey  Sclater,  1844- 
1896"  (1896). 

The  Institution  for  a  number  of  years  also  published  in  its 
annual  Reports,  and  again  as  separately  paged  pamphlets, 
records  of  the  progress  of  zoology  and  paleontology  during 
previous  years. 

The  reports  on  zoology,  seven  in  number,  were  by  Theo- 
dore Gill,  and  covered  the  years  1879  to  1886. 

The  reports  on  the  progress  of  paleontology  were  four  in 
number,  namely:  those  for  the  years  1884,  1885,  and  1886,  by 
John  B.  Marcou  ;  and  that  for  the  year  1887,  by  Henry  S. 
Williams. 

A  party  for  the  observation  of  the  transit  of  Venus  in. 1874 
was  sent  by  the  government  of  the  United  States  to  Kergue- 
len  Island,  and  Doctor  Jerome  H.  Kidder,  Assistant  Surgeon 
of  the  Navy,  served  as  naturalist.  He  published  "Contribu- 
tions to  the  Natural  History"  of  the  island  visited,  in  two 
parts  (1875  and  1876);  one  embracing  a  general  view  of  the 
animals  as  well  as  plants,  and  the  other  containing  an 
account  of  the   birds  by   Doctors   Coues  and   Kidder. 

Another  biological  memoir  by  a  naval  medical  officer  was 
the  result  of  Doctor  Thomas  H.  Street's  collections  and  ob- 
servations, and  was  published  in  the  form  of  a  bulletin  of  the 
National  Museum.^ 

"  Contributions  to  the  Natural  History  of  Arctic  America, 

^"  Contributions  to  the  Natural  History  of  tiic  United  States  North  Pacific  Surveying 
tiie  Hawaiian  and  Fanning  Islands  and  Expedition,  i873-'75,"  octavo,  172  pages, 
Lower  California,  made  in  connection  with       Washington  (1877).    ;_ 


Zoology  727 

made  in  connection  with  the  Howgate  Polar  Expedition  "  in 
1877-78  (1879),  were  by  Ludwig  Kumlein. 

A  contribution  to  zoogeography  was  a  memoir  "On  the 
Zoological  Position  of  Texas,"  by  Professor  Edward  D.  Cope, 
which  was  published  in  1880. 

The  visits  to  the  island  of  Bermuda,  whose  fishes  were 
catalogued  in  1876  by  Doctor  Goode,  further  fructified  in 
1884  in  "Contributions  to  the  Natural  History  of  the  Ber- 
mudas," edited  by  the  same  gentleman,  and  including  articles 
by  seven  other  contributors  on  the  various  classes  of  animals, 
as  well  as  in  botany  and  geology. 

The  Institution  took  an  active  part  in  various  exhibitions, 
and  prepared  catalogues  of  considerable  general  value  as 
guides  for  forming  as  well  as  for  viewing  the  collections. 
The  most  important  of  these,  all  of  which  were  prepared  by 
Doctor  G.  Brown  Goode  are  :  "  Classification  of  the  Collec- 
tion to  Illustrate  the  Animal  Resources  of  the  United  States. 
A  List  of  Substances  derived  from  the  Animal  Kingdom, 
with  Synopsis  of  the  Useful  and  Injurious  Animals,  and  a 
Classification  of  Methods  of  Capture  and  Utilization  "  (1876)  ; 
"  Catalosfue  of  the  Collections  to  Illustrate  the  Animal  Re- 
sources  and  the  Fisheries  of  the  United  States,  exhibited 
at  Philadelphia,  in  1876,  by  the  Smithsonian  Institution  and 
the  United  States  Fish  Commission,  and  forming  a  part  of 
the  United  States  National  Museum"  (1879);  "Exhibition 
of  the  Fisheries  and  Fish  Culture  of  the  United  States  of 
America  at  the  Internationale  Fischerei-Ausstellung  held  at 
Berlin,  April  20,  1880,  and  forming  a  part  of  the  Collections 
of  the  National  Museum,  made  by  the  United  States  Fish 
Commission"  (1880);  and  "Descriptive  Catalogues  of  the 
Collections  sent  from  the  United  States  to  the  International 
Fisheries  Exhibition,  London,  1883,  constituting  a  Report 
upon  the  American  Section"  (1884). 


728  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

In  1878  the  United  States  National  Museum  began  the 
pubHcation  of  its  "  Proceedings,"  and  in  the  annual  volumes 
of  that  series  numerous  articles  were  published  describing 
new  species,  and  often  containing  important  discussions  of 
the  affinities  and  relationship,  and  sometimes  synoptical 
monographs  of  various  groups. 

Although  published  under  the  general  direction  of  the 
Smithsonian  Institution,  the  record  of  these  belongs  rather  to 
the  history  of  the  National  Museum  than  to  that  of  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution,  and  therefore  no  further  reference  need  be 
made  to  them  in  this  connection. 


INVERTEBRATES 

The  marine  invertebrates,  with  the  exception  of  the  mol- 
lusks,  had  been  much  neglected  by  American  naturalists,  the 
only  authority  who  had  contributed  much  respecting  any  of 
them  during  the  first  half-century  having  been  Thomas  Say. 
In  1853  a  "Synopsis  of  the  Marine  Invertebrates  of  Grand 
Manan,  or  the  Region  about  the  Mouth  of  the  Bay  of  Fundy, 
New  Brunswick,"  was  published  in  the  sixth  volume  of  the 
"  Smithsonian  Contributions  to  Knowledge."  This  memoir 
has  become  a  classic,  and  has  made  the  locality  whose  fauna 
is  recorded  in  it  famous  as  a  collecting-ground.  It  was  the 
first  complete  view  of  the  invertebrate  animals  of  any 
American  territory  that  had  been  published  in  the  United 
States,  and  many  now  well-known  species  were  for  the  first 
time  recorded  in  it. 

"A  Fauna  and  Flora  within  Living  Animals"  is  the  title 
of  one  of  the  "Smithsonian  Contributions"  (published  in  the 
fifth  volume)  embodying  the  results  of  observations  by  Doc- 
tor Joseph  Leidy  of  the  Jnlus  marginatus  (the  Spiroboliis 
7narginatus  of  recent  naturalists)  and  the  Passalus  cornutus. 


Zoology  729 

The  former  is  a  common  myriapod  or  milleped ;  the  latter  a 
large  coleopterous  insect  or  beetle  found  abundantly  in  decay- 
ing wood,  and  whose  fat  white  grub  is  often  met  with.  In  the 
milleped  no  less  than  seven  species  of  lowly  entozoans,  and 
in  the  beetle  two,  were  found,  described,  and  figured.  In  the 
cockroach  six  species  had  been  found,  of  which  two  were  for 
the  first  time  made  known.  Several  other  new  species  of 
entozoans  from  other  insects  were  also  described, 

COELENTERATES 

The  only  memoir  on  any  Coelenterata  published  by  the 
Institution  outside  of  the  "  Proceedings  of  the  National  Mu- 
seum "  was  one  on  the  "  Lucernariai  and  their  allies,"  by 
Henry  James  Clark,  and  was  in  the  twenty-third  volume  of 
the   "Smithsonian  Contributions  to  Knowledore." 

CRUSTACEANS 

The  Crustacea  have  received  especial  attention  from  the 
Smithsonian  Institution,  and  are  well  represented  in  the 
United  States  National  Museum  ;  much  has  also  been  pub- 
lished by  the  officers  in  charge  of  the  collection  in  the  "  Pro- 
ceedings of  the  United  States  National  Museum."  But  with 
the  exception  of  the  two  unimportant  articles  giving  instruc- 
tions for  cooperation  and  asking  for  information  respecting 
crawfish,  no  independent  publication  on  the  class  has  been 
issued  by  the  Institution. 

INSECTS 

The  insects  have  been  treated  of  in  a  number  of  volumes, 
in  which  various  orders  or  other  groups  were  systematically 
dealt  with. 

47 


730  The  Sjmfhsoman  Institntiori 

The  first  publication  was  one  of  the  "Smithsonian  Con- 
tributions to  Knowledge,"  and  appeared  in  1850.  It  was  on 
"The  Classification  of  Insects  from  Embryological  Data,"  by 
Louis  Agassiz. 

The  Coleoptera  were  generally  studied  in  the  early  days 
of  the  Institution,  as  they  still  are.  A  "  Catalogue  of  the 
described  Coleoptera  of  the  United  States"  (1853),  by  F.  E. 
Melsheimer,  led  the  way.  Long  afterward  it  was  succeeded 
by  instalments  of  a  "  Classification  of  the  Coleoptera  of 
North  America,"  by  Doctor  John  L.  Le  Conte  (Part  i,  1862  ; 
part  2,  1873),  and  a  "  List  of  the  Coleoptera  of  North  Amer- 
ica" (1866),  by  the  same  naturalist.  It  was  not  until  1883 
that  Doctor  Le  Conte,  with  the  cooperation  of  Doctor  G.  H. 
Horn,  completed  the  "  Classification  of  the  Coleoptera  of 
North  America." 

"New  Species  of  North  American  Coleoptera"  were  also 
described  by  Le  Conte  in  two  instalments,  the  first  of  which 
was  published  in  1863,  and  the  second  in  1873. 

A  "Contribution  to  Knowledge"  of  the  faunal  regions  and 
geographical  distribution  was  published  by  Le  Conte  under 
the  title  of  "The  Coleoptera  of  Kansas  and  Eastern  New 
Mexico"  (1859). 

The  Lepidoptera  form  another  order  which  received  spe- 
cial attention  from  the  Smithsonian  Institution. 

A  "  Catalogue  of  the  described  Lepidoptera  of  North 
America"  (i860)  was  not  long  afterward  followed  by  a 
"Synopsis  of  the  described  Lepidoptera  of  North  America" 
(1862);  both  of  these  were  compiled  by  the  Reverend  Doc- 
tor John  Morris.  The  first  part  of  the  Synopsis,  including 
the  diurnal  and  crepuscular  Lepidoptera,  was  the  only  one 
published. 

The  labors  of  the  student  who  would  seek  to  know  what 
has  been  published  respecting  the  early  stages  of  Lepidop- 


Zoology  J  2)  I 

tera  have  been  much  lightened  by  a  "  BibHographical  Cata- 
logue of  the  described  Transformations  of  North  American 
Lepidoptera,"  by   Henry   E.   Edwards  (1889). 

An  important  subdivision  of  nocturnal  Lepidoptera  has 
been  considered  in  two  publications  by  Professor  John  B. 
Smith.  One  is  a  "  Contribution  toward  a  Monograph  of  the 
Insects  of  the  Lepidopterous  Family  Noctuidae  of  Temperate 
North  America,"  in  the  form  of  a  "  Revision  of  the  Species 
of  the  Genus  Agrotis  "  (1890);  the  other  is  "A  Catalogue, 
Bibliographical  and  Synoptical,  of  the  Species  of  Moths  of  the 
Lepidopterous  Superfamily  Noctuidae  found  in  Boreal  Amer- 
ica, with  Critical  Notes"  (1893).  Both  of  these  were  pub- 
lished as  bulletins  of  the  National   Museum. 

The  Neuroptera  were  enumerated  in  a  "  Synopsis  of  the 
Neuroptera  of  North  America,"  by  Doctor  Hermann  Hagen, 
published  in  1861. 

The  Orthoptera  were  also  listed,  Doctor  Samuel  H.  Scud- 
der  having  prepared  a  "  Catalogue  of  the  Orthoptera  of 
North  America  described  previous  to  1867,"  which  was  pub- 
lished in  1868. 

As  early  as  i860  a  special  "Circular  in  Reterence  to  the 
History  of  North  America  Grasshoppers"  was  sent  to  many 
correspondents  of  the  Institution  ;  but  the  specimens  and  in- 
formation obtained  in  response  were  not  directly  utilized  for 
a  special  work  on  that  group. 

The  Hymenoptera  of  the  family  Vespidai  were  partly 
monographed  by  Henri  de  Saussure  of  Geneva,  Switzer- 
land, in  a  "  Synopsis  of  American  Wasps  "  ;  but  only  the  por- 
tion treating  of  the  tribes  Masarinae  (Parasitic  Wasps)  and 
Odynerinae  (Solitary  Wasps)  was  published  (1875).  An- 
other important  hymenopterous  family  was  described  in  "  A 
Monograph  of  the  North  American  Proctotrypida^  "  (1893), 
by  William  H.  Ashmead. 


732  The  Smithsonian  Institntion 

The  Diptera  also  early  received  attention.  A  provi- 
sional "  Catalogue  of  the  described  Diptera  of  North  Amer- 
ica," by  Baron  Robert  Osten-Sacken  (1858),  was  replaced 
twenty  years  later  (1878)  by  an  enlarged  and  critical  cata- 
logue bearing  the  same  title. 

A  series  of  "  Monographs  of  the  Diptera  of  North  Amer- 
ica "  was  next  provided  for,  and  edited  by  Baron  Osten- 
Sacken.  Four  of  these  were  published,  of  which  the  first, 
second,  and  third  were  by  Doctor  H.  Loew  of  Meseritz, 
Prussia,  and  the  fourth  by  Baron  Osten-Sacken.  The  first 
(1862)  gives  a  sketch  of  the  systematic  arrangement  of  the 
Diptera,  and  monographs  of  the  North  American  Trypetidae, 
Sciomyxidae,  Ephydrinidae,  and  Cecidomyidae  (the  last  by  the 
editor);  the  second  (1864)  is  confined  to  the  family  Doli- 
chopodidae;  the  third  (1873)  treats  of  the  family  Ortalidae ; 
and  the  fourth  (1869),  of  the  North  American  Tipulidae. 
Long  afterward,  in  1886,  a  monograph  or  "Synopsis  of 
the  North  American  Syrphidae,"  also  an  important  family,  by 
Professor  Samuel  W.  Williston,  was  published  as  a  bulletin 
of  the  United  States  National  Museum. 

Another  series  of  lists  of  species,  with  references  to  one  or 
more  of  the  descriptions  of  each  of  the  species,  was  also  pub- 
lished. Several  orders  of  insects  were  thus  catalogued,  the 
Diptera  by  Baron  R.  Osten-Sacken  (1858  and  1878),  the 
Lepidoptera  by  Doctor  John  G.  Morris  (i860),  and  the  Or- 
thoptera  by  Doctor  Samuel  H.  Scudder  (1868). 

MYRIAPODS 

The  so-called  Myriapoda  form  a  heterogeneous  though  gen- 
erally recognized  group  which  has  been  much  neglected  till 
recent  years.  A  young  student,  Charles  H.  Bollman,  who 
had   been   trained   under  the   auspices  of  Doctor   David   S. 


Zoology  733 

Jordan,  undertook  the  study  of  the  species,  and  displayed 
marked  zeal  and  ability,  publishing-  a  number  of  papers  before 
his  early  death  in  his  twenty-first  year.  These  papers  were 
combined  in  a  bulletin  of  the  United  States  National  Mu- 
seum, entitled  "  The  Myriapoda  of  North  America,  by  Charles 
Harvey  Bollman,  edited  by  Lucien  M.  Underwood"  (1893). 
They  have  had  much  influence  on  the  present  trend  of  method 
and  treatment  of  the  group  in  question. 

MOLLUSKS 

Enumerations  with  mere  names  of  species  of  several  classes 
were  early  published;  such  were  the  "Check-lists  of 
the  Shells  of  North  America,"  by  Isaac  Lea,  Philip  P. 
Carpenter,  William  Stimpson,  William  G.  Binney,  and  Tem- 
ple Prime.  These  lists  were  sometimes  of  families,  as  the 
"  Unionidai,"  by  Lea,  and  the  "  Cyclades,"  by  Prime ;  some- 
times of  a  class,  or  a  large  part  of  a  class,  as  the  "Terrestrial 
Gasteropoda"  and  the  "  Fluviatile  Gasteropoda,"  both  by 
Binney ;  and  sometimes  of  faunal  regions,  as  the  "  West 
coast"  (separated  into  the  "Oregonian  and  Californian  prov- 
ince" and  the  "Mexican  and  Panamic  province"),  by  Car- 
penter, and  the  "  East  coast,"  by  Stimpson. 

Various  groups  of  shells  were  described  and  illustrated  in 
different  ways  under  the  general  title,  "Land  and  Fresh- 
water Shells  of  North  America,"  of  which  four  parts  were 
issued  between  1865  and  1875. 

"Part  I,"  including  the  land  shells,  or  "Pulmonata  geo- 
phila,"  was  the  result  of  a  joint  authorship  by  W.  G.  Binney 
and  T.  Bland,  and  was  not  published  till  1869.  At  a  much 
later  period  what  may  be  considered  as  a  new  edition  of  the 
work  on  land  shells  was  published,  and  quite  properly  ap- 
peared under  a  new  title,  as  will  be  hereafter  seen.      "  Part 

47* 


734  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

II,"  including  fresh-water  and  marine  Pulmonata,  or  "  Pul- 
monata  Limnophila  and  Thalassophila,"  as  well  as  "Part 
III,"  embracing  the  Pectinibranchiate  and  Rhipidoglossate 
gastropods  ("  Ampullariidae,  Valvatidse,  Viviparidae,  fresh- 
water Rissoidee,  Cyclophoridse,  Truncatellidse,  fresh-water 
Neritidae,  Helicinidae"),  appeared  as  early  as  1865  ;  and  both 
were  prepared  by  William  Binney  alone.  It  may  be  added 
that  proof-sheets  of  both  those  parts  were  quite  widely  sent 
out  in  book  form  to  specialists ;  and  the  investigations  and 
criticisms  to  which  they  were  subjected  entailed  works  differ- 
ing very  widely  in  their  final  form  from  the  proof  examples 
circulated,  and  thus  rendered  evident  the  wisdom  of  the 
course  of  seeking  further  information  before  final  publication. 
"Part  IV"  was  devoted  to  the  "  Strepomatidse  (American 
Melanians),"  and  was  not  published  till  1875.  Its  author  was 
George  W.  Tryon. 

In  the  four  parts  of  the  "  Land  and  Fresh-water  Shells  of 
North  America  "  thus  published,  all  the  species  found  in  the 
United  States  and  the  Dominion  of  Canada  were  described 
and  illustrated.  The  Gastropoda  were  the  only  forms  in- 
cluded, and  these  were  for  the  first  time  embraced  in  a  con- 
tinuous series. 

The  species  of  the  class  known  at  the  time  of  publication  of 
the  several  volumes  were  apportioned  to  various  groups.  Part 
I  included  the  pulmonate  land  shells;  part  II  the  pulmonate 
aquatic  shells;  and  parts  III  and  IV  the  gilled  aquatic  and  land 
shells. 


Part  I. 

Pulmonata  Geophila    .    .    . 

286 

Part  II. 

"        (    Limnophila    .    . 
"       <    Thalassophila    . 

.       127 
4 

Part  III. 

"        (  (Siphonariidae)    . 
C  Pectinibranchiata      .... 
(  Rhipidoglossata 

57 

131 

II 

68 

Part  IV. 

Pleuroceridae 

444 

Zoology  735 

The  census  thus  taken  revealed  no  less  than  eight  hundred 
and  twenty-nine  nominal  species  of  gastropods  inhabiting  the 
United  States.  The  aggregate  of  the  species  known  at  the 
present  day  is  not  very  much  greater,  and  the  figure  is  too 
large  for  at  least  one  family  —  that  of  the  "  Pleuroceridae,"  or 
American  Melanians. 

The  bivalves  could  not  be  treated  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  gastropods.  There  are  only  three  families  represented 
in  the  United  States,  but  one  of  them  —  the  Unionida; — is 
an  immense  assemblage  of  species,  and  no  one  could  be  found 
willing  to  undertake  the  task  of  monographing  them.  The 
other  families  —  Cyrenidae  and  Pisidiidaj  —  were  then  uni- 
versally combined  in  one,  and  in  1865  were  treated  by 
Temple  Prime  in  a  "  Monograph  of  the  American  Corbicu- 
ladae  (recent  and  fossil)."  In  this  monograph  one  hundred 
and  eleven  species  were  recognized,  of  which  ninety-three 
belong  to  the  family  Cyrenidae  and  eighteen  to  the  family 
Pisidiidas.  In  these  numbers,  however,  are  embraced  not 
only  the  recent  species  of  temperate  and  cold  North  America, 
but  also  those  of  the  warm  regions  and  South  America,  as 
well  as  the  extinct  species.  Reduced  within  the  limits  cov- 
ered by  the  other  monographs,  the  numbers  were  as  follows  : 

Cyrenidae 32  Pisidiidae 12 

A  small  monograph,  evoked  by  the  differences  of  opinion 
respecting  questions  considered  in  the  "proof"  of  the  third 
part  of  the  "  Land  and  Fresh-water  Shells  of  North  Amer- 
ica," was  published  meanwhile  (in  1865)  by  Doctor  William 
Stimpson,  and  embraced  the  results  of  anatomical  studies, 
especially  of  the  lingual  ribbon,  of  the  Hydrobiids. 

In  1885  Mr.  Binney  resumed  a  consideration  of  the  ter- 
restrial Pulmonates  in  "  A  Manual  of  the  American  Land 
Shells."     This  is  the  volume  already  alluded  to  in  connection 


72>^^  T/ie  Smithsonia7i  Institution 

with  "Part  I"  of  the  "American  Land  and  Fresh-water 
Shells."  Most  of  the  descriptions,  synonymy,  and  illustra- 
tions of  that  volume  are  reproduced  in  the  "Manual,"  but  the 
classification  is  modified,  and  instead  of  the  matter  being  in 
a  continuous  systematic  sequence,  it  is  broken  up  and  ar- 
ranged under  seven  geographical  categories  —  species  ''a. 
Universally  distributed,"  "  ^.  Pacific  province,"  "  r.  Central 
province,"  "</."  "^."  and  "yC"  "Eastern  province,"  "Northern 
region,"  "Interior  region,"  and  "Southern  region,"  and  ''g. 
"  Locally  introduced." 

In  addition  to  the  foundation  for  future  studies  laid  in  the 
several  monographs  here  described,  further  aid  to  biblio- 
graphical studies  was  given  by  the  publication  in  1863  and 
1864  of  a  "Bibliography  of  North  American  Conchology." 
The  extent  of  this  work  may  be  judged  by  the  fact  that  the 
two  parts  cover  nearly  one  thousand  pages. 

The  other  articles  and  memoirs  of  various  kinds  based 
more  or  less  on  the  material  collected  by  the  Institution  are 
numerous,  but  have  appeared  in  other  publications. 


FISHES 

As  EARLY  as  1 85 1  "Contributions  to  the  Natural  History  of 
the  Fresh-water  Fishes  of  North  America"  were  initiated  by 
Doctor  Charles  Girard  in  "A  Monograph  of  the  Cottoids." 
This  monograph  was  an  excellent  article,  and  the  entire 
anatomy  was  described  and  illustrated  in  detail.  Unfortu- 
nately, "Part  I"  was  also  the  last  of  the  "Contributions," 
and  no  other  separate  publication  on  fishes  appeared  for 
many  years.  "  A  Report  on  the  Fishes  of  the  New  Jersey 
coast,  as  observed  in  the  summer  of  1854,  at  Beesley's  Point," 
by  Professor  S.  F.  Baird,  was  indeed  published  in  the  ninth 
annual  Report  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  and  also  issued 


i 


LOFTS   AGASSIZ. 

REGENT  OF  THE  SMITHSOXIAX  INSTITUTION, 

1863-1873. 


^ciLi    L^.iiui   iiijLi    J  icsh-water 
Lions,   synonymy,   and  illus 
ie  are  :ed  in  the  "Manual,"  but 

odified,  and  instead  of  the  matter  being  in 
seauence,   it  is  broken   up  and  ar- 
-^^   categories  —  species   "a. 
disini  province,"   "  c.   Cer' 

^/."  "  ':  1  province,"  "  N< 

and  "Southern  region,"  ai 

LM^.,  Ibundciu,       '"■"'-  r,,fi,,-,.  -♦-ndies  laid  e 

re  d<:  cr    ai'  oiDiio- 

given  by  th'  Ucation  in   1863  and 

of  North  /  Concholoo-y." 

:-d  hv  thp 


tions  to  the  Natural  His 
merica  "  were  initio 

norrrnnli  of  the  Col,. 


1..; 


en  I 


iUribi 
,   appeared    for 

Rnnort   ■  hr^  of  the   Nrw  Tprqev 

'    '  publi  '      '   in   th>       '     h 

,XTH8!Att)]/i!ahIIWrkIii''  1  also  issued 

,KOITUTIT8PII  ZAITlOBHTIMci  SHT  'iO  T'Ha+^ITFT 

.8THr  -p.dHi 


w 


Zoology  yzi 

separately,  with  an  independent  title-page  and  index,  but 
did  not  receive  a  serial  number  till  many  years  later.  Mean- 
while "Memoranda  of  Inquiry"  and  "Questions  relative  to 
the  Food  Fishes  of  the  United  States"  were  circulated  to  pro- 
cure information.  Fo  serve  as  a  basis  for  future  work,  an 
"Arrangement  of  the  Families  of  Fishes,"  a  "Catalogue  of 
the  Fishes  of  the  East  Coast  of  North  America,"  and  a  "  Bib- 
liography of  the  Fishes  of  the  Pacific  Coast  of  the  United 
States  "  were  prepared  by  Theodore  Gill. 

To  the  same  or  a  like  category  belong  a  "  Classification 
of  the  Collection  to  Illustrate  the  Animal  Resources  of  the 
United  States"  (1876),  and  "Descriptive  Catalogues  of  the 
Collections  sent  from  the  United  States  to  the  International 
Fisheries  Exhibition,   London,    1883,   by  Doctor  Goode." 

With  the  field  thus  surveyed  and  mapped,  articles  soon 
appeared  describing  various  groups  or  faunas. 

The  first  published  was  a  "  Catalogue  of  the  Fishes  of  the 
Bermudas"  (1876),  by  Goode,  in  which  the  nomenclature  was 
well  considered  and  many  useful  data  were  given. 

Next  appeared  several  parts  of  "  Contributions  to  North 
American  Ichthyology,  based  primarily  on  the  Collections  of 
the  United  States  National  Museum,"  by  Doctor  David  S. 
Jordan,  in  which  various  families  of  fresh-water  fishes  were 
elucidated  and  collateral  questions  inquired  into.  As  a  re- 
sult of  all  previous  studies,  a  "Synopsis  of  the  Fishes  of 
North  America"  was  given  by  Doctors  David  S.  Jordan 
and  Charles  H.  Gilbert,  brincrino-  the  information  orathered 
through  many  years  and  scattered  in  numerous  volumes 
well  up  to  date.  Quite  full  descriptions  of  the  species 
as  well  as  including  groups  were  given:  1340  species 
were  recognized  and  distributed  under  487  genera,  130 
families,  23  orders,  and  4  classes.  The  contrast  between 
this  work   and  one  bearing  the  same   title  h\  Doctor  D,  H. 


738  The  Sjmthsonian  iHstitittion 

Storer,  published  in  1846,  was  a  notable  one,  and  a  compari- 
son between  the  two  will  give  some  idea  of  the  progress  of 
the  science  between  the  two  periods.  A  new  edition  of  this 
"Synopsis,"  or  rather  a  new  work  bearing  the  title,  "The 
Fishes  of  North  and  Middle  America,"  by  Doctor  Jordan 
and  Doctor  B.  W.  Evermann,  appeared  later,  the  first  vol- 
ume having  been  published  in  1896.  With  the  increase  of 
region  covered,  a  great  increase  of  species  is  naturally  in- 
volved. The  last  work  covers  essentially  the  same  ground 
as  Storer's  "Synopsis"  of  1846,  both  including  the  fishes 
of  the  continent  down  to  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  as  well  as 
those  of  the  West  Indian  Islands. 

The  work  of  1846  embraced  notices  of  729  nominal  species, 
representing   218  genera  and  35  families.  The  work  of 

1896,  as  appears  from  the  authors'  "  check-Hst,"  will  embrace, 
when  completed,  descriptions  of  more  than  3100  species,  rep- 
resenting 1053  genera  and  228  families.  Even  more  notable 
than  the  numerical  acquisitions  are  the  mode  of  treatment 
and  the  aptness  of  diagnoses. 

Last  in  time,  but  in  some  respects  the  most  important  of 
the  ichthyological  contributions,  was  a  work  published  as  a 
special  bulletin  of  the  United  States  National  Museum.  It 
is  also  noteworthy  as  the  last  complete  work  emanating  from 
Doctor  George  Brown  Goode,  and  appeared  within  a  month 
of  his  death.  Doctor  Tarleton  H.  Bean  was  his  collaborator 
in  this  as  in  many  previous  memoirs.  The  new  work  was  on 
"  Oceanic  Ichthyology,  a  treatise  on  the  deep-sea  and  pelagic 
fishes  of  the  world,  based  chiefly  upon  the  collections  made 
by  the  steamers  Blake,  Alhairvss,  and  Fish  Hawk  in  the 
northwestern  Atlantic,  with  an  Atlas  containing  417  fig- 
ures." As  a  summary  of  knowledge  respecting  the  forms 
under  consideration,  the  work  is  an  epochal  one,  and  the 
numerous   species  contrast  remarkably  with  the  few  known 


Zoology  739 

not  long-er  ago  than  two  decades.  "Only  twenty  years  ago," 
the  authors  write,  "the  fish  fauna  of  the  deep  sea  was  repre- 
sented in  collections  by  forty  or  fifty  specimens,  representing 
not  more  than  twenty  species  at  the  most  —  accidental  waifs 
picked  up  at  the  surface  or  cast  ashore  by  the  waves." 

A  work  whose  place  is  rather  in  archa;;ology  than  ichthy- 
ology may  be  referred  to  because  of  its  interest  to  ichthyolo- 
gists. It  is  on  "  Prehistoric  Fishing  in  Europe  and  North 
America"  (1884),  by  Charles  Rau,  and  was  published  as  one 
of  the  "Smithsonian  Contributions  to  Knowledge." 


AMPHIBIANS 

As  EARLY  as  1853,  ^  monograph  on  the  "Anatomy  of  the 
Nervous  System "  of  the  common  bullfrog  of  the  United 
States,  called,  in  conformity  with  the  accepted  nomenclature 
of  the  day,  Rana  pipiens,  but  now  known  as  Rana  cates- 
biana,  was  supplied  by  Doctor  Jeffries  Wyman  to  the  "Smith- 
sonian Contributions  to  Knowledge."  It  was  a  creditable 
and  well  illustrated  memoir. 

In  1875,  Professor  Edward  D.  Cope  enumerated  the  re- 
cent species  of  amphibians  in  his  "  Check-list  of  North 
American  Batrachia  and  Reptilia."  In  1883,  another  "  Check- 
list of  North  American  Reptilia  and  Batrachia  "  was  prepared 
by  Doctor  Henry  C.  Yarrow. 

Finally,  all  the  materials  in  the  National  Museum,  as  well 
as  the  literature,  were  considered  and  discussed  in  a  descrip- 
tive and  thoroughly  illustrated  volume  entitled  "The  Batra- 
chia of  North  America,"  by  Professor  Cope.  In  the  "letter 
of  transmittal  "  it  is  stated  that  descriptions  are  given  of  fifty - 
three  Urodela  and  forty-seven  Salientia,  thus  aggregating 
just  one  hundred  species. 

Some  remarkable  specie?  have  been  added  to  the  North 


740  The  Sinithsoniau  Institution 

American  fauna  since  the  publication  of  Professor  Cope's 
monograph.  The  most  notable  are  two  blind  forms  de- 
scribed by  Doctor  Leonhard  Stejneger,  one  in  1892,  a  cave 
salamander  ( TypJilotriton  spelceus)  of  the  family  Desmog- 
nathidae,  and  the  other  in  1896,  a  tenant  of  subterranean 
waters,  and  related  to  the  Proteidse  (Typhlomolge). 


REPTILES 

The  earliest  contributions  to  herpetology  published  by  the 
Smithsonian  Institution  were  also  contributions  to  paleon- 
tology. The  first  was  a  "  Memoir  on  Mosasaurus,  and  three 
Allied  New  Genera,"  by  Doctor  Robert  W.  Gibbes,  and  ap- 
peared in  1850.  A  second  by  Doctor  Joseph  Leidy,  includ- 
ing the  tortoises  from  the  *'  Mauvaises  Terres,"  of  Nebraska, 
was  published  in  1853.  A  third  was  a  monograph  of  the 
"Cretaceous  Reptiles  of  the  United  States"  (1865),  and  was 
also  from  the  pen  of  Leidy. 

In  the  year  1853,  ^'""^  ^^'st  part  of  a  "Catalogue  of  North 
American  Reptiles  in  the  Museum  of  the  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tution," by  Spencer  F.  Baird  and  Charles  Girard,  was  pub- 
lished, and  embraced  diagnoses  and  detailed  descriptions  of 
all  the  "Serpents"  found  in  America  north  of  Mexico,  New 
principles  of  classification  were  introduced  in  this  work,  and 
on  the  whole  the  species  were  more  naturally  grouped  than 
in  any  previously  published  work  and  many  unknown  species 
were  added  to  the  fauna.  Indeed,  the  chief  fault  charged 
upon  the  work  was  an  undue  multiplication  of  species,  but 
although  amenable  to  the  criticism,  the  fault  has  been  exag- 
gerated and  the  authors  have  been  found  to  be  often  more 
nearly  fight  than  their  early  critics.  Check-lists  of  all  the 
reptiles  were  published  later.  One  by  Cope  appeared  in 
1875  and  another  by  Yarrow  in  1883. 


Zoology  74 1 

The  numerous  memoirs  on  various  species  and  groups  of 
reptiles,  for  which  the  museum  of  the  Institution  furnished 
the  material  in  whole  or  part,  were  published  chiefly  in  the 
"  Proceedings  of  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences  of  Phila- 
delphia," and  the  "  Proceedings  of  the  United  States  Na- 
tional Museum."  The  other  separate  publications,  involving 
the  reptiles,  were  on  their  anatomy  and  physiology :  one  by 
Doctor  S.  Weir  Mitchell  made  known  "  Researches  upon  the 
Venom  of  the  Rattlesnake"  (i860);  another,  by  Doctors 
Mitchell  and  Georo-e  R.  Morehouse,  described  "  Researches 
upon  the  Anatomy  and  Physiology  of  Respiration  in  the 
Chelonia "  (1863).  A  quarter-century  after  the  publication 
of  the  researches  on  the  rattlesnake,  the  senior  author 
(Doctor  Mitchell),  seconded  by  another  (Doctor  Edward  T. 
Reichert),  published  the  results  of  later  "  Researches  upon 
the  Venom  of  Poisonous  Serpents"  generally  (1886). 

BIRDS 

The  earliest  of  the  "Contributions  to  Knowledge"  relatincr 
to  ornithology  was  the  beginning  of  a  "  North  American 
Oology,"  by  Doctor  Thomas  M.  Brewer.  A  "first  part," 
descriptive  of  the  "  Raptores  and  Pissirostres,  '  was  pub- 
lished in  1857,  but  was  never  succeeded  by  another.  In  1895 
this  field  was  covered  by  a  new  work  entitled  "  Life  His- 
tories of  North  American  Birds,"  illustrated  by  many  plates, 
in  which  the  eggs  are  delineated.  The  new  work  was  by 
Major  Charles  Bendire,  and  was  extended  to  two  volumes, 
but  this  must  also  remain  unfinished  on  account  of  the  death 
of  the  author.  The  work  of  Bendire  is  noteworthy  as  open- 
ing a  new  series  in  quarto  form,  published  under  the  auspices 
of  the  Institution  and  designated  "Special  Bulletin,"  the  vol- 
umes in  question  being  the  first  and  third  "Special  Bulletins." 


742  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

The  several  catalogues  of  North  American  birds  issued 
by  the  Institution  —  and  especially  the  octavo  edition  of 
1859  —  were  long  in  great  demand  among  bird  and  ^^'g  col- 
lectors for  cataloguing  purposes.  In  1881,  however,  they 
were  replaced  by  a  new  catalogue  by  Robert  Ridgway,  en- 
titled "  Nomenclature  of  North  American  Birds,"  and  this  in 
turn  served  the  purpose  of  most  collectors  until  it  was  sup- 
planted by  the  "check-list"  published  by  the  American 
Ornithologist  Union  in    1886. 

Professor  Baird  did  not  abandon  his  ornithological  studies 
after  the  publication  of  his  great  work  on  North  American 
Birds,  but  extended  them  to  the  species  of  Middle  and  South 
America,  and  went  over  the  ground  he  had  already  so  well 
surveyed.  In  1863  the  Institution  issued  a  circular  relative 
to  collections  of  birds  from  Middle  and  South  America,  and  a 
"  List  of  the  Described  Birds  of  Mexico,  Central  America, 
and  the  West  Indies,  not  in  the  Collection  of  the  Smithsonian 
Institution,"  and  solicited  desiderata.  With  the  new  material 
thus  obtained,  Baird  began  in  1864  the  publication  of  "  Part 
I  "  of  a  "  Review  of  American  Birds  in  the  Museum  of  the 
Smithsonian  Institution,"  includinsf  those  of  North  and 
Middle  America,  and  continued  the  issue  in  instalments  till 
1866,  when  increasing  duties  compelled  him  to  abandon  it 
after  having  covered  a  number  (fourteen  of  the  system 
adopted)  of  the  families  of  Oscines. 

In  1866  a  separate  issue  of  an  "Outline  of  a  Systematic 
Review  of  the  Class  of  Birds,"  by  W.  Lilljeborg,  and  an  "Ar- 
rangement of  Families  of  Birds,"  containing  only  the  names 
of  those  divisions  and  including  groups,  by  Spencer  F.  Baird, 
were  issued. 

These  general  works  on  American  ornithology  were  sup- 
plemented by  a  number  of  special  memoirs  on  various 
avifaunas    as    follows :       One   such  was    a  cataloeue  of  the 


Zoology  743 

"  Birds  of  Southwestern  Mexico,  collected  by  Francis  E. 
Sumichrast,"  was  prepared  by  George  N.  Lawrence  in  1875, 
and  an  Avifauna  Columbiana,  being  a  list  of  birds  ascer- 
tained to  inhabit  the  District  of  Columbia,  by  Elliott  Coues 
and  D.  Webster  Prentiss,  was  published  in  1883.  Another 
was  a  catalogue  of  "The  Birds  of  Bermuda,"  by  Saville  G. 
Reid  in  1884,  and  "Results  of  Ornithological  Explorations 
in  the  Commander  Islands  and  Kamtschatka,"  by  Leonhard 
Stejneger,  appeared  in  1885. 

Among  the  "Contributions  to  Knowledge"  is  a  "Classifi- 
cation and  Synopsis  of  the  Trochilidai,"  by  Daniel  G.  Elliott, 
which  was  issued  in  1879,  ^^^  ^^  ^'^^  same  time  also  appeared 
an  independent  "  List  of  Described  Species  of  Humming 
Birds,"  by  the  same  author. 

MAMMALS 

The  earliest  memoirs  on  the  mammals  published  by  the 
Smithsonian  Institution  related  to  fossil  forms,  and  were  is- 
sued as  "Contributions  to  Knowledge."  Three  such  contri- 
butions were  furnished  by  Doctor  Joseph  Leidy.  The  first 
was  a  "  Memoir  on  the  Extinct  Species  of  the  American  Ox  " 
(1852);  the  second  was  included  in  "The  Ancient  Fauna  of 
Nebraska"  (1853);  and  the  third  was  "A  Memoir  on  the  Ex- 
tinct Sloth  Tribe  of  North  America"  (1855).  These  were  all 
well  illustrated. 

A  "  Catalogue  of  North  American  Mammals,"  by  Spencer 
F.  Baird,  published  in  1857,  is  merely  an  edition  of  the  table 
of  contents  of  his  work  on  North  American  mammals.  An 
analogous  catalogue  was  published  in  1884  as  "A  Pro- 
visional List  of  the  Mammals  of  North  and  Central  America 
and  the  West  Indian  Islands,"  by  Frederick  W.  True. 

No  work  on  an  extensive  order  was  for  a  long  time  pub- 


744  The  Smithsoiiiau  Institution 

lished,  except  a  "Monograph  of  the  Bats  of  North  America," 
by  Doctor  Harrison  Allen  (1864).  Many  years  afterward 
(1895)  a  new  edition  of  this  monograph  by  Doctor  Allen 
was  published  as  a  "  Bulletin  of  the  United  States  National 
Museum"  (1893). 

In  1889  "A  Review  of  the  Family  Delphinidse,"  by  Fred- 
erick W,  True,  was  also  issued  as  a  Bulletin  of  the  United 
States  National  Museum." 

The  first  part  of  an  "Arrangement  of  the  Families  of 
Mammals"  (1872)  was  published  by  Theodore  Gill,  but  the 
completion  of  the  work  was  prevented  by  the  poverty  of  the 
collections  in  foreign  material. 

Several  physiological  memoirs  were  also  issued  by  the  In- 
stitution, as  follows:  "On  Strain  and  Overaction  of  the 
Heart,"  by  Doctor  J.  M.  Da  Costa  (1874),  the  "Dual  Action 
of  the  Brain,"  by  Doctor  C.  E.  Brown-Sequard  (1874),  and 
"The  Effect  of  Irritation  of  a  Polarized  Nerve"  (1880),  by 
B.  F.  Lautenbach. 


ANTHROPOLOGY 


By  Jesse  Walter  Fewkes 

Editor  of  the  Journal  of  American  Ethnology  and  Archceology 

I^HE  influences  on  the  many  branches  of  the 
science  of  anthropology  which  have  sprung 
from  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  during  the 
last  half-century,  have  been  far-reaching  and 
^2^^  profound.  In  this  prolific  epoch  the  science 
has  grown  almost  from  infancy  to  manhood,  from  an  humble 
beginning  to  ever  increasing  conscious  strength,  and  there  is 
no  American  institution  which  has  so  profoundly  influenced 
the  development  of  the  study  of  man. 

Two  aspects  of  this  influence  claim  our  attention,  and  it  is 
noteworthy  that  they  are  both  directly  related  to  those  for 
which  the  Smithsonian  Institution  stands  —  the  advancement 
of  knowledije  and  its  diffusion  amonfj  men.  An  indication  of 
the  potency  of  the  former  is  seen  in  the  long  series  of  original 
researches  made  possible  by  the  accumulation  of  collections 
and  systematic  field  explorations  fostered  by  the  Institution. 
The  publication  of  these  researches  has  enlarged  know- 
ledge, stimulated  scientific  investigation  in  other  intellectual 
centers,  and  drawn  to  the  museum  scholars  from  all  parts  of 
the  world.  Judged  from  the  point  of  view  of  scholarship, 
48 


745 


74^  The  Sniithsojiian  InstUiition 

the  Smithsonian  Institution  from  its  foundation,  fifty  years 
ago,  has  been  to  the  American  anthropologist  a  foster  parent 
of  oriofinal  research. 

This  is,  however,  but  one  aspect  of  the  influences  which 
this  Institution  has  exerted  on  the  study  of  man.  A  rich 
and  weh-arranged  collection  of  anthropological  material  not 
only  attracts  the  scholar,  forming  the  basis  of  the  researches 
of  the  specialist,  but  also  is  a  great  educational  factor  to  the 
community  at  large,  A  well-arranged  museum  is  an  un- 
written encyclopedia,  teaching  many  who  are  not  reached 
by  other  methods.  The  wealth  of  anthropological  objects 
spread  before  the  visitor  to  the  museum  exerts  a  profound 
influence  on  the  intelligence  of  the  community.  Thousands 
visit  a  collection,  and  inspect  its  anthropological  treasures, 
who  never  open  a  scientific  book.  The  mind  is,  indeed,  dull 
that  is  not  in  some  way  aflected  by  simply  strolling  through 
the  museum,  and  hundreds  of  visitors  have  had  an  interest 
excited  in  anthropology  from  such  a  visit.  This  method  of 
difiusion  of  knowledge  is  no  less  a  function  of  a  museum  than 
research  and  publication,  and  in  point  of  fact  it  touches  the 
multitude,  while  technical  science  appeals  to  the  few.  From 
what  has  been  written  it  may  be  evident  that  a  treatment 
of  the  influences  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  on  anthro- 
pology, past  and  present,  falls  under  two  headings, —  research 
and  publication ;  collections  and  their  installation.  The 
former  appeals  especially  to  the  student,  and  commonly 
measures  the  standing  of  an  institution  among  scholars ;  the 
latter  concerns  the  general  public,  and  determines  its  value 
as  an  educational  institution  among  the  many.  While  I 
shall  emphasize  the  former,  since  it  more  readily  submits  to 
analysis,  the  greatness  of  my  subject  admits  no  such  limita- 
tion. The  silent  lessons  daily  taught  by  ocular  demonstra- 
tions we  have  no  scale  to  measure,  no  statistics  to  tabulate 


Anthropology  747 

save  number  of  visitors ;  the  museum  teaches  a  lesson  to 
each  visitor  and  exerts  an  influence  which  eludes  analysis. 

ARCHEOLOGY 

The  publications  in  this  department  of  anthropology  which 
have  emanated  from  the  Smithsonian  Institution  are  many 
and  comprehensive.  As  the  large  majority  relate  particularly 
to  the  antiquities  of  North  and  Central  America,  they  may 
be  considered  under  the  following  headings : 

1.  Appalachian  Mountains  and  Atlantic  Slope. 

2.  Rocky  Mountains  and  Pacific  Slope. 

3.  Central  Region. 

4.  Mexico  and  Central  America. 

5.  West  Indies. 

APPALACHIAN    MOUNTAINS    AND    ATLANTIC    SLOPE 

The  prehistoric  denizens  of  this  region  have  received  much 
attention,  and  researches  and  publications  on  its  archaeology 
have  been  numerous  and  important. 

The  evidences  of  paleolithic  man  in  the  valley  of  the 
Potomac  and  the  Trenton  gravels  have  been  critically  exam- 
ined and  ably  discussed  by  assistants  in  the  Institution  ;  and 
the  works  of  Abbott,  Rau,  Holmes,  and  Wilson  have  attracted 
wide  attention  among  students  of  this  subject. 

Professor  Baird  early  recognized  the  great  field  for  re- 
search presented  by  the  kitchen  middens  of  the  Atlantic 
Coast,  and  personally  carried  on  studies  of  these  prehistoric 
camping  places  on  the  coast  of  Maine.  Doctor  Rau  dis- 
cussed in  1872  a  gold  ornament  from  a  Florida  mound,  and 
six  years  earlier  called  attention  to  the  artificial  shell  deposits 
on  the  coast  of  New  Jersey. 


74B  The  Smithsonian  Instihition 


ROCKY    MOUNTAINS    AND    PACIFIC    SLOPE 

By  an  interesting  coincidence,  in  the  same  year  that  the 
Smithsonian  was  founded,  there  was  added  to  the  territory 
of  the  United  States  an  immense  domain  in  the  Southwest, 
rich  in  most  interesting  antiquities  of  a  prehistoric  race  of 
unique  characters.  Early  explorers  of  this  vast  region 
brought  back  fascinating  accounts  of  ruins  of  a  kind  novel 
to  men  of  Anglo-Saxon  blood — the  cliff-houses  and  so-called 
pueblos.  The  influence  of  the  Institution  can  readily  be 
traced  in  the  aims  of  several  exploring  expeditions,  which, 
one  after  another,  enlarged  our  knowledge  of  this  new  arch- 
aeological realm.  Active  work  in  this  prolific  field  began 
with  the  foundation  of  the  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology 
in  1879,  an  account  of  which  would  naturally  fall  in  another 
chapter.  The  most  important  publication  on  the  architecture 
of  the  ancient  pueblos  of  Cibola  and  Tusayan,  as  likewise 
the  most  complete  on  the  antiquities  of  the  pueblo  area  which 
has  yet  appeared,  is  to  be  found  in  one  of  the  "  Reports  of  the 
Bureau  of  American  Ethnology,"  a  work  of  great  industry, 
both  in  office  and  field,  by  Victor  Mindeleff.  The  expedi- 
tions of  James  Stevenson  brought  enormous  collections  of 
ethnological  material  from  this  region,  enriching  the  museum 
with  many  archaeological  objects  of  great  value. 

Valuable  archaeological  work  has  been  carried  on  under  the 
auspices  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  on  the  Santa  Barbara 
Islands,  off  the  coast  of  southern  California,  and  in  the  caves 
of  the  Aleutian  Islands,  the  character  of  which  in  the  latter 
locality  can  best  be  considered  elsewhere. 

The  Alaska  Commercial  Company  in  1875  presented  to 
the  Institution  a  series  of  mummies  from  the  Aleutian  Islands 
and  Prince  William's  Sound.     W.  H.  Uall  prepared  a  memoir 


Anthropology  749 

on  this  collection,  with  an  account  of  related  tradition,  history, 
and  other  material  such  as  he  had  obtained  in  eight  years' 
experience  in  the  region  of  the  globe  in  which  they  were 
found.  His  memoir,  which  is  well  illustrated,  was  an  im- 
portant contribution  to  a  little  known  subject. 


CENTRAL    REGION 

The  most  striking  of  the  many  archaeological  problems 
of  the  central  region  are  those  connected  with  the  mound 
builders,  the  antiquities  of  the  Mississippi  valley  and  those 
of  the  Saint  Lawrence.  The  influence  of  the  Smithsonian 
Institution  has  always  been  wisely  directed  to  fostering  and 
advancing  the  investigation  of  these  mounds  of  the  United 
States,  and  its  publications  are  recognized,  both  at  home 
and  abroad,  as  most  important  contributions  to  this  subject. 
Previously  to  1847  the  unaided  pioneer  work  of  Caleb 
Atwater  and  others  had  called  attention  to  these  antiquities, 
but  without  awakening  a  widespread  interest  in  the  sub- 
ject. To  no  one  institution  does  archaeological  science  owe  so 
much  as  to  the  Smithsonian  in  quickening  dormant  interest 
in  the  study  of  the  mound  builders,  and  there  is  probably  no 
department  of  anthropology  where  the  publications  of  the 
Institution  have  done  more  to  arouse  interest  in  research  than 
in  this.  The  "  Smithsonian  Contributions  to  Knowledgfe " 
open  with  a  most  valuable  article  on  the  "Ancient  Monu- 
ments of  the  Mississippi  Valley,"  by  E.  G.  Squier  and  E.  H. 
Davis,  a  classic  work  illustrated  by  forty-eight  lithographic 
plates  and  two  hundred  and  seven  woodcuts.  This  volume, 
which  appeared  in  1848,  was  followed  two  years  later  by 
another  written  by  the  senior  author  on  a  related  subject : 
"  Aboriorinal  Monuments  of  the  State  of  New  York."  These 
memoirs,  especially  the  former,  may  be  regarded  as  epoch - 
48* 


750  The  S7JtitJisojiian  Instittttion 

making,  a  worthy  introduction  to  a  subject  which  dates  an 
ever-growing  interest  from  that  year.  If  we  may  judge  from 
results,  the  fifty  years  during  which  "  Squier  and  Davis" 
have  been  famihar  words  with  American  and  foreicrn  archse- 
ologists,  whenever  the  mound  builders  are  referred  to,  has 
well  justified  the  following  quotation  from  a  letter  of  Honor- 
able George  P.  Marsh  of  equal  age:  "It  is  fortunate,"  he  says, 
"for  the  cause  of  American  archaeology  that  the  first  sys- 
tematic attempt  at  its  elucidation  —  (referring  to  the  problem 
of  the  mound  builders)  —  should  have  been  conceived  and 
executed  in  so  truly  philosophical  a  spirit;  and  rich  as  this  age 
already  is  in  antiquarian  lore,  it  has,  I  think,  received  few  more 
important  contributions.  .  .  .  The  Smithsonian  collections 
could  not  begin  with  a  more  appropriate  or  creditable  essay." 
These  two  works  were  followed  by  a  supplementary  com- 
munication by  Charles  Whittlesey  and  a  memoir  by  I.  A. 
Lapham,  both  of  great  value.  Lapham  described  figure 
mounds  from  Wisconsin,  representing  a  variety  of  fanciful 
forms  of  animals  which  had  been  overlooked  by  previous 
travelers.  The  figures  represented  men,  bears,  foxes,  birds, 
reptiles  ;  the  style  of  mound  seemed  to  have  been  limited  to 
the  plains  of  the  upper  Mississippi  river.  But  the  memoir  is 
not  confined  in  its  treatment  to  these  forms ;  it  includes  like- 
wise tumuli,  embankments,  and  like  structures. 

This  memoir  presented  the  subject  with  accuracy  and  skill, 
and  had  an  important  influence  on  the  growing  interest  in 
the  antiquities  of  the  west.  Lapham's  researches  were  car- 
ried on  under  the  direction  of  the  Antiquarian  Society  of 
Worcester,  Massachusetts,  by  which  his  memoir  was  pre- 
sented to  the  Smithsonian  Institution  for  publication,  a  good 
example  of  the  harmony  with  which  the  Institution  has 
always  worked  with  societies  of  kindred  aims. 

Mr.  S.  F.  Haven,  the  librarian  of  the  American  Antiqua- 


Anthropology  751 

rian  Society  of  Worcester,  prepared,  by  special  request  of 
the  Institution,  a  memoir  which  formed  a  part  of  the  seventh 
volume  of  the  "  Contributions."  This  was  a  thorough  and 
able  article  with  a  bibliographical  character,  summarizing 
the  opinions  of  early  writers  on  American  antiquities,  and 
the  existing  knowledge  of  aboriginal  monuments  east  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  The  great  labor  performed  by  Haven  in 
gathering  material  from  publications  which  were  rare  and 
inaccessible  did  much  to  correlate  accumulated  observations, 
and  led  to  a  hope,  carried  out  forty  years  later,  of  publishing 
a  complete  archaeological  map  of  all  the  mounds  east  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains.  For  twelve  years  subsequent  to  Doctor 
Haven's  memoir,  however,  nothing  appears  in  the  "  Contribu- 
tions" respecting  the  antiquities  of  the  middle  region  of  the 
United  States,  save  a  short  communication  by  Whittlesey  on 
"Ancient  Mining  on  the  Shores  of  Lake  Superior."  In  1872 
Doctor  Joseph  Jones  was  aided  by  a  small  appropriation,  and 
pursued  investigations  with  ardor  and  success.  The  refer- 
ences to  his  work  in  the  Reports  from  1872  to  1S76  show  the 
wide  range  of  studies  pursued  by  him  in  historical  and  biblio- 
graphical directions.  His  memoir  forms  a  volume  of  one 
hundred  and  eighty-one  quarto  pages,  with  many  woodcuts, 
and  a  very  full  index  by  Professor  O.  T.  Mason.  This  work, 
entitled  "Antiquities  of  Tennessee,"  (1876)  contains  de- 
scriptions of  burial  caves  and  mode  of  burial,  mounds,  earth- 
works, forts,  and  relics,  closinof  with  ireneral  conclusions. 

The  exploration  of  the  mounds  was  vigorously  taken  up  in 
1882  by  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  and  systematic  excavations 
carried  on  in  the  field  for  eight  successive  years  under  the 
direction  of  Doctor  Cyrus  Thomas,  aided  by  Doctor  Palmer, 
Norris,  Ragan,  Reynolds,  Middleton,  and  others.  These  re- 
searches were  not  confined  to  mounds,  but  it  was  found  nec- 
essary to  include  in  them  all  anticjuities  of  the  central  region. 


752  The  Smithsonian  Instittition 

Many  articles  on  the  subject  were  published  as  a  result  of 
these  studies,  culminating  in  a  voluminous  report  by  Doctor 
Cyrus  Thomas,  the  largest  which  has  yet  appeared  on  a 
subject  which  was  inaugurated  by  the  opening  volume  of  the 
"  Contributions." 


MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 

The  rich  field  presented  to  the  archaeologist  in  Mexico  and 
Central  America  has  received  the  attention  of  the  Institution, 
and  several  interesting  publications  on  this  subject  have  ap- 
peared in  the  "  Contributions."  In  1878  an  important  memoir 
by  Doctor  Habel  entitled  "  Archaeological  and  Ethnological 
Researches  in  Central  and  South  America,  with  a  Detailed 
Account  of  the  Sculptures  at  Santa  Lucia  Cosumalwhuapa," 
was  accepted  by  the  Institution  for  publication.  Doctor  Habel 
had  devoted  seven  years  to  exploration  in  this  region,  visiting 
many  of  the  great  ruins  described  by  Stephens  in  1841. 

The  main  portion  of  this  contribution  was  devoted  to  a  de- 
scription of  the  great  monoliths  at  Santa  Lucia  Cosumalwhu- 
apa, a  village  in  the  department  of  Esquintla,  near  the  Volcan 
del  Fuego.  These  stone  slabs  were  discovered  by  a  planter 
who  came  upon  a  large  pile  of  buried  monoliths  in  preparing 
his  farm  for  cultivation.  They  were  found  to  be  richly  sculp- 
tured and  ornamented  in  cavo-relievo  with  representations  of 
human  figures  of  unusual  carving,  supposed  to  refer  to  the 
adoration  of  the  sun,  moon,  and  other  anthropomorphic 
deities  difficult  to  identify.  Doctor  Habel  made  true  copies 
of  the  originals  with  great  care  and  on  his  return  to  the 
United  States  was  invited  to  visit  Washington,  where  the  ex- 
pense of  the  preparation  of  his  manuscript,  and  the  plates, 
which  were  made  under  his  personal  supervision,  was  borne 
by  the  Institution.     This  publication  attracted  much  attention, 


Anthropology  753 

and  as  in  the  later  transportation  of  some  of  the  monoHths  to 
Germany — it  is  to  be  regretted  that  they  did  not  all  find  a 
home  in  Washington  —  one  of  the  most  interesting  was  lost  in 
the  Pacific  ocean,  the  figure  of  it  given  by  Doctor  Habel  will 
always  remain  unique.  The  estimation  in  which  the  volume 
by  Doctor  Habel  is  held  by  scholars  is  voiced  by  the  late  Pro- 
fessor W.  D.  Whitney,  who  wrote:  "  It  seems  to  me  a  story 
refreshing  by  its  brevity  and  simplicity,  very  unlike  the  pom- 
pous and  boastful  way  in  which  such  things  are  often  heralded. 
One  may  not  agree  with  all  the  inferences  drawn  at  the  end, 
but  that  is  a  matter  of  very  small  im.portance  ;  no  two  persons 
would  arrive  at  precisely  the  same  conclusions.  So  far  as  I 
can  judge,  the  Institution  has  every  reason  to  take  pleasure 
and  pride  in  the  issue  of  such  a  contribution  to  American 
archaeology." 

The  scientific  discovery  of  these  interesting  monoliths  and 
a  publication  of  the  memoir  upon  them  led  to  several  interest- 
ing studies  by  German  archaeologists  and  to  the  final  trans- 
portation of  the  antiquities  themselves  to  the  Berlin  Museum, 
by  which  institution  replicas  have  been  distributed  to  the  col- 
lections of  several  European  and  American  cities. 

Of  all  the  interesting  ruins  of  Central  America  to  which  at- 
tention was  called  by  Stephens  and  Catherwood,  none  excited 
more  wonder  at  the  culture  they  revealed  than  those  of  the 
great  city  of  Chiapas  called  Palenque.  A  portion  of  one  of 
the  most  interesting  shrines  of  that  ancient  city,  now  known 
wherever  archaeology  is  cultivated  as  the  Palenque  Tablet, 
came  into  the  possession  of  the  Smithsonian,  and  was  de- 
scribed and  figured  by  Doctor  Charles  Rau  in  the  twenty- 
second  volume  of  the  "  Contributions."  This  stone  tablet  is 
one  of  the  most  precious  archaeological  treasures  in  the  Na- 
tional Museum.  It  was  formerly  the  property  of  the  National 
Institution  for  the  Promotion  of  Science,  to  which  it  was  pre- 


754  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

sented  in  1842  by  Charles  Russell,  a  former  Consul  of  the 
United  States  in  Mexico.  It  was  transferred  to  the  Smith- 
sonian in  1858,  and  its  relation  to  the  famous  group  of  the 
cross  recognized  by  Doctor  George  A.  Matile,  who  was  en- 
gaged in  making  a  cast  of  it  at  the  request  of  Professor 
Henry.  Del  Rio  and  Dupaix  gave  a  poor  figure  of  it  in 
position  in  the  Temple  of  the  Cross,  but  it  was  probably 
broken  in  1832,  and  Stephens  in  1839  noticed  its  scattered 
fragments.  The  first  trustworthy  representation  we  thus 
owe  to  Doctor  Rau's  memoir,  as  mentioned  above. 

The  account  of  the  Palenque  treasure  was  followed  by  a 
valuable  contribution  on  "Archaeological  Researches  in  Nica- 
ragua," and  preceded  by  "  Observations  on  Mexican  History 
and  Archaeology "  by  Brantz  Mayer,  both  of  which  articles 
were  timely  additions  to  a  knowledge  of  a  great  subject. 
Other  smaller  but  no  less  important  works  on  the  "Antiqui- 
ties of  Guatemala"  should  not  be  overlooked,  especially  that  of 
Bransford  and  Kneeland,  both  of  which  are  frequently  quoted. 

WEST    INDIES 

The  Smithsonian  possesses  a  most  valuable  collection  of 
ancient  Carib  art  in  stone,  and  has  published  several  impor- 
tant works  on  the  antiquities  of  the  Antilles.  Professor  E. 
D.  Cope  in  1883  discussed  the  contents  of  a  bone  cave  in  the 
island  of  Anguilla,  giving  an  interesting  insight  into  cave  life 
in  a  comparatively  unknown  quarter.  The  purchase  of  the 
Latimer  collection  of  stone  objects  from  Porto  Rico  enabled 
Professor  O.  T.  Mason  to  prepare  an  elaborately  illustrated 
article  on  idols,  or  zemes,  and  Carib  stone  implements,  a 
picture  of  a  style  of  stone  working  unsurpassed  on  the 
American  continent.  Somewhat  later  he  was  able  to  sup- 
plement  this   report  by  an   examination   of  beautifidly  exe- 


Anthropology  755 

cuted  drawings  of  the  Guesde  collection  of  similar  objects 
from  the  island  of  Guadeloupe. 

In  the  same  year  as  the  Centennial  Exposition  in  Philadel- 
phia, and  directly  connected  with  that  work,  a  quarto  volume 
was  written  by  Professor  Charles  Rau  on  the  "Archaeologi- 
cal Collections  of  the  United  States  Museum,"  and  dis- 
tributed by  the  Institution.  This  work  was  in  the  form  of 
an  illustrative  catalogue,  and,  although  not  exhaustive  in  its 
treatment,  served  to  give  a  wider  knowledge  than  had  been 
current  of  the  wealth  of  archceological  material  in  the  mu- 
seum. There  can  hardly  be  a  question  that  this  publication 
should  take  hiofh  rank  with  other  influences  which  at  that 
time  quickened  public  interest  in  American  antiquities,  and 
led  to  a  rejuvenescence  of  scientific  activity  in  several  centers 
of  learning.  But  perhaps  of  special  importance  in  that  line 
ouofht  to  be  mentioned  the  several  articles  on  methods  of 
archaeological  study  which  appeared  at  about  that  time.  Of 
these  the  more  important  were,  "  Circulars  in  Reference  to 
American  Archaeology,"  written  by  Professor  Mason  and 
signed  by  Professor  Henry,  Secretary  of  the  Smithsonian 
Institution.  Those  interested  in  the  antiquities  of  the  mound 
builders  were  appealed  to  in  a  circular  of  somewhat  different 
character,  prepared  by  Doctor  Cyrus  Thomas,  at  the  inaugu- 
ration of  his  extensive  explorations  in  this  field. 

There  is  probably  no  more  perplexing  problem  presented  to 
the  anthropologists  than  the  derivation  of  a  prehistoric  people 
of  Easter  Island,  one  of  the  most  isolated  islands  of  the  Pacific 
Ocean.  The  colossal  carvings  in  stone  made  by  these  people, 
their  quaint  hieroglyphic  slats  and  hideous  figurines,  have 
attracted  wide  attention.  A  good  representative  collection 
from  this  island  is  now  housed  in  the  National  Museum, 
and  an  exhaustive  report,  well  illustrated,  forms  one  o'i  the 
most  interesting  of  the  contributions  to  insular  archaeology. 


756  The  Smithsonian  Instihttion 

Several  articles  of  a  comparative  nature  treating  of  collec- 
tions of  archaeological  material  in  the  museum  have  materi- 
ally added  to  the  progress  of  archaeology.  Among  these  may 
be  mentioned  a  work,  by  Doctor  Charles  Rau,  on  •'  Prehis- 
toric Fishing  in  Europe  and  North  America."  This  large 
volume  was  published  in  two  parts,  forming  an  article  of  three 
hundred  and  sixty  pages  with  four  hundred  and  six  figures. 
About  one-third  of  the  memoir  was  devoted  to  archaeological 
relics  of  Europe,  classified  in  the  three  epochs,  of  the  palaeo- 
lithic, neolithic,  and  bronze  ages.  The  second  part  deals 
with  archaeological  fishing  implements,  and  relics  of  North 
America,  and  considers  such  topics  as  "  Fishing  Implements 
and  Utensils,"  "Boats  and  Appurtenances,"  and  "Aboriginal 
Representations  of  Fishes,  Aquatic  Animals,"  etc.  The  chap- 
ter on  "  Artificial  Shell  Deposits "  is  of  great  value.  This 
work  has  a  historical  side  no  less  important  than  the  archaeo- 
logical, and  embraces  many  early  documentary  and  printed 
references  to  aboriginal  fishing  scattered  in  various  writings, 
most  of  which  are  inaccessible  to  the  public  save  with  great 
difficulty.  Doctor  Rau  was  an  industrious  contributor  to  the 
Smithsonian  Reports  from  1864  to  1883,  and  his  articles  on 
"Agricultural  Flint  Implements,"  "  Drilling  in  Stone  without 
Metal,"  "North  American  Stone  Implements,"  and  "Ancient 
Aboriginal  Trade  in  North  America "  testify  to  the  breadth 
of  his  archaeological  work  in  special  lines. 

Although  the  greater  part  of  the  archaeological  industry 
of  the  Institution  has  been  turned  to  the  antiquities  of 
America,  other  countries  have  not  been  neglected.  The 
publications  have  reprinted  important  articles  by  masters  in 
the  science,  as,  Hamy,  on  the  probable  "  Home  of  the 
Troglodyte";  Tylor,  on  the  "Prehistoric  Races  of  Italy,"  and 
Ouatrcfages,  on  "  The  Advent  of  Man  in  America."  The 
Re2:)orts  contain   likewise   articles  by  Evans  on    "The   An- 


Anthropology  757 

tiquity  of  Man,"  Desor  on  "  Palafittes  of  Lake  Neuchatel," 
and  Adler  on   "  Oriental  Antiquities." 

One  important  publication  on  Egyptian  archaeology  has 
been  issued  by  the  Institution.  Gliddon,  the  Egyptologist, 
in  1842  presented  to  the  national  collection  a  portion  of 
the  lid  of  a  mummy  case  from  Sacara.  This  was  regarded 
by  Doctor  Charles  Pickering,  of  Boston,  as  older  than  the 
third  dynasty,  and  its  inscription,  which  unfortunately  gives 
no  indication  of  the  date,  appeared  to  him  to  have  preceded 
an  important  change  in  the  character  of  hieroglyphic  writing. 
The  lid  had  been  divided  into  three  parts,  and  distributed, 
and  the  missing  parts  could  not  be  traced.  Doctor  Pick- 
ering, however,  described  the  portion  which  came  to  the 
Smithsonian,  and  gave  a  large  plate  of  it,  which  was  a  fac- 
simile in  size  and  color,  representing  the  figures  upon  it  with 
scientific  accuracy. 

LINGUISTICS 

The  Smithsonian  Institution  early  recognized  the  value  of 
linguistics  in  the  study  of  anthropology,  and  from  1850  to 
1876  a  large  amount  of  work  was  done  in  collecting  the  vo- 
cabularies of  the  American  Indians.  The  keynote  of  the  value 
of  linguistics  is  well  indicated  in  one  of  the  early  reports, 
from  which  I  quote,  "A  language  is  not  originally  a  thing  of 
man's  device,  or  the  result  of  conventional  art,  but  the  spon- 
taneous production  of  human  instinct,  modified  by  the  mental 
character,  the  physical  condition,  and  other  peculiarities  of 
the  people  or  tribe  among  whom  it  had  its  origin,  or  by 
whom  it  is  used.  It  is  subject  to  definite  laws  of  formation 
and  development,  and  is  intimately  connected  with  the  his- 
tory of  the  migrations  and  affiliations  of  the  people  by  whom 
it  is  spoken,  and  hence  becomes  an  object  of  interest  to  the 
student  of  the  natural  history  of  man." 


758  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

From  its  foundation  to  the  present  time  efforts  were  made 
to  collect  Indian  vocabularies  as  part  of  the  ethnological 
work  of  the  Institution,  and  in  1876  their  number  amounted 
to  six  hundred  and  seventy.  They  were  placed  in  charge  of 
Doctor  J.  H.  Trumbull,  of  Hartford,  Connecticut,  for  critical 
study.  It  was  the  intention  of  the  Institution  to  publish 
these  vocabularies  in  the  "  Contributions  to  Knowledge,"  and 
in  separate  form  for  general  distribution  among  philologists. 
In  that  year,  however,  Major  J.  W.  Powell,  who  had  collected 
a  series  of  Indian  vocabularies  from  the  inhabitants  living 
near  the  Great  Colorado  River,  requested  that  the  manu- 
script material  be  turned  over  to  him  to  be  published  in  con- 
nection with  his  work.  This  proposition  was  accepted,  the 
only  conditions  of  the  transfer  being  that  in  the  publication 
of  the  material  due  credit  be  given  to  the  founder  of  the 
Smithsonian,  and  that  extra  copies  of  the  publication  be  fur- 
nished the  Institution  for  distribution.  The  series  of  publica- 
tions on  linguistics  began  with  an  article  by  Doctor  Francis 
Lieber,  "  On  the  Vocal  Sounds  of  Laura  Bridgman,  the  Blind 
Deaf  Mute  at  Boston,  compared  with  the  Elements  of  Pho- 
netic Lanofuaofe."  The  wonderful  work  of  Doctor  Howe  in 
opening  the  mind  of  this  person  to  outward  impressions  has 
become  famous,  and  perhaps  no  more  interesting  problems 
are  presented  to  the  psychologist  than  those  connected  with 
the  enlightenment  of  a  mind  apparently  forever  consigned  to 
darkness.  Doctor  Lieber  had  exceptional  advantages  to 
study  the  sounds  first  used  by  Laura  Bridgman  as  indicative 
of  ideas,  and  his  psychological  and  philosophical  deductions 
naturally  attracted  wide  attention  among  scholars.  At  the 
time  of  the  publication  of  this  work  modern  psychology  as 
now  understood  was  in  its  infancy. 

For  eighteen  years  missionaries  among  the  Dakota  Indians 
industriously  collected  material  for  a  grammar  and  lexicon  of 


Anthropology  759 

that  language,  which,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Historical 
Society  of  Minnesota,  was  arranged  and  edited  by  the  Rev- 
erend S.  R.  Riggs.  Although  primarily  prepared  to  meet 
the  needs  of  missionaries,  it  was  found  to  be  an  interesting 
contribution  to  ethnology,  and  its  publication  was  recom- 
mended by  several  of  the  best  philologists  of  the  country. 
By  cooperation  with  the  Historical  Society  of  Minnesota,  and 
the  American  Board  of  Missions,  which  contributed  al)out  a 
third  of  the  cost  of  the  work,  the  Smithsonian  Institution 
devoted  the  fourth  volume  of  the  "  Contributions "  to  this 
valuable  memoir. 

The  appearance  of  this  memoir  led  to  the  preparation  of 
others,  which,  although  not  all  published,  showed  the  wealth 
of  material  and  the  awakening  interest  in  this  branch  of  eth- 
nographic study.  The  Institution  gave  its  fostering  help  to 
this  work,  assisting  in  the  elaboration  of  material,  and  coop- 
erated with  other  institutions  in  its  publication.  Among 
these  may  be  mentioned  a  "  Grammar  of  the  Choctaw,"  by 
the  Reverend  Harvey  Byington,  which  was  warmly  recom- 
mended by  Professor  Felton,  of  Harvard  and  George  Gibbs. 
It  was  published  by  the  American  Philosophical  Society  of 
Philadelphia,  having  been  much  improved  by  the  author  and 
Doctor  D.  G.  Brinton,  after  the  death  of  Mr.  Byington.  The 
growing  trade  with  Oregon  rendered  timely  the  publication 
in  1853  of  the  "Vocabulary  of  the  Jargon  or  Trade  Lan- 
guage of  Oregon,"  edited  by  B.  Rush  Mitchell,  and  Professor 
W.  W.  Turner,  who  at  that  time  was  librarian  of  the  United 
States  Patent  Office.  The  interest  of  the  latter  scholar  in 
philological  studies  appears  also  in  the  "  Grammar  and  Dic- 
tionary of  Yoruba  Language,"  published  in  the  tenth  volume 
of  the  "  Smithsonian  Contributions."  Yoruba  is  in  West- 
ern Africa,  east  of  Dahomey,  and  is  peopled  with  a  primi- 
tive race  of  simple  and  harmless  character.     The  Reverend 


760  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

Thomas  J.  Bowen,  a  missionary  of  the  Southern  Baptist 
Board,  Hved  with  these  people  for  six  years,  and  collected 
much  information  concerning  the  physical  characters  of  the 
country,  the  manners,  customs,  and  language  of  the  inhabi- 
tants. With  the  aid  of  Professor  Turner  he  revised  and 
rewrote  his  notes,  which,  when  published,  became  a  memoir 
of  great  value  to  students  of  the  languages  of  the  African 
race.  To  show  the  value  of  this  work  to  specialists,  I  need 
only  refer  to  a  commendation  of  it  by  the  profound  German 
Egyptologist,  Lepsius. 

The  influence  of  Gibbs  and  Shea  on  the  study  of  the  lin- 
guistics of  the  aboriginal  races  of  North  America  was  most 
important.  They  found  in  the  Smithsonian  Institution  a 
channel  by  which  their  ideas  were  impressed  on  the  growing 
study  of  ethnology.  Morgan's  suggestion  of  an  ethnological 
map,  in  a  circular  issued  by  the  Institution,  was  adopted  with 
zeal  and  broadened  in  its  scope  to  embrace  all  fields  of  an- 
thropology. He  proposed  to  enlist  the  help  of  several  insti- 
tutions, as  the  Bureau  of  Indian  Affairs,  the  Surveyor- General 
of  the  Land  Office,  the  Hudson  Bay  Company,  in  the  distri- 
bution of  circulars  calling  for  ethnographic  information,  and 
proposed  the  association  of  several  well  known  scholars  in 
perfecting  his  plan  of  an  ethnological  map  of  North  America. 
He  found  in  Professor  Henry,  then  Secretary  of  the  Smith- 
sonian, an  appreciative  helper,  and  in  Professor  Whitney  an 
adviser  of  great  value.  John  G.  Shea,  of  New  York,  had 
devoted  much  attention  to  linguistics,  and  at  his  own  expense 
began  the  publication  of  a  series  of  grammars,  or  dictionaries, 
which  he  styled  a  "  Library  of  American  Linguistics."  This 
praiseworthy  undertaking  not  only  enlisted  the  sympathy  of 
the  Smithsonian,  but  also  active  aid  and  association  in  the 
work.  A  number  of  manuscripts  presented  to  the  Institution 
for  publication   were   transmitted    to    Shea   to   be   published 


Anthropology  76 1 

in  the  series  above  referred  to,  and  arrangements  made  by 
which  a  considerable  number  of  copies  of  each  memoir  were 
secured  from  the  pubHsher  for  distribution.  In  this  way  the 
Smithsonian  aided  in  the  pubHcation  of  grammars  or  vocabu- 
laries of  the  Mutsun  language,  spoken  at  the  missions  of 
San  Juan  Bautista  and  San  Antonio,  California,  and  the 
Yakima  and  Pima. 

Instruction  for  research  relative  to  ethnology  and  philology 
prepared  by  George  Gibbs  and  printed  and  distributed  to 
officers  of  the  United  States  and  other  governments  met 
with  a  gratifying  response.  As  supplemental  to  that  work 
blank  forms  for  systematic  records  were  sent  out,  resulting 
in  valuable  returns  of  vocabularies,  implements,  and  other 
objects  illustrative  of  the  arts,  customs,  and  mental  condition 
of  American  races.  The  vocabularies  were  intrusted  to 
Gibbs,  whose  work  for  many  years  was  largely  gratuitous. 
He  contributed  to  the  publications  several  valuable  articles, 
of  which  his  dictionary  of  the  Chinook  jargon  and  "  Com- 
parative Vocabulary  "  are  good  examples  of  his  work. 

The  accumulated  material  on  Indian  linguistics  passed  into 
the  hands  of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology  at  its  foundation,  and 
the  continuation  of  its  elaboration  naturally  will  be  found  in 
the  account  of  that  department  of  the  Institution. 

The  "  Instructions  for  Research  relative  to  the  Ethnology 
and  Philology  of  America,"  by  George  Gibbs,  first  published 
in  1 86 1,  stimulated  investigation  throughout  the  country,  and 
fifteen  years  later  the  demand  for  this  work  had  been  so 
great  that  a  second  edition  of  more  comprehensive  plan  was 
prepared  under  the  direction  of  Major  J.  W.  Powell.  The 
elaboration  adopted  the  following  plan,  as  stated  in  the  report 
for  1876: 

''First,   It  is  found  necessary  to  enlarge  the  alphabet  so  as 
49 


762  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

to  include  a  wider  range  of  sounds  which  have  been  discov- 
ered in  the  North  American  languages. 

"  Second.  It  is  necessary  to  enlarge  the  vocabulary  so  as  to 
modify  it  somewhat  as  experience  has  dictated,  and  that  new 
words  may  be  collected. 

"  Third.  It  is  desirable  that  many  simple  sentences  should 
be  given,  so  chosen  as  to  bring  out  the  more  important  char- 
acteristics of  grammatical  structure." 


The  new  edition,  with  the  above  mentioned  improvements, 
was  widely  distributed  among  Indian  agents  and  traders, 
missionaries,  and  local  students,  and  resulted  in  the  collection 
of  much  data  in  the  form  of  linguistic  and  other  notes,  and  a 
harvest  of  objects  illustrating  the  manners  and  customs  of  the 
aborigines  of  America. 

Although  the  fruition  of  this  plan  will  be  considered  in  the 
account  of  the  work  of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  I  may  refer 
to  the  accomplishment  of  one  of  the  plans  of  George  Gibbs, 
so  often  referred  to  in  the  Reports  of  the  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tution for  1862  and  the  following  years.  The  plan  of  an 
"Ethnographic  Map"  was  successfully  carried  out  by  Major 
J.  W.  Powell  and  his  assistants  as  far  as  linguistic  stocks 
were  concerned,  thus  giving  a  valuable  contribution  to  the 
cartography  of  the  Indian  tribes  north  of  Mexico. 

Of  the  many  valuable  articles  on  linguistics  published  by 
the  Smithsonian  Institution,  those  of  Dorsey  on  the  "Com- 
parative Phonology  of  Four  Sioux  Languages  "  and  Roehig 
"  On  the  Language  of  the  Dakota  or  Sioux  "  are  noteworthy. 
The  "  Lectures  on  Linguistics "  by  Professor  Whitney  was 
a  timely  publication  written  by  a  master  of  philology,  and 
given  a  wide  distribution  by  the  Institution.  Doctor  Cyrus 
Adler  in  his  "Oriental  Literature  in  America"  treats  a  sub- 
ject of  ever  growing  interest  to  a  large  number  of  American 


Anthropology  763 

scholars.  The  valuable  memoir  of  Lewis  H.  Morgan  on 
"Systems  of  Consanguinity  and  Affinity  of  the  Human 
Family"  was  a  remarkable  work  by  a  profound  scholar. 
Having  been  led  by  his  studies  of  the  system  of  relationship 
among  the  Iroquois  Indians  to  certain  conclusions  in  regard 
to  consanguinity,  Morgan  was  able  to  develop  the  fact  that 
the  same  law  holds  likewise  among  other  Indian  tribes  of 
America,  and  at  his  request  circulars  asking  for  information 
on  these  points  were  distributed  to  consuls,  missionaries,  and 
ethnologists  by  the  Smithsonian  Institution.  This  work  was 
officially  facilitated  by  General  Cass,  Secretary  of  State,  by 
whom  it  was  commended  to  diplomatic  agents  of  the  gov- 
ernment in  various  lands.  The  effect  of  this  circular  in  ad- 
vancing anthropological  knowledge  was  great  not  only  in  the 
special  line  of  inquiries  which  it  specially  concerned,  but  also 
in  other  branches  germane  to  social  organization  of  primitive 
society. 

The  National  Museum  has  accumulated  enormous  collec- 
tions of  objects  illustrating  the  ethnography  of  different  races 
of  man.  This  material  has  served  as  the  basis  of  many 
valuable  researches,  furnishing  valuable  data  on  technology, 
mythology,  and  many  other  departments  of  anthropology. 
Several  monographic  accounts  of  different  races  from  the 
ethnographic  standpoint  enrich  the  publications  of  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution. 

At  the  request  of  the  Institution  James  G.  Swan,  an 
agent  of  the  government,  prepared  an  account  of  "The 
Indians  of  Cape  Flattery,"  opposite  Vancouver  Island,  in 
the  northwestern  corner  of  what  was  then  Washinofton  Ter- 
ritory.  This  article,  published  as  a  memoir,  contained  a  full 
description  of  the  manners  and  customs,  myths,  and  cere- 
monials of  these  people,  with  a  detailed  account  of  imple- 
ments, clothing,   houses,  and  mortuary  customs,  and  beliefs. 


764  The  Sfuithsoiiian  Institution 

It  drew  largely  in  its  illustrations  from  specimens  in  the 
museum,  and  was  accompanied  by  a  vocabulary  of  the  Makah 
tribe.  The  Institution  was  fortunate  in  having  this  memoir 
edited  by  George  Gibbs,  whose  valuable  and  enthusiastic 
work  in  other  departments  of  ethnology  has  been  commented 
upon  elsewhere.  A  few  years  later  Swan  prepared  another 
work  on  the  Indians  of  the  Northwest  coast,  which  was 
published  in  the  twentieth  volume  of  the  "  Contributions  to 
Knowledge."  This  article,  consisting  of  eighteen  pages  of 
text,  with  seven  plates,  two  of  which  were  in  color,  treated 
of  "The  Haidah  Indians  of  the  Queen  Charlotte  Islands." 
The  people  considered  in  this  publication  are  best  known  by 
their  exquisite  carvings  of  ivory,  and  the  lofty  heraldic  poles, 
called  totem  posts,  which  are  placed  before  their  dwellings 
as  indicative  of  the  gentes  of  the  occupants.  The  museum 
collection  is  especially  rich  in  objects  from  the  Indians  de- 
scribed by  Swan  in  these  two  memoirs,  and  their  publica- 
tion led  to  a  new  interest  in  northwestern  coast  villaores. 
This  rich  vein  of  ethnographic  material  was  found  to  extend 
along  the  whole  coast  from  Washington  Territory  to  the 
Aleutian  Islands,  and  was  successfully  worked  by  Niblack  and 
Dall.  The  former  author  published,  in  the  Report  for  1888, 
an  elaborate  monograph  of  "  The  Coast  Indians  of  Southern 
Alaska,"  in  which  will  be  found  a  detailed  account,  with 
figures  of  many  objects  in  the  museum  which  were  deposited 
there  by  him.  A  large  and  unique  collection,  which  can 
probably  never  be  duplicated,  was  made  for  the  National  Mu- 
seum in  this  region  by  E.  W.  Nelson.  John  Murdoch,  at  one 
time  librarian  of  the  Smithsonian,  had  earlier  been  attached 
to  one  of  the  circumpolar  stations  at  Point  Barrow,  Alaska. 
He  thus  had  a  rare  opportunity  to  study  the  Eskimo  of 
that  high  latitude,  which  he  improved,  bringing  back  much 
valuable  information.      His  ethnographic  report,  extended  by 


Anthropology  765 

studies  of  the  great  collection  of  Eskimo  material  in  the 
museum,  is  the  most  important  memoir  on  the  people  of  the 
Arctic  coast  of  Alaska  which  has  ever  been  published.  The 
publications  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  have  been  greatly 
enriched  by  the  articles  of  Boas  on  "The  Indians  of  the 
Northwest  Coast,"  and  the  work  of  this  eminent  ethnologist 
has  made  him  an  authority  in  this  interesting  field  of  re- 
search. Many  collections  of  objects  used  in  ceremonials  have 
been  added  to  the  museum  by  his  industry,  and  his  contribu- 
tions to  folk  lore,  mythology,  and  linguistics  are  widely  known 
among  scholars   as   most    valuable   additions   to   knowledge. 

The  ethnography  of  the  pueblo  area  is  a  favorite  child  of 
the  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  and  this  study  was  much  stimulated 
by  the  formation  of  that  department  of  the  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tution. The  large  collections  of  pueblo  pottery,  stone  imple- 
ments, ceremonial  objects,  basketry,  blankets,  and  other 
specimens  illustrating  the  primitive  life  of  all  the  pueblos  of 
the  Southwest,  made  by  Powell,  the  Stevensons,  Gushing, 
the  Mindeleffs  and  others,  is  unsurpassed  in  any  museum. 
From  the  time  this  collection  was  brought  in  from  the  field, 
until  the  present,  it  has  contributed  material  for  specialists  in 
several  lines  of  study.  Specimens  from  it  have  been,  perhaps, 
more  often  figured  than  those  of  any  other  collection  of  pueblo 
objects.  To  barely  mention  the  articles  which  contain  illus- 
trations taken  from  this  collection  would  swell  this  account 
to  undue  proportions.  The  pottery,  stone  implements,  cere- 
monial paraphernalia,  and  other  objects  represented  in  the 
richly  illustrated  report  of  Stevenson  were  drawn  from  this 
collection,  as  well  as  many  figures  in  the  articles  of  Mrs. 
Stevenson,  whose  devotion  and  industry  contributed  to  the 
value  of  the  collection. 

The  remarkable  collections  from  the  Orient,  from  China, 
Japan,  and  Tibet,  the  hermit  nation,  Corea,  shows  how  broad 

49* 


766  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

the  scope  of  purely  ethnographic  objects  is  in  the  museum. 
Of  the  many  publications  on  these  collections,  it  may  be  in- 
vidious to  single  out  any  one,  and  not  mention  others.  The 
articles  by  Hitchcock  and  Hough  give  an  idea  of  the  wealth 
of  material  from  the  far  East,  in  the  National  Museum, 
while  the  beautifully  illustrated  and  carefully  prepared  de- 
scription of  the  collections  from  Tibet  by  W.  W.  Rockhill 
have  been  published  in  a  typographical  form  worthy  of  their 
great  merit.  Of  particular  interest  to  the  student  of  eth- 
nography are  the  aborigines  of  Japan  called  the  Ainos,  a 
comprehensive  collection  of  objects  from  which  people  has 
been  well  described  by  Hitchcock. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

A  CLASSIFIED  record  of  the  yearly  progress  of  science  is  of 
utmost  importance,  and  merits  the  attention  of  an  Institution 
so  well  equipped  with  exchanges  as  the  Smithsonian.  The 
bibliography  of  anthropology,  year  by  year,  has  been  pub- 
lished from  1879  to  1893,  inclusive,  and  the  Smithsonian  is  to 
be  congratulated  in  being  able  to  call  upon  Professor  O.  T. 
Mason  for  this  work.  This  series,  by  one  so  signally  fitted 
by  breadth  of  knowledge  of  anthropological  literature,  con- 
tains not  only  a  list  of  publications  on  this  science  during 
each  year  by  different  institutions  and  societies  of  Europe  and 
America,  but  also  a  judicial  summary  of  several,  and  valuable 
abstracts  or  notices  of  the  more  important  current  articles. 
In  order  to  complete  this  series,  the  Smithsonian  Report  for 
1879  gives  an  index  to  papers  on  anthropology  from  1847  to 
1878,  thus  carrying  the  bibliographical  lists  back  to  the  time 
of  the  foundation  of  the  Institution. 

By  the  acquisition  of  the  famous  Catlin  Gallery  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution  gave  a  permanent  home  to  one  of  the  most 


Anthropology  767 

valuable  collections  of  Indian  portraits  which  has  ever  been 
made.  George  Catlin  was  a  wonderful  man,  and  his  work 
as  artist  and  ethnologist  among  the  wildest  tribes  of  Indians 
did  much  to  increase  the  scanty  knowledge  of  the  aborigines 
of  North  America.  He  was  one  of  the  first  to  live  among  the 
Indians,  camping  with  them  and  following  them  in  their  mi- 
grations. His  accounts  of  several  of  the  tribes  are  about  all 
that  is  known  of  them,  and,  as  some  of  them  have  now  disap- 
peared, will  ever  remain  the  source  of  knowledge  in  the  future. 
The  original  paintings  of  this  artist  have  a  unique  value  and 
their  purchase  for  the  national  collection  appropriate  and 
necessary. 

In  order  to  make  this  collection  as  efficient  amonof  eth- 
nologists  as  it  was  widely  known,  a  descriptive  account  was 
published  with  copies  in  one  of  the  publications  of  the  Institu- 
tion. A  list  of  the  photographic  portraits  of  North  American 
Indians  in  the  gallery  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  ap- 
peared in  the  "Miscellaneous  Collections"  for  1867.  The 
unparalleled  facilities  for  photographing  typical  Indians  who 
visit  the  capital  have  led  to  the  collection  of  an  unique  assem- 
blage of  pictures  of  our  aborigines  nowhere  equaled  in  the 
world.  It  was  an  opportunity  which  can  never  recur,  for 
many  of  the  famous  Indians  who  sat  for  these  photographs 
are  no  longer  living. 

The  publications  on  somatology  have  taken  a  wide  range, 
treating  of  physiology,  anatomy,  and  craniology.  Among 
other  articles  of  merit  may  be  mentioned  those  of  Carter  and 
Holmgren  on  "Color  Blindness,"  Shute  on  the  "Anatomy  of 
the  Brain,"  Turner  and  Romanes  on  "  Heredity."  Doctor 
Baker's  "Ascent  of  Man"  more  properly  belongs  to  another 
line  of  Smithsonian  work,  but  may  well  be  mentioned  in 
our  consideration  of  contributions  by  the  Smithsonian  to 
somatology. 


768  The  Smithsonia}i  Institution 


TECHNOLOGY 

The  great  collections  of  objects  illustrative  of  arts  and 
manufactures  gathered  from  all  quarters  of  the  globe  have 
offered  unrivaled  advantages  for  studies  of  technology.  Sev- 
eral prominent  specialists  have  availed  themselves  of  these 
facilities,  and  publications  on  the  arts  have  covered  a  wide 
field  of  human  activities. 

The  study  of  ceramics  has  been  given  great  importance, 
and  the  publications  on  this  subject  from  time  to  time  have  at- 
tracted world-wide  attention.  In  1866  Doctor  Rau  opened 
the  series  with  a  valuable  article  on  Indian  pottery,  a  subject 
which  was  later  treated  in  so  exhaustive  and  artistic  a  manner 
by  W.  H.  Holmes.  From  the  rich  storehouse  of  material  in 
the  hands  of  aboriginal  potters,  Gushing  and  others  have 
drawn  much  in  the  preparation  of  their  valuable  paoers  on 
the  primitive  potter's  craft  and  its  origin  and  significance. 

Professor  O.  T.  Mason's  studies  of  comparative  technology 
were  broader  in  scope,  more  varied  in  subjects.  From  this 
industrious  worker,  identified  for  so  many  years  with  the 
growth  of  the  museum,  have  come  some  of  the  most  learned 
and  exhaustive  articles  which  enrich  the  pages  of  the  publica- 
tions of  the  museum. 

His  work  on  throwing-sticks  gave  him  a  wide  reputation 
for  its  comprehensive  treatment,  while  that  on  basketwork, 
published  in  the  same  year,  was  of  great  importance.  A 
natural  complement  of  the  former  article  was  a  treatment  of 
the  subject  of  bows  and  arrows,  in  which  is  found  a  wealth  of 
information  and  illustration  only  possible  with  the  resources 
of  a  large  museum  at  the  disposal  of  the  author.  Child-life 
in  all  its  phases  is  of  greatest  ethnological  interest,  and  in 
Mason's  article  on  "Cradles  of  North  American  Indians"  one 


Anthropology  769 

can  obtain  an  aspect  of  technology  which  should  not  be  over- 
looked. A  cradle  is  in  a  way  an  index  of  the  evolution  of  a 
method  of  carrying  a  burden,  and  the  human  beast  of  burden 
in  its  various  modifications,  from  the  time  the  aboriginal 
mother  carried  the  child  on  her  back,  gives  Professor  Mason  a 
subject  for  interesting  studies. 

The  immense  collections  of  ceramics  from  many  Indian 
tribes  have  furnished  most  important  material  for  several 
monographs.  From  a  study  of  these  collections,  made  by 
officers  of  the  Smithsonian  and  acquired  by  purchase,  almost 
every  phase  of  the  potter's  technic  has  been  discovered,  and 
many  peculiarities  of  symbolistic  decoration  made  out. 

From  this  source  have  been  drawn  most  of  the  illustrations 
in  the  beautiful  monographs  of  W.  H.  Holmes  on  pottery, 
while  the  types  of  many  of  the  specimens  used  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  his  articles  on  shell  and  bone  working  are  found  in 
the  museum. 

Doctor  Walter  Hough,  adopting  the  thought  that  one 
could  best  study  aboriginal  arts  by  working  with  aboriginal 
tools,  experimented  with  primitive  fire-drills,  and  as  a  result 
he  published  an  interesting  article  on  "  Fire-making  Ap- 
paratus" of  many  rude  or  uncultured  people.  Joseph  D. 
McGuire  cultivated  a  somewhat  different  field,  influenced  by 
a  similar  thought.  With  no  other  implements  than  those 
used  by  primitive  man,  he  was  able  to  cleverly  fashion  any 
of  the  various  types  of  stone  implements  which  characterize 
lower  stages  of  culture. 

While  the  scope  of  the  anthropological  researches  fostered 
by  the  Smithsonian  Institution  has  not  been  limited  to  the 
study  of  the  American  race,  a  consideration  of  the  preceding 
pages  shows  how  large  a  part  of  this  work  has  been  devoted 
to  American  antiquities  and  aborigines.  The  reason  for  the 
predominance  is  not  far  to  seek.      While  occupying  a  position 


770  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

as  one  of  the  great  scientific  institutions  and  museums  of  the 
world,  the  Smithsonian  is  naturally  an  American  institution, 
founded  by  individual  munificence,  aided  in  its  development 
by  appropriations  from  public  funds  of  the  United  States. 
While  renowned  foreign  scholars  have  deemed  it  an  honor 
to  be  associated  with  its  work,  the  majority  of  anthropologists 
who  have  aided  in  its  growth  have  been  American  specialists 
on  subjects  connected  with  America.  Few  countries  have  a 
larger  and  more  varied  anthropological  field  to  study  than 
our  own.  Fifty  years  ago  the  relative  proportion  of  the 
unknown  to  the  known  in  American  anthropology  was  much 
larger  than  at  present.  It  is  an  inevitable  result  of  these  and 
other  influences  that,  whatever  its  aspirations,  the  dominant 
influence  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  on  the  study  of  an- 
thropology must  be,  as  we  can  say  with  pride  it  has  been,  in 
fostering  the  study  of  American  ethnology  and  archaeology. 

As  a  national  institution,  there  is  but  one  ideal  possible  for 
the  Smithsonian  Institution,  and  that  the  highest,  the  leading 
scientific  center  of  the  intellectual  life  of  a  great  nation.  In 
American  anthropology  it  should  stand,  as  it  has  stood,  without 
a  rival  in  this  field,  not  one  of  several  institutions  fostering 
American  science,  but  the  leader,  appealing  to  scholars  through 
the  most  profound  researches,  and  to  the  public  and  students 
through  the  most  carefully  arranged  museum  in  the  country. 


GENERAL   REMARKS   ON   THE   ANTHROPOLOGICAL 

COLLECTIONS 

The  enormous  collections  of  material  in  the  exhibits  of  the 
Smithsonian  Institution  illustrating  archaeology  or  the  dis- 
tribution of  man  in  time,  and  ethnography  or  geographical 
distribution,  form  but  a  part  of  those  under  charge  of  the 
curator.     Its  wealth   is   known   to   the   special    student   who 


JxVMES   OLAEKE   AVELLi:^rG. 

REGENT  OF  THE  SMITHSONIAN  TNSTTTUTK^N 

1884-1694:. 


as  one  : 

Aw^v  ciii  American  i'^"- 
ccnce,  aided  in  its  deveiopmen. 
he   United 
a  scholars  have  deemed  it 
the  majority  of  an 

...^w its  grow...  ..^ve  been  An... .^ 

ccls  connected  with  America.     Few  counLiicb  a 

i  mor  led  a    '      oological  field  to  s 

■ur  own.  /ears  ar  tive   pre 

mknown  to  the  k.  ican  anthr<  jy  wa  \ 

-^  ..  n  at  present.     It  is  ....  ....„.._.  result  of  these  anO 

'""-^r  inflr  "  "      ^hat,  whatever  its  a?-"'^^' —   ""^^-^    ^  —  'nam 

le  study  of  an- 
ve  can  say  witi.  pride  it  ha 

arch  V 

■    ]^  hr.t  nvii  r 

itilic  *  tuai  iiic  ot  a  great  natu  i 

■  stand,  as  it  has  stood,  without 
a  r{\  a]  in  this  fiel-  -  ne  of  several  itions 

A.        . ...  .  ,.ence,  but  the  leader,  appealing  to  scholars  ti ^. 

he  I      ■''     -  ^  — ^ -1,  researches.  -^^^  '  "-^  the  public  and  students 

carefully  arrangcu  museum  in  the  coun 

MTHP 

1.  the  cxiUDits  oi 
Tchsology  or  the 

di  but  a  p 

curatc;^^^^j.^^  0feto:iO    eMT/^l. 


-    i   V*   t  ■-»-■-»   V 


Anthropology  yyi 

seeks  the  museum  for  his  researches.  That  which  is  not 
seen  by  the  visitor  is  carefully  preserved  and  freely  placed 
before  the  special  investigator.  All  great  museums  are  trea- 
sure-houses to  the  student,  repositories  of  unworked  ma- 
terial awaiting  the  advent  of  specialists.  The  Smithsonian 
Institution  thus  draws  visitors  to  the  objects  installed,  and 
special  students  to  the  rich  collections  stored  in  appropriate 
places.  Much  of  the  material  is  unique,  can  never  be  dupli- 
cated, and  so  long  as  it  lasts  will  draw  to  this  Mecca  of 
anthropologists  both  the  sightseer  and  the  investigator. 

Although  there  are  many  sides  to  the  discussion  of  the 
question  of  the  influence  of  the  installations  of  the  anthro- 
pological material  in  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  I  can  men- 
tion but  one  or  two  points  germane  to  this  subject.  One 
aim  of  a  museum  collection  is  to  attract  and  to  teach  the 
public  something.  Every  museum  strives  to  accomplish  this 
object,  but  the  means  used  often  vary.  In  certain  directions 
the  work  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  in  the  installation  of 
ethnological  and  archaeological  material  is  unique. 

The  value  of  models  is  recognized  by  all  curators,  and 
these  representations  have  been  used  with  great  success  in 
all  the  foremost  museums  of  the  world.  The  Smithsonian 
Institution  had  before  it  an  exceptional  problem  in  developing 
this  side  of  its  anthropological  exhibit.  Peculiar  conditions 
presented  themselves  to  those  in  charge  of  the  illustration  of 
American  ethnology  and  archaeology.  While  models  were 
considered  indispensable,  there  were  no  models  in  existence 
to  illustrate  aboriginal  American  life.  European  workmen, 
adepts  in  their  craft,  were  unfamiliar  with  our  Indians,  and 
their  attempts  to  represent  them  were  often  caricatures. 
American  modelers  had  not  yet  turned  their  attention  to  this 
line  of  work  when  the  Smithsonian  Institution  adopted  the 
method  and  carried  it  to  a  high  perfection.     An  Indian  group 


"J"] 2  The  Smithsojiian  Institution 

making  pottery  or  basketry,  a  Navaho  silversmith,  tells  a  story 
much  more  effectually  than  can  be  told  in  any  other  way. 
In  this  method  of  installation  the  Smithsonian  Institution  is 
not  only  a  pioneer  as  far  as  the  American  Indians  are  con- 
cerned, but  preeminent  among  museums. 

The  models  of  pueblos  and  cliff-houses  in  the  museum  are 
also  unique ;  their  duplication  elsewhere  shows  that  they  are 
appreciated  as  a  method  of  installation,  and  yet  it  is  not  say- 
ing too  much  to  declare  that  the  Smithsonian  Institution 
was  also  a  pioneer  in  this  kind  of  installation.  In  this  con- 
nection may  be  mentioned  an  adaptation  of  photographs  of 
ethnographic  material  which  has  attracted  much  attention 
among  experts  at  home  and  abroad.  I  refer  to  the  use  of 
transparencies  in  windows.  These  pictures  of  American 
Indians,  of  pueblos,  and  similar  objects  have  certainly  not 
been  carried  to  the  same  perfection  elsewhere. 

From  the  influences  which  have  been  enumerated,  and 
others  equally  potent,  anthropology  in  the  last  half  century 
has  made  enormous  strides.  In  this  short  time  in  the  history 
of  science  many  great  ethnological  museums  have  been  born 
and  grown  to  exert  widespread  influences.  Trained  anthro- 
pologists have  taken  the  places  of  amateurs,  ethnological  re- 
searches have  become  more  exact,  publications  more  special. 
The  mode  of  installation  of  ethnographic  material  has  im- 
proved, a  science  of  museums  is  beginning  to  be  recognized. 
The  history  of  the  influences  which  have  brought  about  all 
this  growth  interests  every  one  who  studies  the  glorious  part 
which  the  Smithsonian  Institution  has  played  in  the  fifty 
years  now  closing.  The  new  anthropology  nurtured  into 
vigor  by  great  institutions  reciprocates  by  claims  which  can- 
not be  disregarded ;  it  instinctively  looks  for  future  growth  to 
that  influence  to  which  it  owes  so  much  in  the  past. 


GEOGRAPHY 


By  Gardiner  Greene  Hubbard 


President  of  the  National  Geographic  Society 


^^PURING  the  half  century  that  has  elapsed  since 
t  the  Smithsonian  Institution  was  organized, 
more  progress  has  been  made  in  acquiring 
knowledge  of  the  geography  of  the  earth  than 
in  any  previous  century.  More  than  a  fourth 
of  the  globe,  which  in  1846  was  practically  unknown,  and 
was  represented  by  a  blank  on  our  maps,  has  been  explored 
in  this  half-century ;  and  in  this  work  of  developing  our 
knowledge  of  unknown  regions,  the  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion has  played  a  far  more  prominent  part  tlian  is  popularly 
supposed.  Few  expeditions  have  been  equipped  and  sent 
out  by  it;  but  of  the  expeditions  organized  by  the  United 
States  government  for  purposes  of  exploration,  there  are 
few  which  have  not  been  aided  by  the  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion, either  by  additions  to  its  personnel,  by  instruction, 
counsel  and  advice,  or  by  the  working  up  and  publication 
of  its  results. 

In  these  ways  the  fostering  care  of  the  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tution has  been  felt  by  many  branches  of  science  now  rep- 

773 


774  The  Smithsonian  bistitution 

resented  by  organizations  under  the  general  government. 
The  creation  of  these  organizations,  which  was  in  large 
part  due  to  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  constitutes  one  of 
its  greatest  services  to  mankind. 

It  was  Professor  Henry's  idea  that  the  Institution  should 
make  original  investigations  in  all  branches  of  geographic 
knowledge,  institute  explorations,  and  collect  specimens  of 
minerals,  animals,  plants,  and  ethnological  objects  for  its  mu- 
seum, where  they  could  be  studied  by  specialists,  and  diffuse 
knowledge  by  publications  based  upon  them.  This  plan  con- 
templates increasing  our  knowledge,  (A)  by  means  of  explor- 
ing expeditions  sent  out,  either  at  its  sole  expense  or  jointly 
with  other  organizations;  (B)  by  the  collection  of  specimens 
for  the  museum  illustrating  the  geography,  geology,  biology, 
and  ethnography  of  the  countries  explored.  It  should  diffuse 
the  knowledge  thus  gained,  (A)  by  the  preparation  of  maps; 
(B)  by  the  publication  of  its  annual  reports;  and  (C)  by  the 
publication  of  memoirs. 

Among  the  many  expeditions  which  the  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tution has  aided  in  a  greater  or  less  degree,  a  few  only  can 
be  specifically  mentioned. 

NORTH    AMERICA 

If  we  look  at  the  northern  part  of  North  America  on  a  map 
of  1846,  we  shall  find  the  shore  line  of  the  Arctic  Ocean  ill- 
defined  and  the  outlines  of  the  islands  and  the  mainland  fre- 
quently confused.  The  river  Yukon  on  that  map  enters  the 
Arctic  Ocean  near  Point  Beechey  instead  of  flowing  into  Be- 
ring Sea,  several  hundred  miles  to  the  southward,  as  is  now 
known  to  be  the  case.  Although  the  general  courses  of  the 
rivers  were  then  laid  down  with  some  approach  to  correct- 
ness, this  was  more  through  theoretical  than  by  actual  know- 


Geography  775 

ledge.  On  one  of  the  maps  of  this  date,  the  Red  River  of  the 
North  flows  south  instead  of  north,  connecting-  the  great  rivers 
flowing  into  Lake  Winnipeg  and  Hudson  Bay  with  the  Min- 
nesota and  the  Mississippi.  Alaska,  then  httle  known,  was 
the  property  of  Russia. 

Professor  Henry  took  great  interest  in  the  exploration  of 
the  Arctic  Ocean  ;  and  aided  by  his  counsel,  advice  and  in- 
struction, the  second  Grinnell  expedition,  under  Doctor  Elisha 
Kent  Kane,  was  undertaken  in  1853,  that  of  Doctor  Isaac 
I.  Hayes  in  i860,  and  the  Polaris  expedition,  under  Captain 
Charles  F.  Hall,  in  1871. 

The  western  part  of  Canada  was  then  controlled  by  the 
Hudson  Bay  Company.  At  its  request  Professor  Henry 
prepared  circulars  to  its  officers,  with  suggestions  and  direc- 
tions for  exploration  of  its  territory.  In  accordance  with 
these  suggestions  much  exploration  was  done  between  1850 
and  1870,  at  the  joint  expense  of  that  company  and  the 
Smithsonian  Institution.  In  this  way  valuable  additions  to 
our  knowledge  of  its  geography  and  biology  were  acquired. 

In  1 86 1  the  Western  Union  Telegraph  Company  organ- 
ized an  expedition  for  building  lines  of  telegraph  overland 
through  Alaska  and  Siberia  to  Europe.  Robert  Kennicott, 
William  H.  Dall,  and  George  Kennan  accompanied  the  ex- 
pedition, partly  in  the  capacity  of  representatives  of  the  In- 
stitution, and  made  extensive  explorations  in  Alaska  and . 
eastern  Siberia;  but  before  their  work  was  tinished,  it  was 
interrupted  by  the  successful  laying  of  the  Atlantic  cable. 
Notices  of  these  explorations  were  published  in  the  Re- 
ports of  the  Institution.  Subsequently,  when  stations  were 
established  in  Alaska  and  the  Arctic  reofions  of  America 
for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  meteorological  data,  the  In- 
stitution selected  observers  to  accompany  the  parties,  and 
furnished  other  material  aid ;  and  the  explorations  made  by 


7^6  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

the  parties  stationed  at  Point  Barrow  and  Lady  Franklin 
Bay  were  in  no  small  degree  the  result  of  the  cooperation 
of  the  Institution.  By  such  means  a  large  portion  of  the 
Arctic  regions  of  North  America  was  explored,  and  extensive 
collections,  especially  of  biologic  and  ethnologic  subjects, 
were   made. 

In  1846  the  greater  part  of  the  United  States  west  of  the 
one-hundredth  meridian  was  unknown.  The  most  western 
State  was  then  Illinois,  the  region  west  of  the  Mississippi 
being  an  unsettled  region  where  Indians  and  buffaloes 
roamed.  Texas  had  just  been  admitted  to  the  Union,  but 
California  and  the  greater  part  of  the  country  west  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains  belonged  to  Mexico,  and  were  ceded  to  the 
United  States  in  1848.  The  explorations  of  Lewis  and 
Clarke,  Pike,  Long,  Bonneville,  and  Fremont  had  laid  down 
the  general  course  of  the  main  streams,  and  the  general  dis- 
tribution of  the  mountain  systems,  but  little  or  nothing  was 
known  of  the  details  of  the  topography,  and  nothing  what- 
ever of  the  resources  of  the  country.  The  only  means  of 
reaching  California  was  by  sailing  vessels  around  Cape 
Horn.  The  Mormons  were  then  located  on  the  Mississippi 
River,  and  several  years  passed  before  they  took  up  their 
dangerous  march  across  the  desert  to  Salt  Lake. 

Between  1849  and  1854  the  United  States  government 
.sent  out  a  number  of  expeditions  for  the  purpose  of  discov- 
ering practicable  routes  for  railroads  across  this  great  desert 
region.  These  expeditions  were  conducted  by  the  War 
Department,  but  they  were  aided  in  many  ways  by  the 
Smithsonian  Institution.  They  were  accompanied  by  geolo- 
gists, botanists  and  ethnologists,  who  received  their  instruc- 
tions from  the  Institution ;  and  the  magnificent  series  of 
Pacific  Railroad  reports  are  in  no  small  degree  the  work  of 
the    Institution.     After    these    expeditions    followed    many 


Geography  jyj 

others,  under  the  control  of  the  War  Department,  wliich 
were  aided  in  greater  or  less  degree  by  the  Institution;  but 
they  are  too  numerous  to  be  mentioned  here. 

The  early  ex[)lorations  of  Professor  F.  V.  Hayden,  which 
were  mainly  geological  in  character,  were  aided  b)'  the  In- 
stitution. In  1869  Major  J.  W.  Powell,  partly  at  the  expense 
of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  and  jjartly  at  that  of  the  Illi- 
nois State  University,  explored  the  Colorado  River  of  the 
West,  traversing  it  from  Green  River  to  the  foot  of  its  can- 
ons in  boats.  During  subsequent  years  he  continued  ex- 
ploration of  the  plateau  region  drained  by  this  river  and  its 
tributaries,  under  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  mainly  by  the 
aid  of  direct  appropriations  from  Congress.  Finally,  in  1879, 
the  organizations  of  Major  J.  W,  Powell,  Doctor  F".  V. 
Hayden  and  Lieutenant  G.  M,  Wheeler,  of  the  United  States 
Engineer  Corps,  were  merged  into  the  present  United  States 
Geological  Survey. 

During  the  earlier  part  of  this  period  of  fifty  years  before 
the  general  construction  of  railroads,  the  navigation  of  the 
Ohio  and  Mississippi  rivers  was  of  the  utmost  importance 
to  the  inhabitants  of  the  IVIississippi  Valley,  for  it  afforded  the 
only  means  of  intercommunication  between  the  people  living 
in  the  northern  and  southern  parts  of  the  valley  of  this  river. 
Furthermore,  the  annual  inundations  of  the  Mississippi  River 
were  often  the  cause  of  orreat  devastation  to  the  cotton  and 
sugar  fields  in  the  lower  part  of  the  great  valley,  as  the 
banks  of  the  river  are  lower  than  the  river  at  its  hioh-water 
mark.  Moreover,  the  bar  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  was  a 
serious  impediment  to  sea-going  vessels.  The  Ohio  and 
Mississippi  rivers  were  examined  by  Charles  Ellet.  under 
the  general  oversight  of  Professor  Henry,  and  the  contribu- 
tions of  Mr.  Ellet  were  published  at  various  times  by  the 
Institution  in  iS49-'5o-'5 1,  and  were  of  great  value  not  only 
50 


7/8  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

as  an  aid  to  our  knowledge  of  the  physical  geography  of  the 
rivers,  but  also  as  determining  the  steps  to  be  taken,  and 
which  have  subsequently  been  carried  out,  for  improving  the 
navigation  of  the  rivers  and  the  prevention  of  inundations. 

Great  wisdom  was  shown  by  the  Institution  in  its  earlier 
days  in  aiding  other  institutions  unable  to  incur  the  whole 
expenses  of  an  expedition,  by  furnishing  the  means  for  send- 
ing out  skilled  parties  connected  with  such  universities, 
thereby  obtaining  more  satisfactory  results  and  interesting 
broader  circles  than  if  the  expeditions  had  been  made  solely 
by  the  Institution.  Thus  Professor  Charles  B.  Adams,  of 
Amherst  College,  was  sent  to  the  West  Indies  and  Panama 
on  two  expeditions  in  1851-52,  at  the  joint  expense  of  the 
Smithsonian  Institution  and  the  College.  In  1868,  Frederick 
Sumichrast,  of  Kentucky  University,  was  sent  out  to  explore 
the  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec,  and  he  prepared  an  account 
of  his  journey,  which  was  made  at  the  joint  expense  of  the 
University  and  the  Smithsonian  Institution, 

In  1868  the  remains  of  a  bone  cave  were  found  in  the 
West  India  island  of  Anguilla  and  thoroughly  examined 
by  experts  of  the  Smithsonian.  This  investigation  throws 
light  not  only  on  the  ancient  life,  but  also  on  the  geography 
of  the  West  Indies  in  prehistoric  times,  and  the  importance 
of  the  research  is  shown,  Professor  Baird  tells  us,  by  the 
following  considerations: 

First.  It  is  the  first  investigation  of  the  life  of  the  cave 
age  in  the  West  Indies. 

Secoftd.  It  gives  the  first  reliable  indication  of  the  period 
of  submergence,  and  hence  of  separation  of  the  West  India 
islands  from  the  continent. 

Third.  It  furnishes  the  best  evidence  as  to  the  antiquity 
of  man  in  the  West  Indies,  and  brings  to  light  some  very 
peculiar  forms  of  animal  life  not  previously  known. 


Geography  779 

There  is  not  space  to  mention  the  many  reports  of  different 
travelers  and  collectors  in  the  West  India  islands.  Xo  part 
of  the  world  seems  to  have  been  so  frequently  visited  by 
writers  for  the  Smithsonian  as  the  West  India  islands  and 
the  different  countries  in  Central  America. 


ASIA 

Passing  now  from  America,  we  will  consider  the  work  of  the 
Smithsonian  Institution  in  extending  our  knowledge  of  the 
Old  World.  Ten  years  after  the  Institution  was  chartered,  an 
exploring  expedition  was  sent  out  by  the  United  States,  and 
by  the  able  management  of  its  commander,  Perry.  Japan  was 
first  opened  to  foreign  trade.  Since  that  time,  and  within 
the  last  thirty  years,  greater  changes  have  taken  place  in 
Japan  than  ever  before  in  any  country  —  a  country  which 
had  been  closed  to  the  rest  of  the  world  for  over  two  hun- 
dred years,  and  where  no  changes  had  taken  place  in  the 
manner,  habits  or  progress  of  the  people  for  many  centuries. 
The  Japanese  in  many  ways  differ  from  their  neighbors 
the  Chinese  and  Koreans ;  though  they  resemble  them  in 
some  of  their  habits  and  in  their  religion,  yet  their  language 
is  very  dissimilar.  Inquiries  have  therefore  been  made  to 
ascertain  their  origin,  and  especially  by  Romeyn  Hitchcock, 
who  visited  Japan  in  1887  and  1889.  On  traveling  into  the 
northern  part  of  the  country  his  attention  was  called  to  the 
Ainos,  who  were  supposed  to  have  been  the  earliest  inhabit- 
ants of  that  territory,  and  at  some  early  period  had  been  for- 
cibly driven  from  the  south,  the  richest  portions  ol  Japan, 
into  Jeddo,  the  most  northern  and  poorest  of  the  islands.  In 
visiting  northern  Japan  to  learn  more  of  the  Ainos.  he  heard 
of  the  Pit  Dwellers,  earlier  inhabitants  of  Japan  than  the 
Ainos,  but  greatly  inferior  to  them,  who  probably  had  been 


7^0  The  SniitJisonian  Institution 

driven  from  their  pits  by  the  Aincs.  This  report  is  of  great 
value  and  interest,  and  was  published  in  1890  by  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution. 

The  maps  of  fifty  years  ago  show  the  general  course  of  the 
rivers  of  China  (with  several  ranges  of  mountains),  having 
been  largely  constructed  from  the  reports  of  Marco  Polo, 
who  traveled  through  China  six  hundred  years  ago,  for  little 
had  been  added  to  the  knowledge  of  the  interior  of  China 
since  his  time.  During  the  past  fifty  years  intercouse  with 
China  has  been  greatly  increased,  barriers  have  been  thrown 
down,  the  country  has  been  partially  opened  to  missionaries 
and  travelers,  who  have  crossed  and  recrossed  its  territory, 
so  that  we  have  now  a  oreneral  knowledofe  of  the  whole  of  the 
Chinese  Empire.  Raphael  Pumpelly  was  one  of  the  first 
Americans  who  traveled  extensively  through  China,  Mon- 
golia, and  Japan  between  1862  and  1865,  and  his  researches 
were  published  by  the  Smithsonian  Institution.  He  was  the 
first  to  describe  the  great  Loess  formation  of  the  Hoang-Ho, 
in  northeastern  China,  which  has  been  the  chief  source  of  its 
agricultural  wealth  and  the  means  of  subsistence  of  its  vast 
population,  and  to  ascertain  the  location  of  the  vast  coal  beds 
and  fields  of  iron  and  copper.  Various  facts  have  been  ascer- 
tained in  regard  to  the  Loess  formation,  of  interest  to  us,  as 
the  same  formation  has  been  found  in  Iowa  and  some  other 
of  the  central  States.  These  countries  were  again  explored 
in  1 88 1  by  Pierre  L.  Jouy,  who  also  visited  Korea,  and  sub- 
sequently by  John  B.  Bernadou,  each  of  whom  made  large 
collections  of  the  fauna  of  those  countries  and  of  the  mortuary 
pottery  of  Korea.  It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  latter 
are  not  only  valuable  as  interesting  specimens  of  art,  but 
also  as  giving  us  a  very  accurate  knowledge  of  the  resources 
of  the  country  and  the  character  and  civilization  of  its  inhab- 
itants.     Later  William  W.   Rockhill,   for  several   years  con- 


Geography  781 

nected  with  the  American  Embassy  in  China,  acquired  suffi- 
cient knowledge  of  the  Chinese  language  to  converse  in  it, 
and  also  became  acquainted  with  the  habits  and  customs  of 
the  people,  and  thus  was  fitted  to  travel  in  that  country.  He 
traversed  China,  Mongolia,  and  Tibet,  thous^di  he  was  not 
successful  in  reaching  Lassa.  A  year  or  two  later  he  visited 
these  countries  a  second  time;  and  an  account  of  the  countries 
and  peoples  visited  by  him  in  both  of  these  explorations  is 
given  in  the  reports  published  by  the  Smithsonian.  South- 
east of  Tibet  is  the  beautiful  Vale  of  Kashmir  and  the  deep 
valleys  of  the  Himalayas,  with  canons  through  which  the  In- 
dus runs,  as  much  deeper  than  our  caiions  as  the  mountains 
are  higher  than  those  of  our  own  country.  These  were 
visited  by  Doctor  William  L.  Abbott  in    1893   ^^'^^   1894. 

AFRICA 

Fifty  years  ago  the  interior  of  Africa  was  unknown  ;  the 
maps  of  Africa  delineated  the  coast-line,  the  course  of  the 
Niger,  the  lower  Nile,  a  small  tract  south  of  the  Desert 
of  Sahara  in  the  region  of  Timbuctoo,  and  Lake  Tchad  and 
Cape  Colony,  while  all  the  rest  was  unknown.  U  was  re- 
served for  our  times — for  Livingstone  and  Stanley  and  Speke 
and  Baker,  and  a  host  of  other  eminent  travelers,  to  explore 
the  different  parts  of  Africa,  until  now  the  Dark  Continent 
has  become  better  known  than  the  interior  of  Asia.  Negrroes 
from  our  country  were  sent  to  Liberia,  under  the  auspices  of 
the  American  Colonization  Society,  and  founded  the  first 
republic  of  Africa.  This  republic  was  visited  by  Reverend 
R.  R.  Gurley  in  1824,  1858,  and  1867,  who  in  his  earlier 
trips  collected  many  specimens  for  the  Smithsonian  museum. 
Near  Liberia,  and  east  of  Dahomey,  is  Yoruba,  the  most 
densely  populated  portion  of  Africa, — a  country  inhabited  by 
50* 


782  The  Smithsonian  histitntion 

a  peculiar  people  more  highly  civilized  than  most  other  negro 
tribes.  It  was  visited  by  Reverend  J.  J.  Brown  in  1856-57, 
who  prepared  a  grammar  and  dictionary  of  their  language, 
of  great  value  to  ethnologists,  with  a  description  of  the 
country  and  people.  In  1889,  Reverend  A.  C.  Goode  visited 
the  Gaboon,  a  little  to  the  north  of  the  Congo,  and  about  the 
same  time  Heli  Chatelain  explored  the  coast  of  Africa  south 
of  the  Congo,  near  Loando,  one  of  the  most  flourishing  settle- 
ments in  Africa,  founded  by  the  Portuguese,  where  they  have 
large  plantations  and  a  railroad  extending  into  the  interior. 
Their  reports  were  published  in  1891  and  1892.  The  river 
Congo  was  visited  by  J.  M.  Camp  between  1892  and  1895, 
who  collected  many  valuable  specimens  for  the  Museum, 
and  also  by  Dorsey  Mohun,  who  sailed  up  the  river  to 
the  territory  of  the  Ujiji  people  in  eastern  Africa.  There  is 
one  country  in  Africa,  Morocco,  partially  civilized,  of  which 
we  know  less  than  of  any  other  similar  country,  as  its  in- 
habitants oppose  the  entrance  of  travelers  or  any  foreigner 
into  their  country.  Morocco  has  had  a  civilization  of  its  own 
for  many  centuries,  and  from  there  the  Moors  entered  and 
conquered  Spain,  and  there  they  found  a  refuge  when  driven 
from  Granada.  This  country  was  visited  in  1889  by  Talcott 
Williams,  of  Philadelphia,  who  prepared  a  most  interesting 
account  of  his  visit  for  publication  by  the  Smithsonian 
Institution. 

A  number  of  scientific  expeditions  have  been  sent  out  by 
our  government  to  witness  eclipses  of  the  sun;  one  in  1889 
to  South  Africa  to  observe  the  eclipse  which  took  place 
that  year.  In  this  connection  the  coast  of  the  Congo  region 
was  visited  by  William  Harvey  Brown,  of  the  National 
Museum,  who  later  accompanied  an  expedition  sent  out  by 
the  South  African  Exploring  Company  into  South  Africa,  the 
country  of  which  we  have  recently  heard  so  much  ;   for  here 


Geography  -j^z 

are  the  great  diamond  mines  of  Rhodesia  and  the  gold  fields 
of  the  Transvaal,  which  so  nearly  involved  England  in  a  war 
with  the  Boers,  and  were  the  cause  of  the  rising  of  the  Mata- 
beles  and  Mashona  tribes. 

Eastern  and  northeastern  Africa  have  also  been  visited 
by  two  American  explorers,  who  associated  themselves  with 
the  Smithsonian  Institution  by  presenting  large  and  valuable 
collections  of  natural  history  and  ethnological  objects  to  the 
National  Museum.  Doctor  William  L.  Abbott  visited  that 
part  of  eastern  Africa  now  claimed  ])y  the  Germans,  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  great  snow  mountain  of  Kilimanjaro,  from  1889 
to  1893,  going  from  there  to  Madagascar.  In  1892,  W'illiam 
Astor  Chanler,  of  New  York,  after  a  full  conference  with 
Doctor  G.  Brown  Goode,  determined  on  an  expedition  to 
British  East  Africa,  for  the  purpose  of  exploring  the  source 
of  the  Yuba  and  the  rivers  of  Abyssinia.  His  journey  was  of 
great  interest.  He  visited  many  localities  in  northeastern 
Africa,   and  a  report  of  his  journey  was  published   in    1893. 

Besides  the  publications  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution 
which  have  been  mentioned  in  the  preceding  pages,  in  con- 
nection with  the  story  of  its  relations  to  exploration  and  travel, 
the  Institution  has  issued  numerous  publications  of  a  geo- 
graphical character.  For  five  years,  from  1882  to  1S86, 
inclusive,  it  published  in  its  annual  report  a  summary  of  prog- 
ress in  geography,  in  which,  in  a  few  pages,  the  progress 
made  by  mankind,  in  acquiring  knowledge  of  its  environ- 
ment, was  set  forth.  It  has  published  a  collection  of  geo- 
graphical tables  in  several  editions,  the  earliest  of  which  were 
edited  by  Professor  Arnold  Guyot,  and  the  latest  by  Professor 
Robert  S.  Woodward,  which  are  of  the  greatest  value  to 
geographers  and  scientific  travelers. 

It  has  published  many  short  papers,  among  which  are 
"Promotion  of  Further  Discovery  in  the  Arctic  and  Antarctic 


784  The  Smithsonian  Institntion 

Regions,"  and  "The  Present  Standpoint  of  Geography,"  by  the 
well-known  English  geographer,  Clements  R.  Markham;  "The 
Renewal  of  Antarctic  Exploration,"  by  another  celebrated 
English  geographer,  John  Murray;  "The  Mediterranean, 
Physical  and  Historical,"  by  R.  L.  Playfair;  "Development  of 
the  Cartography  of  America  up  to  the  year  i57o,"by  S.  Ruge; 
"Geographical  Latitude,"  by  W.  B.  Scaife;  "The  North  Polar 
Basin,"  by  Henry  Seebohm;  "Physical  Condition  of  the 
Ocean,"  by  W.  J.  L.  Wharton;  "How  Maps  are  Made,"  by 
H.  O.  Blakie;  "Antarctica,  a  Vanished  Austral  Land,"  by 
W,  B.  Forbes;  "Antarctic  Explorations,"  by  G.  S.  Griffiths; 
"Evolution  of  Commerce"  and  "The  Relations  of  Air  and 
Water  to  Temperature  and  Life,"  by  Gardiner  G.  Hubbard  ; 
"Stanley  and  the  Map  of  Africa,"  by  J.  S.  Kelte. 

A  compilation  of  data  regarding  altitudes  in  the  United 
States  was  first  undertaken  by  the  Institution.  A  generation 
ago  attempts  were  made  by  it  to  obtain  profiles  of  the  railroads 
of  the  country,  and  great  progress  had  been  made  in  this  work 
when  it  was  taken  up  on  the  one  hand  by  the  Signal  Office, 
and  on  the  other  by  the  Hayden  Survey,  and  since  carried 
forward  by  that  organization  and  its  successor,  the  present 
Geological  Survey.  The  only  outcome  of  this  collection  of 
altitudes  made  by  the  Institution  is  the  production  of  a  small 
hypsometric  map  of  the  United  States,  prepared  by  Charles 
A.  Schott,  and  published  in  the  United  States  Statistical 
Atlas  of  1874. 

Many  maps  have  been  published  by  the  Institution,  but  in 
practically  all  cases  they  are  embodied  in  reports  which  they 
serve  to  illustrate,  and  therefore  require  no  separate  mention. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

By  Henry  Carrington  Bolton 

Lecturer  on  the  History  of  Chemistry  and  Professor  of  Bibliography, 

Cohimbian   University 


ORD  RAYLEIGH,  in  his  presidential  address 
at  the  Montreal  meeting  of  the  British  Asso- 
ciation held  in  1884,  said: 

"  By  a  fiction  as  remarkable  as  any  to  be 
found  in  law,  what  has  once  been  published, 
even  though  it  be  in  the  Russian  language,  is  usually  spoken 
of  as  'known,'  and  it  is  often  forgotten  that  the  re-discovery 
in  the  library  may  be  a  more  difficult  and  uncertain  process 
than  the  first  discovery  in  the  laboratory." 

This  well  formulated  truth,  coming  from  so  high  an  author- 
ity, emphasizes  very  strongly  the  immense  importance  of 
bibliographical  publications,  a  fact  which  has  always  been 
appreciated  by  the  Smithsonian  Institution.  Having  been 
especially  established  to  promote  "  the  increase  and  diftusion 
of  knowledge  among  men,"  its  officers  have  always  regarded 
as  peculiarly  within  its  province  the  means  for  making  the 
vast  stores  of  learning  in  print  available  to  students  of  science. 
This  feature  was  an  object  of  particular  interest  to  the  first 
Secretary,  Joseph  Henry,  and  in  his  "  Programme  of  Organi- 
zation," he    recommended    that    the    library  should    contain. 

785 


786  The  Sniithsonian  Institittioii 

"  first,  a  complete  collection  of  the  transactions  and  pro- 
ceeding-s  of  all  the  learned  societies  in  the  world  ;  and  second, 
of  the  more  important  current  periodicals,  publications,  and 
other  works  necessary  in  preparing  the  periodical  reports." 
Subsequently  he  further  recommended  that  "catalogues  of  all 
the  different  libraries  in  the  United  States  should  be  pro- 
cured," as  well  as  "catalogues  of  memoirs,  and  of  books  and 
other  materials  for  rendering  the  Institution  a  centre  of  biblio- 
graph  ica  I  knowledge. " 

Again,  in  his  Report  for  1851,  Henry  remarked:  "One 
of  the  most  important  means  of  facilitating  the  use  of  libraries 
(particularly  with  reference  to  science),  is  well-digested  in- 
dexes of  subjects,  not  merely  referring  to  volumes  or  books, 
but  to  memoirs,  papers,  and  parts  of  scientific  transactions 
and  systematic  works." 

He  then  refers  to  Doctor  Thomas  Young's  "  Catalogue  of 
Books  Relating  to  Natural  Philosophy  and  the  Mechanical 
Arts,"  published  in  1807,  and  remarks:  "  I  know  of  no  richer 
gift  which  could  be  bestowed  upon  the  science  of  our  day 
than  the  continuation  of  this  catalogue  to  the  present  time. 
Every  one  who  is  desirous  of  enlarging  the  bounds  of  human 
knowledge  should,  in  justice  to  himself  as  well  as  to  the  pub- 
lic, be  acquainted  with  what  has  previously  been  done  in  the 
same  line ;  and  this  he  will  only  be  enabled  to  accomplish  by 
the  use  ot  indexes  of  the  kind  above  mentioned." 

These  brief  extracts  show  the  mental  attitude  of  Henry 
toward  bibliographical  labors.  Reference  will  be  made  later 
to  his  splendid  contribution  to  bibliography  in  suggesting 
the  work  which  led  to  the  publication  by  the  Royal  Society 
of  London  of  the  "Catalogue  of  Scientific  Papers." 

As  in  many  other  departments  of  activity,  the  foundations 
laid  by  Henry  for  bibliography  have  been  constantly  built 
upon  by  his  successors  in  the   secretaryship.     Their  policy 


Bibliogj'aphy  787 

has  always  been  to  foster  bibliographical  researches,  both  by 
the  labors  of  the  staff  of  the  Smithsonian,  as  well  as  by 
scholars  and  specialists  to  whom  the  pages  of  its  publications 
have  been  freely  opened. 

The  "  Smithsonian  Deposit,"  in  the  Library  of  Congress, 
is  especially  rich  in  the  publications  of  learned  societies ;  the 
Smithsonian  "Annual  Report,"  "Miscellaneous  Collections," 
and  "Contributions  to  Knowledge"  are  replete  with  indexes, 
catalogues,  bibliographies,  and  check-lists  to  every  branch  of 
knowledge,  supplying  to  some  extent  the  tools  for  the  use 
of  bibliographers. 


JEWETT'S  PLAN  FOR  A  GENERAL  CATALOGUE 

Professor  Charles  C.  Jewett,  Assistant  Secretary  of  the 
Institution  and  Librarian,  in  1850,  proposed  an  elaborate 
plan  for  compiling  a  general  catalogue  of  all  the  books  in 
the  United  States  with  reference  to  the  libraries  where  each 
might  be  found.  To  accomplish  this  Professor  Jewett  de- 
vised a  method  of  elcctrotyping  titles  separately,  one  on  a 
block,  and  he  drew  up  a  set  of  "  Rules  "  for  cataloguing  to 
secure  uniformity  on  the  part  of  the  different  librarians. 
Professor  Jewett  seems  to  have  anticipated  some  of  the  feat- 
ures of  the  modern  linotype  method  of  printing  catalogues, 
as  the  process  is  stated  to  be  "  peculiarly  adapted  to  the 
stereotyping  of  separate  titles  or  even  of  single  lines."  His 
plan  contemplated  cooperation  between  the  libraries  in  the 
United  States  and  the  Smithsonian  Institution  on  this  basis: 
the  titles  of  books  received  were  to  be  transcribed  on  a  uni- 
form system,  and  then  to  be  stereotyped  by  the  Smithsonian, 
the  latter  Institution  to  pay  the  extra  expense  of  stereotyp- 
ing or  such  part  as  might  be  agreed  upon  ;  the  stereotyped 
titles  to  remain  the  property  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution; 


788  The  Sjnithsonian  Institution 

and  each  library  to  have  the  right  of  using  all  the  titles  in 
the  possession  of  the  Institution,  as  often  as  desired,  for  the 
printing  of  its  own  catalogue  by  the  Smithsonian  Institution, 
paying  only  the  expense  of  making  up  the  pages,  or  press- 
work,  and  of  distributing  the  titles  to  their  proper  place. 
And  lastly,  the  Smithsonian  Institution  to  publish,  as  soon  as 
possible,  and  at  stated  intervals,  a  "  General  Catalogue  of  all 
Libraries  "  coming  into  this  system. 

In  urging  the  economy  of  this  scheme,  the  interesting  fact 
was  brought  forward  that  the  printed  catalogues  of  libraries 
in  the  United  States  comprised  a  total  of  450,000  titles,  but 
of  these  not  more  than  150,000  titles  were  different.  This 
was  in  1850;  now  there  are  several  single  libraries  which  have 
on  their  shelves  more  books  than  all  the  combined  libraries 
of  the  United  States  then  possessed. 

Professor  Jewett  proposed  an  extension  of  the  copyright  law 
to  all  books,  and  the  publication  of  a  monthly  "Bulletin"  as 
well  as  a  "  General  Catalogue"  every  five  years.  He  favored 
an  alphabetical  arrangement  of  titles  on  account  of  the  dififi- 
culties  surrounding  any  attempt  at  classification.  His  scheme 
provided  for  a  superintendent  to  revise  the  titles  so  that  they 
conform  to  the  "Rules,"  and  to  supervise  the  stereotyping. 

The  "Rules  for  Preparing  Catalogues"  embody  detailed 
instructions  as  to  the  transcription  of  titles,  the  choice  of 
headings,  the  treatment  of  foreign  names  in  alphabeting,  the 
character  of  cross-references  and  the  arrangement  of  data ; 
they  are  followed  by  examples  and  a  library  check-list  show- 
ing in  what  American  libraries  (thirteen  selected)  the  books 
catalogued  are  to  be  found.  The  "Rules"  have  formed  the 
basis  of  all  subsequent  publications  of  like  character,  although 
certain  ones  have  been  materially  changed. 

The  plan  of  stereotyping  separate  titles  was  carried  on 
for  several  years    by   the    Smithsonian    Institution,   but   the 


Bibliography  789 

scheme  for  a  "  General  Catalogue  "  was  never  accomplished, 
though  a  beginning  was  made.  Jewett  further  published 
"Notes  of  Public  Libraries  in  the  United  States"  (1851),  a 
work  which,  though  admittedly  incomplete,  excited  great 
interest;  and  the  distribution  of  the  volume  brought  into  the 
Institution  a  large  amount  of  statistical  information  pertinent 
to  the  subject. 

HENRY  AND  THE  ROYAL  SOCIETY 

The  monumental  work  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London,  a 
"Catalogue  of  Scientific  Papers,  1800-83,"  had  its  origin 
in  a  communication  addressed  by  the  first  Secretary  of  the 
Smithsonian  Institution  to  the  British  Association  for  the 
Advancement  of  Science. 

As  early  as  1854,  Henry  conceived  the  plan  of  preparing 
an  "American  Scientific  Bibliography,"  and  sought  to  enlist 
the  cooperation  of  the  British  Association  for  the  Advance- 
ment of  Science  in  procuring,  with  its  large  resources,  a 
similar  classified  index  for  British  and  European  scientific 
literature.  Henry's  proposal  was  favorably  received  by  the 
British  Association  and  referred  to  a  committee  comprising 
Fellows  of  the  Royal  Society  ;  this  committee  approved  the 
suggestion,  presented  a  general  outline  of  the  proposed  work, 
and  eventually  succeeded  in  interesting  the  Royal  Society 
itself  in  the  undertaking.  Ten  years  later,  the  Royal  So- 
ciety, aided  by  a  government  grant,  published  the  first  part 
of  its  splendid  "Catalogue  of  Scientific  Papers."  In  the 
preface  occur  the  following  words:  "The  present  under- 
taking may  be  said  to  have  originated  in  a  communication 
from  Doctor  Joseph  Henry,  Secretary  of  the  Smithsonian 
Institution."  The  eleven  quarto  volumes,  covering  the  period 
1800  to   1883,  form  one  of  the  greatest  tributes  to  Henry's 


790  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

sagacity.  Being  an  author-catalogue  arranged  alphabeti- 
cally, its  use  has  been  hampered  by  the  lack  of  a  subject- 
index,  but  scholars  have  been  recently  delighted  to  learn  that 
the  Royal  Society  contemplates  supplying  this  very  impor- 
tant deficiency. 

The  Royal  Society  has  recently  opened  correspondence 
with  the  Smithsonian  Institution  concerning  a  continuation 
of  the  Catalogue  on  an  enlarged  plan  for  the  period  begin- 
ning with  the  year  1900. 

In  a  letter  dated  March  31,  1894,  Professor  Michael  Foster, 
Secretary  of  the  Royal  Society,  says : 

"The  Smithsonian  Institution  is,  on  historical  grounds, 
so  closely  connected  with  the  efforts  of  the  Royal  Society  in 
cataloguing  scientific  papers,  that  I  am  directed  to  add  to  the 
circular  letter  herewith  sent,  a  few  words  expressing  the  hope 
of  the  Committee  of  the  Royal  Society,  which  has  the  matter 
in  hand,  that  they  may  have  in  a  special  way  the  assistance 
of  your  valuable  body  in  coming  to  a  decision  on  so  important 
a  question." 

The  circular  alluded  to  states  that  the  Royal  Society  con- 
templates the  preparation  of  a  continuation  of  the  catalogue, 
and  inquires  as  to  the  feasibility  of  its  being  compiled  through 
international  cooperation,  and  invites  suggestions  as  to  the 
best  methods  for  carrying  out  the  plans. 

Secretary  Langley  replied  promptly,  and  his  letter  is  thus 
referred  to  in  the  report  of  the  International  Catalogue 
Committee  dated  July  25,  1895  : 

"  It  is  a  pfreat  orratification  to  the  Committee  that  the 
matter  has  been  taken  up  in  a  most  cordial  manner  by  the 
Smithsonian  Institution,  the  Secretary  of  which,  in  his  reply, 
refers  to  the  desirability  of  a  catalogue  of  the  kind  suggested 
as  being  so  obvious  that  the  work  commends  itself  at  once." 


Bibliography  79 1 

An  International  Conference  was  held  in  London  in  July, 
1896,  to  consider  this  important  undertaking,  in  answer  to 
invitations  sent  by  Lord  Salisbury  to  twenty-one  countries, 
and  the  results  of  its  labors  are  familiar  to  all. 


CHECK-LIST  OF  SERIALS 

From  time  to  time  the  Smithsonian  Institution  has  published 
check-lists  and  catalogues  of  the  publications  of  learned  so- 
cieties and  of  periodicals  received  and  placed  on  file  in  the 
library.  The  first  of  these  bears  the  date  1853,  "  Check-list 
of  periodicals  received  in  the  reading-room,"  issued  only  as  a 
separate.  This  was  followed  by  others  in  1855,  1856,  1859, 
1862,  and  culminated  in  the  stout  volume  of  nearly  600 
pages,  octavo,  issued  in  1866,  entitled:  "Catalogue  of  Publi- 
cations of  Societies  and  of  Periodical  Works,  belonging  to 
the  Smithsonian  Institution,  January  i,  1866."  At  the  time 
of  its  publication  it  was  the  "  most  complete  work  on  the 
bibliography  of  publications  of  learned  societies  which  has 
yet  appeared  in  the  English  language." 

In  1882,  Mr.  William  J.  Rhees,  chief  clerk  of  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution,  contributed  an  important  bibliograph\-  to 
the  series,  entitled  :  "  Catalogue  of  Publications  of  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution  (1846-82),  with  an  Alphabetical  Index  of 
Articles  in  the  Smithsonian  Contributions  to  Knowledge, 
Miscellaneous  Collections,  Annual  Reports,  Bulletins  and 
Proceedings  of  the  United  States  National  Museum,  and  Re- 
port of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology."  A  second  edition  brought 
down  to  date  was  published  in  1886;  this  forms  an  indis- 
pensable key  to  the  articles,  volumes,  and  numbers  issued  by 
the  Institution  from  its  organization  to  the  date  of  issue,  a 
period  of  forty  years. 

The  alphabetical  index  contains  in  a  single  alphabet  the 


792  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

names  of  authors  and  the  titles  of  the  specific  articles,  with 
references  to  the  series,  volume,  and  number  where  each  can 
be  found. 

In  this  connection  may  be  mentioned  the  several  editions 
of  the  "  List  of  Publications  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution 
for  sale  or  exchange,"  edited  by  Mr.  Rhees  and  issued  at  fre- 
quent intervals  for  many  years.  Also  the  "  List  of  the  Pub- 
lications of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  with  Index  to  Authors 
and  Subjects,"  by  Frederick  Webb  Hodge,  which  bears  the 
date  1894. 

RECORDS   OF   PROGRESS   IN   SCIENCE 

In  the  "Programme  of  Organization,"  approved  by  the  Re 
gents,  December  8,  1847,  provision  was  made  for  "the  pub- 
lication of  a  series  of  reports  giving  an  account  of  the  new 
discoveries  in  science,  and  of  the  changes  made  from  year  to 
year  in  all  branches  of  knowledge  not  strictly  professional " 
....  "The  reports  to  be  prepared  by  collaborators  eminent 
in  the  different  branches  of  knowledge." 

These  reports  have  constituted  for  more  than  forty  years 
an  important  part  of  the  appendixes  to  the  "Annual  Re- 
ports." In  1880  they  took  the  form  of  a  systematic  "  Record 
of  Scientific  Progress,"  and  most  of  which  contain  full  bib- 
liographies,  and  this  feature  was,  in  part,  continued  until 
1895.  The  reports  comprised  the  following  topics  by  the 
persons  named,   at  the  dates  given : 

"Anthropology,"  1879-93,  by  Otis  T.  Mason. 

"Astronomy,"  1879-84,  by  Edward  S.  Holden;  1885-92,  by 
William  C.  Winlock.  From  1883  accompanied  by  par- 
tial bibliographies.  That  for  1887  was  published  in  the 
"  Miscellaneous  Collections." 

"Botany,"  1879-83,  by  W.  G.  Farlow;  1887-88,  by  F.  H. 
Knowlton. 


Bibliography  793 

"Chemistry,"  1879-81,  by  George  F.  Barker;  1882-86,  by 
H.  Carrington  Bolton;  1887-88,  by  F.  \V.  Clarke.  [A 
bibliography  of  chemistry  for  the  year  1887,  ^^y  H. 
Carrington  Bolton,  was  published  in  the  "  Miscellaneous 
Collections."] 

"Geography,"  1881-84,  by  F.  M.  Green;  1SS5,  by  J.  K. 
Goodrich;    1886,  by  William  Libbey,  Jr. 

"  Geology  "  (including  Petrography,  Vulcanology,  and  Seis- 
mology), 1879-80,  by  George  W.  Hawes;  1881-83,  by 
T.  Sterry  Hunt;  1886,  by  N.  H.  Darton  ;  1887-88,  by 
W  J  McGee. 

"Meteorology,"  1879-84,  by  Cleveland  Abbe.  "Dynamic 
Meteorology,"  by  Cleveland  Abbe,  1887-88;  1889,  by 
G.  E.  Curtis. 

"Mineralogy,"  1879-80,  by  George  W.  Hawes;  1882-88,  by 
Edward  S.  Dana. 

"Paleontology"  (North  American),  1884-86,  by  J.  B.  Mar- 
cou;    1887-88,  by  H.  S.  Williams. 

"Petrography"  1887-88,  by  George  P.  Merrill. 

["A  Bibliography  of  Works  on  Building  Stones,"  forms 
Appendix  E  to  George  P.  Merrill's  paper  on  "The  Col- 
lection of  Buildinir  and  Ornamental  Stones  in  the  United 
States  National  Museum;  A  Handbook  and  Catalogue," 
published  in  1886.] 

"Physics,"  1879-86,  by  George  F.   Barker. 

"  Vulcanology  and  Seismology,"  1883 -'86,  by  C.  G. 
Rockwood. 

"Zoology,"  1879-86,  by  Theodore  Gill. 

CONSTANTS   OF   NATURE 

The  eminent  English  mathematician,  Charles  Babbage.  pro- 
posed, as  early  as  1856,  a  great  work,  entitled  "The  Con- 
stants of  Nature  and  Art,"  intended  to  contain  all  facts  which 
can  be  expressed  in  numbers,  in  the  various  branches  of 
knowledge,  such  as  the  atomic  weight  of  bodies,  specific 
gravities,  elasticity,  tenacity,  specific  heat,  conducting  power, 

51 


794  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

melting-points,  etc.  This  undertaking  would  require  the 
cooperation  of  a  number  of  institutions,  but  it  would  neces- 
sarily consist  of  many  independent  parts,  any  one  of  which 
would  be  of  immediate  value. 

Recognizing  the  utility  of  this  suggestion,  the  Institution 
began  to  collect  material  on  several  of  the  topics  embraced 
in  the  general  plan,  under  the  direction  of  Professors  John 
and  Joseph  Le  Conte,  but  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  in- 
terrupted the  work.  In  1873,  however,  Frank  Wigglesworth 
Clarke  offered  a  series  of  "Tables  of  Specific  Gravities, 
Boiling-points  and  Melting-points  of  Bodies,"  compiled  from 
the  best  authorities,  and  this  was  issued  as  Part  I  of  the 
"  Constants  of  Nature  "  in  the  same  year.  Three  years  later 
(1876)  the  same  industrious  worker  published  "A  Table  of 
Specific  Heats  for  Solids  and  Liquids,"  forming  Part  II  of 
the  series  named.  Other  volumes  of  this  valued  collection 
followed : 

Part  III,  "Table  of  Expansion  by  Heat  for  Solids  and 
Liquids,"  by  F.  W.  Clarke,  1879. 

"  First  Supplement  to  Part  I ;  Specific  Gravities,  etc.," 
1876. 

Part  IV,  "Atomic  Weight  Determinations,"  by  George  F. 
Becker,  1880. 

Part  V,  "Recalculation  of  Atomic  Weights,"  by  F.  W. 
Clarke,  1882. 

Of  Part  I,  a  new  edition  was  issued  in  1888,  and  of  Part 
V,  a  new  edition  was  issued  in  1897. 

These  works  have  become  invaluable  to  all  scholars  and 
investigators  in  the  physical  sciences. 

SMITHSONIAN    TABLES 

In  connection  with  the  meteorolooical  observations  conducted 
by  the  Institution,    Professor  Guyot   compiled  a  volume  of 


Bibliography  795 

"Meteorological  and  Physical  Tables,"  which  was  published 
in  1852.  A  second  edition  was  issued  in  1857,  a  third  in 
1859,  and  a  fourth,  prepared  with  the  assistance  of  William 
Libbey,  Jr.,  was  published  in  1884. 

The  demand  for  these  valuable  tables  soon  exhausted  the 
edition,  and  in  1890  Secretary  Langley  planned  a  new  work 
in  three  independent  parts,  "Meteorological  Tables,"  "Geo- 
graphical Tables,"  and  "  Physical  Tables."  Of  this  scries 
the  first  volume,  "  Meteorological  Tables,"  was  published  in 
1893  ;   a  second  edition  being  required  a  year  later. 

The  second  volume  of  the  series,  "  Geographical  Tables," 
prepared  by  R.  S.  Woodward,  was  published  in  1894;  the 
third  volume,  "  Physical  Tables,"  prepared  by  Thomas  Gray, 
was  issued  in  1897. 

BIBLIOGRAPHIES   OF   INDIVIDUALS 

In  William  J.  Rhees's  "Scientific  Writings  of  James  Smith- 
son  "  (1878)  there  is  a  list  of  the  publications  of  the  founder 
of  the  Smithsonian  Institution. 

The  "Memorial  of  Joseph  Henry,"  published  by  order  of 
Congress  in  1880,  contains  a  "  List  of  the  Scientific  Papers" 
of  the  distinoruished  first  Secretarv  of  the  Institution. 

In  1883  the  National  Museum  began  a  series  of  bibliogra- 
phies of  American  Naturalists,  of  much  importance.  These 
include  the  following,  issued  as  "  Bulletins  of  the  United 
States  National  Museum  "  at  the  dates  named : 

I.   "The  Published  Writings  of  Spencer  Fullerton  Baird," 

i843-'82,  by  G.  Brown  Goode.      (1883.) 
II.    "The  Published  Writings  of  Isaac   Lea,"  by  Newton 

Pratt  Scudder.      (1885.) 
III.   "  Bibliography  of  Publications  relating  to  the  collec- 
tion of  fossil  invertebrates  in  the  United  States  Na- 


796  The  Smitkso7iian  Institution 

tional  Museum,  including  a  complete  list  of  the 
writings  of  Fielding  B.  Meek,  Charles  A.  White,  and 
Charles    D.    Walcott,"    by    John    Belknap    Marcou. 

(1885.) 
IV.   "The  Published  Writings  of  George   Newbold  Law- 
rence, 1844-91."     By  L.  S.  Foster.     (1891.) 
V.   "The  Published  Writings  of  Dr.   Charles  Girard,"  by 
G.  Brown  Goode.     (1891.) 

These  monographs  form  splendid  monuments  to  the  natur- 
alists named,  exhibiting  more  perfectly  than  is  possible  in 
bibliographical  sketches  their  genius,  industry,  and  fertility 
of  resources. 

Four  other  bibliographies  of  individuals,  not  included  in 
the  above  series,  have  appeared  in  the  Smithsonian  Reports: 

VI.   "  A  list  of  the  Writings  of  Alexander  Dallas  Bache," 

by  Benjamin  A.  Gould. 
VII.    "  List  of  the  Writings  of  Arnold  Guyot,"  following  the 
Biographical  Memoir  by  James  D.  Dana. 
VIII.   "  List  of  the  Writings  of  Asa  Gray,  accompanying  the 
Memoir  by  William  G.  Farlow. 
IX.   "The   Publications   of  Elias   Loomis,"  attached  to  the 
Memoir  by   H.  A.   Newton. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  SCIENTIFIC  PERIODICALS 

Volume  XXIX  of  the  "Miscellaneous  Collections,"  issued  in 
1885,  comprises  a  single  work,  bearing  the  title:  "A  Cata- 
logue of  Scientific  and  Technical  Periodicals,  1865  to  1882, 
together  with  Chronological  Tables  and  a  Library  Check- 
list," by  Henry  Carrington  Bolton.  This  contains  the  titles 
of  the  principal  periodicals  of  every  branch  of  pure  and 
applied  science,  published  in  all  countries  from  the  rise  of 
their  literature  to  the  close  of  the  year  1882  ;  it  embraces  over 


Bibliography  797 

five  thousand  titles  in  twenty  languages,  not  including,  how- 
ever, transactions  of  societies,  or  medicine.  T^ollowing  the 
Catalogue  are  ninety-one  pages  of  "  Chronological  Tables," 
arranged  in  columns  by  years,  giving  a  synchronal  conspectus 
of  all  those  periodicals  having  any  considerable  number  of 
volumes,  and  showing  the  precise  number  of  the  volume 
published  in  any  given  year.  To  this  succeeds  a  concise 
index  of  subjects  under  ninety-four  heads,  arranged  alpha- 
betically. A  novel  feature  of  this  comprehensive  work  is  the 
library  check-list  indicating  the  library  or  libraries  in  which 
each  periodical  may  be  found  ;  each  of  the  one  hundred  and 
twenty-seven  principal  libraries  of  the  United  States  and 
Canada  being  designated  by  a  symbolic  abbreviation. 

A  new  edition  of  this  "  Cataloo-ue,"  brouf^ht  down  to  the 
year  1895,  with  about  3500  new  titles,  is  in  preparation  by 
Doctor  Bolton.      It  will  contain  a  new  library  check-list. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 
NATIOxNAL  MUSEUM 

Bibliographies  of  the  United  States  National  Museum  have 
been  prepared  by  G.  Brown  Goode,  annually,  since  1881  ; 
these  comprise :  I.  Publications  of  the  Museum.  II.  Papers 
by  Officers  of  the  Museum.  III.  Papers  by  Investigators, 
not  Officers,  of  the  Museum,  based  on  Museum  material. 

The  record  for  1894  contains  the  new  genera  and  species 
described  in  the  publications  of  the  Museum  for  that  year,  in 
a  supplement. 

BIBLIOGRAPHIES   OF   SCIENCE 

Anthropology.  Exceedingly  important  works  on  bibliog- 
raphy, in  relation  to  the  North  American  Indians,  have  been 
published  by  the  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology.    The  Bureau 

5'* 


798  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

has  projected  five  series  of  bibliographies :  those  relating  to 
linguistics,  amusements,  industries,  institutions  and  opinions 
(mythology,  folk-lore,  etc.),  and  has  made  substantial  con- 
tributions in  each.  Mr.  J.  C.  Filling's  bibliographies  of 
the  Algonquian,  Athapascan,  Chinookan,  Eskimo,  Iroquoian, 
Muskhogean,  Salishan,  Siouan  and  Wakashan  languages,  as 
well  as  his  "  Proof-sheets  of  a  Bibliography  of  the  Languages 
of  the  North  American  Indians"  (1885),  are  monuments  of 
the  author's  erudition  and  industry. 

George  H.  Boehmer  compiled  an  "  Index  to  Anthropologi- 
cal Articles  in  Publications  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution," 
published  in  the  Annual  Report  for  1879;  it  covers  the 
period  from  1847  to  1878. 

Captain  John  G.  Bourke's  "  Medicine  Men  of  the  Apache," 
in  the  Ninth  Annual  Report  of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  is 
accompanied  by  a  bibliography. 

The  "  Study  of  Prehistoric  Anthropology,"  by  Thomas 
Wilson  (1888),  contains  a  bibliography  of  the  subject. 

A  partial  bibliography  of  the  "  Ethnology  of  the  Eskimo," 
by  John  Murdoch,  accompanies  his  essay  on  "The  Ethno- 
logical Results  of  the  Point  Barrow  Expedition,"  published 
in  the  Ninth  Annual  Report  of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology. 

Another  partial  bibliography  of  the  "  Central  Eskimo,"  by 
Franz  Boas,  is  published  in  his  essay  on  the  subject  con- 
tained in  the  Sixth  Annual  Report  of  the  same  Bureau. 

Astronomy.  Besides  the  bibliographies  accompanying  the 
Records  of  Progress  in  Astronomy,  noticed  elsewhere,  two 
others  should  be  named. 

"  Index-Catalogue  of  Books  and  Memoirs  relating  to 
Nebulae  and  Clusters,"  by  Edward  S.  Holden.      (1877.) 

"  Synopsis  of  the  Scientific  Writings  of  Sir  William  Her- 
schel,"  by  Edward  S.  Holden  and  Charles  S.  Hastings. 
(1880.) 


Bibliography  799 

Botany.  Sereno  Watson  prepared  a  comprehensive  "  Bib- 
liographical Index  to  North  American  Botany  ;  Part  I,  Poly- 
petalse."  (1878.)  This  contains  citations  of  authorities  for 
all  the  recorded  indigenous  and  naturalized  species  of  the 
flora  of  North  America,  with  a  chronological  arrangement 
of  the   synonymy. 

Doctor  Horatio  C.  Wood,  Professor  of  Botany,  University 
of  Pennsylvania,  published  in  the  "  Contributions  to  Know- 
ledge"  a  "Contribution  to  the  History  of  the  Fresh  Water 
Algae  of  North  America,"  to  which  is  added  a  bibliography. 

Chemistry.  The  Committee  on  Indexing  Chemical  Litera- 
ture, appointed  by  the  American  Association  for  the  Advance- 
ment of  Science  in  1882,  two  years  later  secured  the  consent 
of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  to  publish  such  chemical 
bibliographies  as  might  be  recommended  by  the  committee. 
By  means  of  this  cooperation  chemical  students  have  been 
provided  with  several  indexes  of  a  technical  character,  whose 
value  increases  as  their  number  multiplies  ;  they  include : 

"  Index  to   the   Literature   of  Uranium,"  b)-    H.    Carrington 

Bolton,  1885. 
"  Index  to   the   Literature  of  the   Spectroscope,"  by   Alfred 

Tuckerman,  1888. 
"  Index    to    the    Literature   of   Columbium,"   by    Frank    W. 

Traphagen,  1889. 
"  Index   to   the    Literature   of  Thermodynamics,"  by   Alfred 

Tuckerman,  1890. 
"A  Bibliography  of  the   Chemical    Influence   of  Light,"  by 

Alfred  Tuckerman,  1891. 
"Bibliography  of  Aceto  Acetic  Ester,"  by  Paul  M.  Seymour, 

1894. 
"  Indexes  to  the  Literature  of  Cerium  and  Lanthanum."  by 

W.  H.  Magee,  1895. 
"  Index  to  the  Literature  of  Didymium,"  by  A.  C.  Langmuir, 

1895. 


8oo  The  Smithsoman  Institution 

More  comprehensive  than  these  special  works  is  the  "  Se- 
lect Bibliography  of  Chemistry,"  compiled  by  Henry  Car- 
rington  Bolton  and  published  in  1893.  This  volume  covers 
the  period  1492  to  1892,  and  embraces  the  titles  of  the  prin- 
cipal books  on  chemistry  published  in  all  parts  of  the  world. 
For  convenience  the  titles  are  grouped  under  seven  heads  : 

I.  Bibliography;  II.  Dictionaries;  III.  History;  IV.  Biog- 
raphy; V.  Chemistry,  pure  and  applied;  VI.  Alchemy; 
VII.  Periodicals.  Within  these  sections  are  more  than 
twelve  thousand  titles  in  twenty-five  languages. 

According  to  Secretary  Langley,  it  is  "a  work  of  reference 
of  such  value  that  it  is  believed  it  will  be  a  necessity  to  every 
chemical  investigator." 

Doctor  Bolton  has  in  preparation  a  supplement  which  will 
contain  about  eight  thousand  additional  titles,  including  a 
new  section,  No.  VIII,  devoted  to  "Dissertations  and 
Theses." 

Natural  History.  Doctor  Charles  Girard,  one  of  Baird's 
assistants  in  natural  history,  published  in  1852  a  "  Biblio- 
graphia  Americana  Historico-Naturalis "  for  the  year  185 1. 
This  work  includes  the  doings  of  American  naturalists,  the 
labors  of  foreign  authors  in  reference  to  American  natural 
history,  and  abstracts  of  papers  relating  to  foreign  natural 
history  published   in  American   periodicals. 

Ornithology.  In  the  "  Proceedings  of  the  United  States 
National  Museum,"^  Elliott  Coues  published  "  Fourth  Instal- 
ment of  Ornithological  Bibliography,  being  a  List  of  Faunal 
Publications  relatinof  to  British  Birds." '^ 

This  extensive  bibliography  undertakes  to  do  for  British 
birds  what  the  author  had  previously  done  for  American 
birds ;  the  latter  were  treated  in  three  previous  instalments 
of  this  Universal  Bibliography  of  Ornithology  ;  these  are: 

1  Volume  11,  page  359,  1879.  2 "Miscellaneous  Collection,"  Volume  xix. 


Bibliography  80 1 

First  Instalment.  In  appendix  to  **  Birds  of  the  Colorado 
Valley."^ 

Second.  In  "  Bulletin  of  the  United  States  Geological  and 
Geographical  Survey  of  the  Territories."^ 

Third.   In  the  same  "Bulletin."^ 

In  the  preface  to  this  List  of  Faunal  Publications,  the  dis- 
tinguished authority  on  birds  names  the  rules  that  governed 
his  action  as  a  bibliographer,  which  deserves  the  attention  of 
others.  He  says  :  "  In  conducting  this  work  I  habitually  re- 
gard the  title  as  inviolable, —  to  be  transcribed  in  full,  ver- 
batim, literatim,  et  punctuatim";  and  again,  "  No  title  in  this 
Bibliography  has  been  taken  at  second  hand."  The  an- 
notations accompanying  titles  are  critical,  erudite,  and  enter- 
taining. 

Baird's  "  Review  of  American  Birds  in  the  Museum  of  the 
Smithsonian  Institution"  (1864-66),  contains  a  fund  of  bibli- 
ographical matter,  though  not  specifically  prepared  as  a  bib- 
liography. This  statement  is  also  true  of  Baird's  Catalogue, 
published  in  the  "General  Report  on  Birds,"  contained  in  the 
Pacific  Railroad  Reports.*  This  catalogue  was  succeeded  by 
Elliott  Coues's  "Check-list  of  North  American  Birds"^  (Salem, 
1873),  and  by  Ridgway's  "Nomenclature  of  North  American 
Birds"  (1881).  These  were  followed  by  the  "Code  of  No- 
menclature and  Check-list  of  North  American  Birds,"  pub- 
lished by  the  American  Ornithologists'  Union  in  1886  (second 
edition,  1895),  which  contains  references  to  the  original  de- 
scription of  each  species.  This  work  was  prepared  by  a 
committee  of  five,  including  Elliott  Coues  and  Robert 
Ridgway,  Curator  of  Birds  of  the  United  States  National 
Museum. 

1  Miscellaneous  Publication,  United  States  4  Volume  IX  (1858). 

Geological  Survey,  No.  11.  5  Published  also  as  an  Appendix  to  Coues's 

2  Volume  V,  No.  2  (1879).  "  Field  Ornithologj-"  (1874),  a  second  edition 

3  Volume  V,  No.  4  (18S0).  of  which  appeared  in  1882. 


8o2  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

A  chronological  "  List  of  the  Books  and  Papers  Relating 
to  the  Great  Auk"  is  appended  to  Frederic  A.  Lucas's  account 
of  the  "Expedition  to  Funk  Island."^ 

Oriental  Literatiux.  A  "  Bibliography  of  Oriental  Litera- 
ture in  the  United  States  during  1888  "  is  appended  to  the 
"Record  of  Progress  of  Oriental  Science  in  America  during 
1888,"  by  Doctor  Cyrus  Adler. 

Physics.  The  principal  contributions  to  bibliography  under 
this  head  have  been  named  as  forming  parts  of  the  series 
"  Constants  of  Nature,"  and  the  "  Smithsonian  Tables." 
Besides  these,  however,  may  be  mentioned  the  "  List  of  the 
Principal  Authorities  Consulted,"  by  William  Harkness,  in 
preparing  his  address  on  "  The  Progress  of  Science  as  Exem- 
plified in  the  Art  of  Weighing  and  Measuring,"  delivered  be- 
fore the  Philosophical  Society  of  Washington  in  1887. 

Siirgery  and  Medicine.  Doctor  William  W.  Keen's  lecture 
on  the  "  Surgical  Complications  and  Sequels  of  the  Contin- 
ued Fevers"^  is  accompanied  by  a  "Bibliography  of  Works 
on  Diseases  of  the  Joints,  Bones,  Larynx,  the  Eye,  Gangrene, 
Haematoma,  Phlegmasia."  (1876.) 

The  "Report  on  the  Pharmacopoeias  of  All  Nations,"  by 
Doctor  James  M.  Flint,  United  Sates  Navy,  originally  printed 
in  the  "  Report  of  the  Surgeon-General  of  the  United  States 
Navy"  for  1882,  has  been  adopted  for  circulation  by  the 
Smithsonian  Institution.  It  contains  critical  reviews  of  the 
Pharmacopoeias  of  the  following  countries:  Argentine  Re- 
public, Austria,  Belgium,  Brazil,  Central  American  States, 
Chili,  China,  Cuba,  Denmark,  England,  France,  Germany, 
Greece,  Hayti,  Hawaiian  Islands,  Hungary,  India,  Italy, 
Japan,  Liberia,  Mexico,  Netherlands,  Norway,  Paraguay, 
Portugal,  Russia,  Spain,  Sweden,  Switzerland,  Turkey, 
United  States,   Uruguay,  Venezuela. 

1"  Report  of  the  United  States  National  Museum,  1888."  2  Toner  Lecture,  No.  5. 


Bibliography  803 

Vulcanology  and  Seismology.  A  "  Bibliography  of  Volca- 
noes, Earthquakes  and  Geysers  of  Iceland."  compiled  by 
George  H.  Boehmer,  was  published  in  1885.  It  forms  an 
appendix  (of  twenty- nine  pages)  to  Mr.  Boehmer's  trans- 
lation of  Thoroddsen's  "  Oversigt  over  de  islandske  Vulka- 
ners  Historie." 

The  "Bibliography  of  Vulcanology  "  (1883-86),  by  Charles 
G.  Rockwood,  Jr.,  has  been  mentioned  under  the  Records  of 
Progress. 

Zoology.  The  "  Nomenclator  Zoologicus  "  of  Agassiz,  pub- 
lished in  Solothurn  in  1842-46,  was  succeeded  by  a  volume 
bearing  the  same  title,  compiled  by  Marschall,  and  issued  in 
1873.  ^^  1882  Doctor  S.  H.  Scudder  pul)lishcd  a  new 
"Nomenclator  ZooloQ^icus,"  ^  to  which  was  added  a  "  Univer- 
sal  Index  to  the  Genera  and  Species  named  in  the  Works 
of  Agassiz,  Marschall,  and  Scudder,  as  well  as  in  tlic  Record 
of  Zoological  Literature."  This  Universal  Index  embraced 
over  eighty  thousand  names.  Doctor  Leonhard  Stejneger  is 
engaged  on  a  supplement  to  Doctor  Scudder's  work,  which 
will  embrace  about  twenty  thousand  additional  names ;  the 
author  hopes  to  complete  this  bibliograph)-  within  a  year. 

Perhaps  the  most  important  contributions  to  the  bibliog- 
raphy of  zoology  are  from  the  pen  of  that  erudite  and  indus- 
trious scholar.  Doctor  Theodore  Gill ;  the  following  is  a 
partial  list  of  his  treatises : 

"Arrangement  of  the  Families  of  Mollusks  "  (1S71);  "Ar- 
rangement of  the  Families  of  Fishes"  (1872) ;  "Arrangement 
of  the  Families  of  Mammals"  (1872);  "Catalogue  of  the 
Fishes  of  the  East  Coast  of  North  America"  (1873);  Bibli- 
ography of  the  P^ishes  of  the  Pacific  Coast  of  the  United 
States"  (1882);  "Bibliography  of  the  Reports  of  Fishery 
Commissions"    (1874);    "Materials    for    a    I'ibliography    of 

1"  Bulletin  No;  19  of  the  United  States  National  Museum." 


8o4  TJie  Smithsonian  Institution 

North  American  Mammals,"  by  Theodore  Gill  and  Elliott 
Coues,  in  ''  Monographs  of  North  American  Rodentia,"  by 
Elliott  Coues  and  Joel  Asaph  Allen  (1877). 

The  "Catalogue  of  the  Described  Diptera  of  North  Amer- 
ica," by  C.  R.  Osten-Sacken  (1878),  is  accompanied  by  many 
bibliographical  notes. 

In  1863-64  W.  G.  Binney  compiled  a  "Bibliography  of 
North  American  Conchology  Previous  to  the  Year  i860," 
published  in  two  parts ;  Part  I  contains  the  writings  of  Amer- 
ican conchologists  generally,  and  Part  II  the  works  of  foreign 
authors  relating  to  the  shells  or  mollusks  of  North  America. 
Each  part  is  accompanied  by  an  index  of  authors.  Together 
these  comprehensive  works  fill  over  nine  hundred  pages  of 
the  "Miscellaneous  Collections"  (1863-64). 

A  large  number  of  bibliographies  accompany,  incidentally, 
papers  published  in  the  "Proceedings  of  the  United  States 
National  Museum,"  in  the  "Annual  Reports  of  the  Bureau  of 
Ethnology,"  and  in  other  series  issued  by  the  Smithsonian 
Institution,   of  which    space  available  prevents  enumeration. 


THE    COOPERATION   OF 

THE    SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION   WITH 

OTHER    INSTITUTIONS   OF    LEARNING 

By  Daniel  Coit  Oilman 

President  of  Johns  Hopkins  University 


NE  of  the  officers  of  the  Smithsonian,  in  re- 
counting^ the  services  of  one  of  its  depart- 
ments, has  said  that  they  might  be  expressed 
in  three  words,  Record,  Research,  and  Educa- 
tion ;  and  these  are  doubtless  the  most  im- 
portant functions  of  the  entire  Institution,  if  it  is  to  proceed 
upon  the  hne  that  was  indicated  by  Washington  and  re- 
affirmed by  Smithson  —  the  advancement  and  diffiision  of 
knowledge.  But  there  has  been  another  factor  in  the  or- 
ganization, and  one  that  cannot  be  too  frequently  named  or 
too  highly  extolled.  That  coefficient  is  cooperation.  In  a 
complex  establishment  almost  everything  depends  upon  the 
spirit  with  which  its  functions  are  performed,  and  the  intelli- 
gence which  guides  its  workv  Old  Mortality,  Doctor  Dryas- 
dust, and  Dominie  Sampson  were  devoted  to  record,  research, 
and  education;  but  these  characters  were  not  the  t)pes  ol 
Smithsonian   historians,  investigators,  or  teachers. 

It  will   not  be  proper  to  speak  of  the  one  who  is  living, 

805 


8o6  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

however  pleasant  this  would  be;  but  in  praise  of  the  two  who 
are  gone  too  much  can  hardly  be  said.  Neither  Henry  nor 
Baird  sought  popularity.  They  were  so  much  absorbed  by 
their  duties  that  they  had  not  the  leisure  requisite  for  easy 
and  familiar  relations  with  the  multitude.  Henry  rarely, 
Baird  hardly  ever,  if  at  all,  appeared  as  a  public  speaker. 
Yet  they  were  always  at  the  service  of  those  who  for  any 
good  reason  desired  of  them  counsel,  or  sought  for  informa- 
tion. No  one  could  come  into  relations  with  either  of  these 
great  men,  orally  or  by  correspondence,  without  being  im- 
pressed with  his  desire  to  be  cooperative.  As  they  grew 
old,  they  did  not  enjoy  attendance  upon  large  assemblies, 
even  of  a  scientific  character;  but  in  the  early  days  of  the 
American  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science  they 
were  foremost  among  its  supporters.  To  the  end  of  their 
days,  they  were  not  only  efficient  aids  to  all  the  learned  men 
of  the  country,  but  they  had  the  disposition,  far  more  un- 
common, to  be  patient  with  and  helpful  to  the  uneducated 
and  ill-informed,  the  men  who  ride  hobbies  and  the  men  who 
turn  cranks.  They  were  examples  to  the  country  of  in- 
dustry, fidelity,  suggestiveness,  and  kindliness.  These  per- 
sonal qualities  governed  their  official  action  during  the 
period  of  forty  years  in  which  they  guided  the  Institution. 
Those  who  are  familiar  with  the  intellectual  development  of 
this  nation  must  admit  the  justice  of  a  claim  put  forth  in 
these  words,  that  "the  most  important  service  which  the 
Smithsonian  Institution  has  rendered  to  the  nation  —  in- 
tangible, but  none  the  less  appreciable  —  has  been  its  fifty 
years  of  constant  cooperation  with  the  government,  with 
public  institutions,  and  with  individuals,  in  every  enterprise, 
scientific  or  educational,  which  needed  its  advice,  support,  or 
aid  from  its  manifold  resources."  Each  secretary  in  his  own 
way  has  been  free,  and  has  felt  free,  to  open  new  roads  and 


THOMAS  GEORGE  noi:)GE:i:N^s. 

DONOR  OF  THE  HODGKIXS  FUND. 


vvere  so  muci  _/\ 

I  not  til  ^Y 

irely, 
iker. 

ny 

i  Li- 

Lhese 

ing  im- 

.    -    „,  y  grew 

Lijoy  attendance  emblies, 

iic  character;  but  } 

ie  Advai  ice  they 

eir 
TT>pn 

cated 
who 

,  y  were   example  n- 

rrn-,-vc;(;ivene'^-      -' 

.     1       . 

n  which  t! 

the  at  of 

ce  of  h   in 


'th 


t'.   IV,tl  *.l  L.^        Cl,V.lVl'.V 


■^'-Ti'^ 


y  in  his  ov\ ;. 
nt 


new  ;  and 


Cooperation  of  fJie  SinitJisonian  Institution    807 

enter  fresh  fields  when  the  pubHc  good  required  it  and  the 
funds  at  command  permitted  extension.  Each  head  of  an 
important  bureau,  in  his  turn,  has  Hkewise  contributed  plans, 
suggestions,  and  methods  to  the  unique  institution  with  which 
he  was  connected.  There  has  been  but  one  restriction,  laid 
down  by  the  first  secretary,  and  thus  explained  by  Asa  Gray: 
"In  view  of  the  limited  means  of  the  Institution,  it  oucfht 
not  to  undertake  anything  which  could  be  done,  and  well 
done,  by  other  existing  instrumentalities.  So,  as  occasion 
arose,  Henry  lightened  its  load  and  saved  its  energies  by 
ofivino"  over  to  other  aofencies  some  of  its  cherished  work." 

It  would  have  been  easy  for  the  managers  to  maintain 
an  exclusive  theory, — to  organize  an  academy  of  limited 
membership  sitting  with  closed  doors, — to  claim  precedence 
for  the  scientific  officers  of  the  United  States  government. — 
to  surround  all  proceedings  with  an  air  of  mystery  and  re- 
serve,—  and  to  claim  that  territory  once  occupied  by  the 
Smithsonian  belonged  forever  to  the  original  tenant,  and 
should  not  be  invaded.  But  nothing  of  this  kind  has  been 
done  in  a  period  of  fifty  years.  On  the  contrary,  from  its 
inauguration  until  now  there  is  an  unbroken  record  of  friendly 
relations  with  every  agency  in  the  land  devoted  to  the  en- 
couragement of  learning.  Without  any  patronage,  without 
the  power  to  bestow  much  pecuniary  assistance,  without  the 
bestowal  of  diplomas,  medals,  or  other  badges  of  distinction, 
without  any  official  or  paternal  control,  witliout  even  the  dis- 
position to  criticize  or  correct,  the  Smithsonian  has  been  and 
is  the  great  auxiliary  of  science  and  education  throughout  the 
length  and  breadth  of  the  land. 

One  of  the  earliest  acts  of  the  administration  was  peculiarly 
adapted  to  a  country  in  which  everybody  is  encouraged  to  be 
interested  in  the  proceedings  of  the  government.  Corre- 
spondents were  enlisted  in  every  part  of  the  United  States, 


8o8  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

and  great  consideration  was  paid  to  their  inquiries  and  sug- 
gestions. Many  of  these  collaborators,  perhaps  a  large 
majority,  were  already  connected  with  colleges,  schools,  and 
local  associations  having  a  scientific  purpose.  Others  were 
isolated,  lonely  students  or  observers,  far  from  good  instru- 
ments and  books,  deprived  of  intercourse  with  men  of  like 
pursuits.  Some  were  persons  of  great  ability  and  influence ; 
some  were  very  humble.  Many  were  enrolled  as  local  me- 
teorologists, and  were  led  to  keep  accurate  records  of  the 
weather,  and  send  their  reports  to  Washington.  The  study 
of  local  natural  history  and  archaeology  was  encouraged  in 
these  and  other  correspondents.  The  formation  of  libraries 
and  museums  was  promoted  by  many  agencies,  among  which 
the  loan  on  deposit  of  objects  to  be  exhibited  and  the  gift  of 
valuable  publications  were  especially  noteworthy.  It  is  diffi- 
cult in  these  days,  when  traveling  is  easy  and  when  endow- 
ments, large  and  small,  have  been  provided  in  every  part  of 
the  land  for  the  benefit  of  science,  to  appreciate  the  educa- 
tional influence  of  the  Smithsonian,  in  places  far  distant  from 
the  capital,  during  the  first  fifteen  or  twenty  years  of  its  active 
operations.  The  actual,  almost  universal,  appreciation  of  the 
value  of  science  among  the  American  people  is  doubtless  due 
in  a  very  considerable  degree  to  the  influences  referred  to. 
There  has  been  no  "conflict"  between  men  of  letters  and 
men  of  science  in  our  schools  of  learning,  and  the  appre- 
hensions of  religious  teachers  with  respect  to  the  tenden- 
cies of  scientific  doctrines  have  been  transient  and  mild. 
Far  and  near,  the  quiet,  unobtrusive  influence  of  the  Smith- 
sonian has  contributed  to  this  result. 

The  mode  in  which  the  Smithsonian  publications  were  dis- 
tributed aided  not  a  little  the  building  up  of  libraries.  To 
possess  these  works  was  the  laudable  ambition  of  many 
people.     The  annual  reports  were  widely  distributed.     They 


Cooperation  of  the  Smithsoniait  Institution    809 

might  be  obtained  from  a  member  of  Congress,  They  con- 
tained suggestive  and  stimuhiting  papers  in  many  branches 
of  knowledge  —  papers,  moreover,  that  could  not  be  found 
elsewhere,  or  translations  of  articles  accessible  only  to  the 
few.  The  publications  which  were  printed  under  the  name 
of  "  Miscellaneous  Collections  "  were  not  to  be  obtained  by 
everybody.  They  were  not  meant  for  general  readers,  but 
for  students.  The  scholar,  however,  whether  young  or  old, 
who  showed  a  special  bent  could  readily  obtain  access  to 
such  papers  in  this  series  as  were  of  interest  to  him.  The 
quarto  "Contributions"  were  given  to  libraries  of  consider- 
able importance.  Many  communities  were  thus  stimulated 
to  enlarge  their  collections  of  books  in  order  to  present  a 
fair  claim  for  the  reception  of  these  stately  volumes. 

To  facilitate  the  exchange  of  printed  papers  among  the 
vast  corps  of  correspondents,  a  system  of  international  ex- 
changes was  begun  in  1852.  It  must  be  remembered  that 
when  this  plan  was  initiated  it  was  difficult  to  maintain  rela- 
tions with  distant  countries,  especially  beyond  the  western 
part  of  Europe.  The  opportunities  afforded  by  the  book- 
sellers, the  express  companies,  and  the  mails  were  then  quite 
inferior  to  those  now  existent.  Even  to-day  great  advan- 
tages are  derived  from  the  Smithsonian  system,  and  its 
curtailment  or  abolition  would  be  a  serious  interruption  to 
the  maintenance  of  friendly  intercourse  between  the  scientific 
men  of  this  country  and  those  of  distant  lands.  Some  idea  of 
the  extent  of  this  work  may  be  formed  from  the  statement 
that  the  number  of  enrolled  correspondents  is  not  far  from 
twenty-four  thousand,  of  whom  seventeen  thousand  arc  in 
foreign  lands.  A  million  and  a  half  of  packages  have  thus 
been  distributed  in  forty-three  years.  All  this  is  to  be 
credited  to  the  account  of  cooperation. 

Publication  is  an  important  function  of  a  scientific  foun- 
52 


8io  The  Smithsonian  htsiitMtion 

dation.  In  early  days  there  were  those  who  thought  the 
issue  of  popular  tracts,  like  the  "  Penny  Magazine,"  or  other 
juvenile  and  elementary  books,  would  be  most  useful.  But 
the  secretaries  took  a  different  view.  In  their  opinion,  the 
private  publisher  might  be  relied  on  to  secure  and  set  forth, 
at  very  low  prices,  works  for  which  there  was  a  large  de- 
mand. What  was  needed  in  this  country,  at  that  time,  was 
encouragement  for  the  publication  of  learned  memoirs,  often 
elaborate  and  voluminous,  which  appealed  to  a  very  select 
company  of  readers,  and  could  not  possibly  be  made  to  pay. 
This  service  has  been  performed  from  the  beginning,  when 
it  issued  an  original  memoir  by  Squier  and  Davis,  on  the 
aboriginal  mounds  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  until  the  present 
time,  when  thirty  quarto  volumes  of"  Contributions  to  Know- 
ledge "  have  appeared.  But  cooperation  was  not  restricted 
to  typographical  assistance.  Books,  apparatus,  specimens, 
and  laboratory  facilities  have  been  generously  accorded  to 
investigrators  and  writers.  The  "Contributions"  have  been 
supplemented  by  the  "  Miscellaneous  Collections,"  consisting, 
usually,  of  less  elaborate  or  less  extended  papers,  as  well  as 
by  the  publications  of  the  National  Museum  and  the  Bureau 
of  American  Ethnology. 

Many  persons  favored  the  establishment  of  a  great  library 
as  an  essential  part  of  the  Smithsonian  ;  for  it  was  early 
obvious  that  in  addition  to  the  purchase,  large  and  valuable 
series,  the  publications  of  governments  and  of  learned  so- 
cieties, would  be  received  as  gifts  and  by  exchanges.  The 
collectors  of  books  are  usually  miserly,  desiring  to  get  all 
they  can  and  to  keep  all  they  get,  but  another  disposition 
was  manifested  here.  The  Congressional  Library,  it  was 
already  evident,  was  destined  to  become  the  National 
Library.  Now,  instead  of  building  up  a  rival,  or  forcing 
the    government   to    duplicate    costly   books,   the  authorities 


Cooperation  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution    8 1 1 

of  the  Smithsonian  transferred  the  principal  parts  of  their 
collection  to  the  custody  of  the  Congressional,  and  gave  to 
it  yearly  accessions.  The  magnitude  of  this  renunciation  is 
apparent  from  the  simple  statement  that  more  than  three 
hundred  thousand  volumes  and  parts  of  volumes  have  thus 
become  a  part  of  the  National  Library,  constituting  perhaps 
one  fourth  of  its  possessions.  In  the  new  building  a  separate 
hall  is  assigned  to  this  important  department. 

The  chapter  on  Meteorology  illustrates  the  principle  of 
Henry.  As  the  study  of  the  climate  of  this  country  seemed 
of  great  importance,  he  devised  methods,  provided  instru- 
ments, prepared  the  requisite  mathematical  tables,  and  en- 
listed far  and  wide  the  services  of  observers  and  recorders. 
He  initiated  and  for  years  maintained  this  great  work,  and 
reached  results  which  demonstrated  its  importance;  and  then, 
when  the  government,  with  all  the  possibilities  of  army  ser- 
vice on  the  frontier  and  in  stations  remote  from  ordinary 
settlement,  indicated  its  readiness  to  establish  a  weather 
bureau,  he  passed  over  all  this  work  with  its  valuable 
archives  to  the  new  organization. 

The  growth  of  the  National  Museum,  and  its  management, 
furnish  additional  illustrations  of  the  cooperative  spirit  of 
the  Smithsonian.  At  the  time  of  the  Centennial  Exhibition 
in  Philadelphia  many  great  collections  were  brought  together 
from  remote  countries.  Baird  was  quick  to  see  what  a  valu- 
able possession  they  would  be  in  Washington.  Many  of 
them  were  offered  to  our  government,  on  the  understand- 
ing that  they  should  be  properly  displayed.  Already  the 
Smithsonian  was  the  custodian  of  important  collections 
made  by  the  explorers  of  this  country  in  our  Western  Ter- 
ritories and  in  foreign  lands,  including  the  objects  brought 
together  by  the  Wilkes  expedition.  Baird  saw  the  oppor- 
tunity  to   combine   these  elements  and   institute   a    national 


8i2  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

museum.  In  this  he  succeeded,  Congress  being  interested 
and  willing  to  make  the  requisite  appropriations  for  a  build- 
ing and  for  administration.  The  generous  contributions  of 
private  persons,  and  the  results  of  public  expeditions  now 
brought  together,  show  what  may  be  accomplished  by  co- 
operation. The  last  report  of  the  Director,  acknowledging 
the  accession  of  one  hundred  and  twenty-seven  thousand 
specimens  within  a  year,  attributes  this  increase  almost  en- 
tirely to  a  warm  interest  in  the  welfare  of  the  museum  on 
the  part  of  individuals,  many  of  whom  have  at  one  time 
or  another  received  some  courtesy  from  the  officials  of  the 
Smithsonian  Institution. 

Within  the  same  year  not  far  from  forty  thousand  speci- 
mens were  distributed  to  universities,  colleges,  museums, 
and  normal  schools,  and  the  like  distribution  has  been  in 
progress  for  years.  Four  hundred  and  sixty-seven  "  lots  " 
were  sent  to  the  museum  for  examination  in  the  year  1895, 
and  the  reports  of  the  curators  were  extended  outside  the 
United  States  and  Europe  to  Canada,  Central  and  South 
America,  Mexico,  Australia,  New  Zealand,  India,  Java, 
Borneo,  the  Philippine  Islands,  and  various  islands  of  the 
Pacific  Ocean. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  characteristics  of  the  Smith- 
sonian has  been  its  power  of  adaptation  to  changing  cir- 
cumstances. This  is  shown  not  only  by  its  renunciation 
of  the  library  idea,  and  of  the  meteorological  bureau,  but 
by  the  expansion  of  other  work.  The  Bureau  of  Eth- 
nology, for  example,  has  its  own  accomplished  director  and 
staff,  and  it  is  supported  by  special  appropriations  from 
Congress.  Yet  it  has  grown  up  under  the  protection  of  the 
Smithsonian,  and  has  shared  in  its  reputation  for  scholarship, 
sagacity,  and  economy.  The  evolution  of  this  bureau  is  an 
interesting    chapter    in  institutional  history.     The  responsi- 


Cooperation  of  the  Smithsonian  Institiitioji    8 1 3 

bility  of  studying  the  habits  of  the  aboriginal  inhabitants  of 
this  continent,  and  of  preserving,  ere  they  totally  perish,  the 
knowledge  of  their  languages,  religions,  arts,  manners,  and 
customs,  was  recognized  when  the  Institution  was  first  or- 
ganized. The  earliest  quarto  publication  was  a  token  of  this 
interest.  For  many  years  the  Catlin  portraits  stared  every 
visitor  in  the  face.  The  exploring  expeditions  in  the  trans- 
Mississippi  brought  back  curious  relics  of  primitive  men, 
which  were  exhibited  and  studied  by  many  young  and  en- 
thusiastic investigators.  The  head  of  the  Geological  Survey, 
under  whom  parties  were  annually  sent  forth  into  distant  and 
unknown  regions,  was  keenly  alive  to  the  interest  attached 
to  anthropological  inquiry.  Nothing  was  more  fitting  than 
that  he  in  due  time  should  become  the  director  of  the  Bureau 
of  American  Ethnology. 

Quite  different  was  the  growth  of  the  Fish  Commission,  an 
independent  organization  of  which  Baird  was  the  originator 
and  the  head,  from  its  beginning,  and  until  his  death. 
Technically,  the  credit  of  this  branch  of  the  government 
service  does  not  belong  to  the  Smithsonian.  It  stands  on  its 
own  foundation.  But  it  will  undoubtedly  be  admitted  that 
without  the  knowledge,  the  official  encouragement,  and  the 
fine  cooperative  spirit  of  the  second  secretary,  this  com- 
mission, which  has  been  so  significant  in  its  economic  and  in 
its  scientific  work,  and  has  broucfht  so  much  renown  to  the 
country,  would  not,  in  the  present  generation  at  least,  have 
attained  to  its  usefulness  and  distinction.  It  is  here  worth 
while  to  note  that  each  of  the  secretaries  has  added  impor- 
tant features  to  the  Smithsonian  which  have  had  widespread 
influence  upon  the  development  of  science.  This  will  ap- 
pear fully  in  the  historical  chapters.  The  cooperative  spirit 
of  Henry  in  initiating  the  Weather  Bureau,  of  Baird  in 
developing  the  National  Museum,  the  Fish  Commission, 
52^ 


8 14  The  Smifhsonian  Institution 

and  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  of  Langley  in  estabhshing 
the  Astrophysical  Observatory  and  the  National  Zoological 
Park,  and  in  advancing  the  art  of  aero-navigation,  deserves 
the  highest  praise. 

No  attempt  has  been  made  in  this  chapter  to  give  the 
details  of  the  Smithsonian  management, — but  only  to  indi- 
cate the  impressions  it  has  produced  upon  the  mind  of  one  who 
has  had  no  official  connection  with  the  establishment.  Con- 
stant intercourse  with  the  collaborators,  in  Washington  and 
in  distant  parts  of  the  country,  as  well  as  in  foreign  lands,  has 
never  revealed  one  word  of  censorious  criticism  respecting 
the  spirit  which  has  governed  the  administrations  of  Henry, 
Baird,  and  Langley.  Cooperation,  the  fundamental  idea  that 
has  here  been  discussed,  may  be  mechanical  and  formal,  gov- 
erned by  petty  regulations  and  accompanied  by  ceremo- 
nious exactions.  But  that  is  not  the  kind  of  cooperation  to 
which  this  record  has  called  attention.  On  the  other  hand, 
it  has  not  been  the  cooperation  of  a  spendthrift,  throwing 
away  the  opportunities  of  usefulness  and  influence.  In  con- 
clusion, the  Smithsonian  has  been  never  ready  to  take  up, 
and  has  always  been  ready  to  give  up,  those  undertakings 
which  other  institutions  and  individuals  might  be  disposed 
to  assume  and  sustain  with  efficiency.  Second,  it  has  lent 
encouragement  to  thousands  of  workers  whose  work  would 
have  failed  without  a  moderate  amount  of  pecuniary  assist- 
ance. Third,  it  has  always  been  ready  to  enlarge  its  domain 
and  sustain  the  burden  of  fresh  responsibilities  when  it  has 
appeared  to  be  the  wish  of  Congress  or  of  the  scientific  men 
of  the  country  that  it  should  do  so. 


THE    INFLUENCE 
OF   THE    SMITHSONIAN    INSTITUTION 


UPON  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  LIBRARIES,  THE  OR- 
GANIZATION AND  WORK  OF  SOCIETIES,  AND  THE 
PUBLICATION  OF  SCIENTIFIC  LITERATURE  IN  THE 
UNITED    STATES 

By  John  Shaw  Billings 

Director  of  the  New  York  Public  Library 


-^^jHE  more  one  becomes  familiar  with  the  early 
If  A    history   of  the    Smithsonian    Institution,    and 


rK^v)  with  the  ideas,  plans,  and  work  of  its  organ- 
vHwv^  izers  and  first  officers,  so  far  as  these  can  be 
^  ascertained  from  the  annual  Reports  and  from 
some  of  its  special  publications  for  the  first  twenty  years 
of  its  existence,  the  more  will  he  become  convinced  that 
this  was  a  time  of  much  seed-planting  in  many  and  various 
fields,  and  that  we  are  only  now  just  beginning  to  see  the 
character  and  magnitude  of  the  very  great  harvests  which 
are  to  result  therefrom. 

It  is  proposed  in  this  paper  to  consider  very  briefly  the  in- 
fluence which  the  Smithsonian  Institution  has  exerted  upon 
library  and  bibliographical  work  in  the  United  States,  upon 

the  organization  of  societies  of  various  kinds,  and  upon  the 

815 


8i6  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

publication  of  reports,  memoirs,  and  other  forms  of  contri- 
butions to  knowledge  of  the  general  government,  by  the 
several  States,  and  by  the  various  societies  in  this  country, 
through  the  powerful  stimulation  which  it  has  given,  both 
by  example  and  by  precept,  to  work  of  this  kind  as  special 
features  of  the  second  of  its  great  objects:  "the  diffusion  of 
knowledge." 

The  fifth  section  of  the  Act  which  organized  the  Institution 
required  that  it  should  form  a  library ;  and  the  eighth  section 
provided  that  it  should  make  an  appropriation  not  exceeding 
$25,000  annually  for  the  gradual  formation  of  a  library  com- 
posed of  valuable  works  pertaining  to  all  departments  of 
human  knowledge.  To  this  end,  also,  the  tenth  section  of 
the  Act  directed  that  one  copy  of  all  copyrighted  books,  en- 
gravings, maps,  etc.,  published  in  the  United  States,  should 
be  sent  to  this  library. 

In  the  original  program  of  organization  Professor  Bache 
proposed  to  render  the  Institution  a  center  of  bibliographical 
knowledge  to  which  students  from  all  parts  of  the  country 
could  apply,  by  letter  or  otherwise,  for  information  as  to 
what  books  existed  on  particular  subjects  and  in  what  library 
they  could  be  found.  In  accordance  with  this  idea,  the  first 
librarian,  Mr.  C.  C.  Jewett,  began  by  collecting  a  large  num- 
ber of  works  on  bibliography,  and  endeavored  to  procure 
copies  of  catalogues  of  all  libraries  in  this  country.  It  was 
at  first  proposed  to  secure  three  copies  of  each  of  such  cata- 
logues :  one  to  be  preserved  in  its  original  form,  the  others 
be  cut  up  so  that  each  title  could  be  pasted  on  a  separate 
card,  these  cards  to  be  arranged  in  drawers  so  as  to  form  a 
general  catalogue.  After  something  had  been  done  in  this 
direction,  this  work  was  set  aside  in  favor  of  a  system  pro- 
posed by  Mr.  Jewett  for  producing  printed  catalogues  by 
means  of  stereotyped  plates  of  individual  titles ;  by  which 


InJlMence  of  the  Smithsonian  Instittttion      8 1 7 

means  he  proposed  to  obtain  a  general  catalogue  of  all 
the  books  in  the  country,  which  catalogue  should  contain 
references  to  the  various  libraries  from  which  each  book 
might  be  obtained. 

Much  time  and  money  were  spent  in  vain  on  this  scheme, 
and  it  is  evident  that  neither  Mr.  Jewett  nor  the  managers 
of  the  Institution  had  at  first  any  adequate  idea  of  the  magni- 
tude or  cost  of  the  work  which  they  proposed  to  undertake, 
or  of  the  great  development  of  American  libraries  which  was 
to  occur  in  the  near  future.  At  the  time  this  plan  attracted 
a  good  deal  of  attention,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  Mr. 
Jewett's  '*  Notices  of  the  Public  Libraries  of  the  United 
States,"  published  by  the  Institution  in  1851,  and  his  rules 
for  cataloguing,  published  in  1853,  did  exert  a  great  influence 
on  the  formation  and  arrangements  of  a  great  number  of 
the  libraries  of  this  country. 

Professor  Henry,  the  first  secretary,  soon  perceived  that 
the  formation  and  maintenance  of  a  great  library  would  leave 
the  Smithsonian  Institution  no  funds  for  work  which  he  had 
more  at  heart.  It  was  found  that  the  copyright  law  was 
rather  a  burden  than  an  aid,  and  upon  his  representation  it 
was  finally  so  modified  as  to  relieve  the  Smithsonian  of  the 
duty  of  receiving  the  publications  which  it  provided  for. 
Finally,  through  his  exertions,  the  library  of  the  Institution 
was  transferred  to  the  Congressional  Library,  under  an 
agreement  that  it  should  be  kept  separate ;  that  all  ex- 
penses for  binding  and  care  of  the  books  should  be  paid 
for  by  the  general  government;  and  that  the  Institution 
should  have  the  right  to  withdraw  the  books  at  any  time, 
upon  payment  of  the  expense  which  had  been  incurred.  The 
number  of  volumes  which  were  thus  transferred  was  about 
forty  thousand,  largely  the  publications  of  learned  societies 
which  had  been  received  in  exchange  for  publications  ot  the 


8i8  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

Institution,  and  which  formed  a  collection  of  records  of  the 
progress  of  the  world  which  was  unequaled  in  the  United 
States,  and  hardly  surpassed  in  other  countries. 

The  growth  of  this  special  collection  was  a  very  rapid  one. 
In  1853  it  had  already  attained  25,000  volumes,  and  in  1895 
it  included  314,499  volumes,  and  formed  over  one  quarter  of 
the  National  Library. 

A  most  important  influence  was  exerted  by  the  communi- 
cation addressed  by  the  secretary  of  the  Institution  to  the 
British  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  setting 
forth  the  importance  of  the  publication  of  lists  of  titles  of  me- 
moirs or  papers  contained  in  all  the  transactions  of  learned 
societies  of  the  world,  and  offering  to  cooperate  in  this  work. 
The  result  of  this  suggestion  was  the  undertaking  of  this 
work  by  the  Royal  Society  of  London,  which  has  now  pub- 
lished ten  large  quarto  volumes  of  the  "  Catalogue  of  Scien- 
tific Papers."  The  latest  development  of  this  movement  was 
the  calling  of  an  international  conference,  which  met  in 
London  in  July,  1896,  to  consider  a  plan  for  cataloguing  sci- 
entific literature  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  readily  accessible 
the  bibliography  of  any  particular  subject  coming  within  the 
scope  of  such  an  index. 

The  development  of  public  libraries  in  the  United  States 
since  1850,  the  date  when  the  Smithsonian  Institution  began 
to  exert  its  influence  in  this  direction,  has  been  marvelous. 
Jewett's  "  Notice  of  Public  Libraries,"  referred  to  above,  gave 
the  statistics  for  the  year  1849,  showing  that  the  number  of 
libraries  containing  1000  volumes  and  upward  was  423,  and 
the  aggregate  number  of  volumes  in  these  libraries  was 
2,105,652.  In  1891,  according  to  the  Report  of  the  Bureau 
of  Education,  there  were  3804  such  libraries,  containing  about 
27,000,000  volumes.  In  1849  there  were  but  five  libraries  con- 
taining over  50,000  volumes  and  upward,  the  largest  being 


Influence  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution      819 

that  of  Harvard  College,  with  84,200  volumes.  In  1891  there 
were  98  such  libraries,  and  30  of  these  had  100,000  volumes 
and  upward. 

To  the  growth  of  many  of  such  libraries  the  Smithsonian 
Institution  has  largely  contributed  directly  by  supplying  them 
with  its  own  publications  and  with  books  obtained  tlirough  its 
system  of  international  exchange,  and  indirectly  througli  the 
stimulus  which  it  has  given  to  bibliographical  work  and  to 
the  publications  of  societies. 

When  it  undertook  this  work,  the  wisdom  and  foresight  of 
the  organization  was  shown  by  the  fact  that  many  of  the 
library  methods  which  have  become  prominent  were  fore- 
shadowed in  the  first  report  of  the  Institution. 

Soon  after  the  organization  of  the  Institution  it  undertook 
to  create  and  maintain  a  system  of  international  exchange  be- 
tween the  scientific  and  literary  societies  of  the  United  States 
and  those  in  other  parts  of  the  world.  Prior  to  1850  ex- 
changes between  such  societies  were  made  difficult,  in  part  by 
the  ignorance  of  some  of  them  with  regard  to  the  existence 
and  publications  of  others  ;  in  part  by  the  custom-house  re- 
quirements of  different  countries,  which  often  caused  great 
delay  and  considerable  expense ;  and  in  part  by  the  fact  that 
each  society  had  to  provide  its  own  agents  and  the  means  of 
transmitting  its  own  documents  and  packages.  Through  the 
influence  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  and  its  ao^ents  in 
other  countries  most  of  the  custom-house  difficulties  were 
done  away  with.  The  need  on  the  part  of  individual  societies 
of  supplying  agents  disappeared,  and  by  the  publication  of 
lists  of  correspondents  and  lists  of  publications  of  learned 
societies  and  of  periodicals  received,  the  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion furnished  libraries  and  associations  with  information  as 
to  their  deficiencies,  and  with  data  as  to  the  channels  through 
which  desiderata  mioht  be  obtained. 


820  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

The  story  of  the  development  and  progress  of  the  system 
of  international  exchanges  of  the  Institution  is  a  very  inter- 
esting one,  but  it  would  occupy  too  much  space  to  include  it 
in  a  paper  of  this  kind. 

The  first  volume  of  the  Smithsonian  "  Contributions  to 
Knowledge,"  published  in  1848,  was  widely  distributed  to  the 
libraries  and  societies  of  foreign  countries,  as  far  as  the  exis- 
tence of  such  institutions  was  known ;  but  the  total  number 
of  copies  thus  circulated  was  only  173.  At  the  present  time 
the  number  of  foreign  institutions  receiving  the  Smithsonian 
publications  is  2588,  and  the  number  of  institutions  in  the 
United  States  is  2866. 

In  1867  the  Smithsonian  Institution  initiated  another  sys- 
tem of  foreign  exchange  in  addition  to  the  one  for  learned 
societies  and  scientific  men,  which  had  at  that  time  fully 
developed.  This  second  system  was  intended  to  include 
everything  printed  at  the  expense  of  the  United  States  gov- 
ernment, no  matter  how  trivial  or  apparently  unimportant; 
and  a  complete  set  of  these  publications  was  to  be  sent  to 
each  government  which  agreed  to  make  an  equally  ex- 
haustive return.  By  1879  this  work  had  been  fairly  begun, 
and  thirty-two  sets  of  documents  were  being  disposed  of 
to  as  many  governments. 

For  a  number  of  years  this  work  was  done  entirely  at 
the  expense  of  the  Institution,  but  finally  Congress  voted  an 
appropriation  for  a  portion  of  the  sum  annually  required  for 
this  purpose.  Under  the  provisions  of  the  international 
exchange  the  United  States  has  sent  out  a  very  much 
greater  number  of  publications  of  the  government  than  it  has 
received.  This  was  in  part  due  to  the  much  greater  amount 
of  matter  published  by  the  United  States  than  by  any  other 
government,  but  it  also  largely  depended  upon  the  fact  that 
other  governments  did  not  undertake  to  furnish  annual  lists 


Injittence  of  the  Sinithsonian  Institution      821 

of  all  official  documents  and  to  charge  some  department 
with  the  collecting  and  forwarding  of  them. 

The  magnitude  of  the  operations  of  this  department  of  the 
Institution  may  be  estimated  by  the  fact  that  during  the  fiscal 
year  1894-95  the  total  number  of  packages  received  was 
107,118,  and  the  number  of  cases  shipped  abroad  was  1364. 
The  number  of  government  publications  shipped  abroad 
to  various  sources  was  23,023. 

The  example  set  by  the  Smithsonian  Institution  in  pub- 
lishing and  widely  distributing  valuable  contributions  to 
knowledge,  and  the  advice  and  recommendations  of  its 
secretaries  and  their  co-workers,  have  exerted  a  powerful 
influence  upon  the  several  departments  of  the  general  gov- 
ernment in  inducing  them  to  encourage  their  officers  to 
make  scientific  investigations  and  explorations,  and  to  pre- 
pare careful  and  elaborate  reports,  in  the  belief  that  these 
would  be  published  at  the  expense  of  the  government.  Xo 
doubt  this  has  resulted  in  the  publication  by  the  government 
of  a  considerable  amount  of  matter  the  cost  of  which  could 
have  been  much  more  judiciously  applied  in  other  directions; 
but  this  is  really  a  small  affair  in  comparison  with  the  vast 
educational  work  which  has  been  accomplished  both  as  re- 
gards the  great  number  of  readers  of  and  the  contributors 
to  these   "  public  records." 

Many  societies  of  various  kinds  in  this  country  have  been 
induced  to  make  special  efforts  to  publish  reports  of  trans- 
actions in  order  to  secure  for  their  members  some  of  the 
benefits  of  the  Smithsonian  system  of  exchanges  ;  that  is  to 
say,  that  they  might  have  something  to  give  in  return  for 
the  publications  of  other  societies. 

All  this  has  led  to  the  production  of  a  very  considerable 
amount  of  valuable  literature  which  does  not  primarily  cir- 
culate in  trade  channels  and  is  not  influenced  by  commercial 


822  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

considerations,  and  it  has  also  been  an  important  factor  in  the 
higher  education  in  this  country.  It  has  created  a  demand  for 
skilled  observers  and  for  scientific  teachers  and  writers,  and 
the  knowledge  that  good  work  would  be  published  and  brought 
to  the  notice  of  those  competent  to  appreciate  it  in  all  parts 
of  the  world  has  had  quite  as  much  to  do  with  the  meeting 
of  this  demand  as  has  the  mere  pecuniary  compensation 
offered  for  the  work. 


RELATIONS    BETWEEN   THE 

SMITHSONIAN    INSTITUTION    AND    THE 

LIBRARY  OF   CONGRESS 

By  Ainsworth  Rand  Spofford 

Librarian  of  Congress 

T  was  a  signal  good  fortune  which  preserved  the 
valuable  library  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution 
from  destruction  by  the  fire  of  1865,  which  so 
seriously  damaged  the  building,  and  destroyed 
the  Stanley  Indian  Gallery.  Immediately  fol- 
lowing that  event,  Professor  Henry,  then  at  the  head  of  the 
Institution,  impressed  by  the  peril  which  the  collection  of 
books  had  just  escaped,  sought  a  conference  with  the  joint 
committee  on  the  Library  of  Congress,  in  conjunction  witli 
the  librarian.  He  developed  to  them  a  plan  for  securing 
the  library  from  any  future  danger,  while  it  might  be 
brought  at  the  same  time  to  enrich  the  great  library  of 
the  government.  In  the  view  of  Professor  Henry,  several 
highly  desirable  objects  would  be  accomplished  by  the 
union  of  the  two  libraries  at  the  Capitol.  As  two  spacious 
and  fire-proof  wings,  constructed  of  solid  iron,  had  just 
been  added  to  the  Congressional  Library,  there  was  then 
ample  room  for  the  orderly  arrangement  of  the  Smithsonian 

collection  there,  instead  of  attempting  to  continue  it  in  the 

823 


824  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

narrow  quarters,  already  overflowed,  which  it  occupied,  and 
which  were  greatly  needed  for  other  purposes  during  the  re- 
construction of  the  Smithsonian  building.  The  removal 
would  also  relieve  the  Smithsonian  fund  of  the  expense  of  a 
library,  including  salary  of  librarians,  and  the  cost  of  binding 
books,  leavine  so  much  more  of  the  annual  income  free  to 
be  devoted  to  the  promotion  and  publication  of  original  re- 
searches in  science.  The  latter  having  always  been  the  car- 
dinal object  of  the  Institution,  in  Professor  Henry's  view,  he 
had  early  taken  the  ground  that  the  collection  of  a  library 
should  be  kept  somewhat  subordinate,  and  confined  mainly 
to  the  publications  of  scientific  societies  and  aids  to  scientific 
study,  leaving  to  the  general  government  the  more  com- 
prehensive aim  of  building  up  in  the  city  of  Washington 
a  library  of  universal  range. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  would  clearly  be  to  the  advantage 
of  the  Library  of  Congress  to  receive  so  extensive  an  acces- 
sion to  its  collections;  and  the  annual  additions  of  scientific 
transactions,  through  the  Smithsonian  exchanges,  would  com- 
pensate for  the  expense  of  binding,  cataloguing,  and  care  of 
such  a  collection,  in  the  incidental  saving  of  many  purchases 
which  would  otherwise  be  essential  for  the  Congressional 
Library  in  its  progress  toward  completion. 

These  views,  after  due  conference  and  comparison  of  ad- 
vantages, prevailed  with  the  committee  representing  Con- 
gress, as  well  as  with  the  Regents  of  the  Institution  ;  and  the 
result  was  the  passage  of  the  Act  of  April  5,  1886,^  with  the 
provisions  following: 

"The  library  collected  by  the  Smithsonian  Institution 
under  the  provisions  of  an  act  approved  August  tenth,  eight- 
een hundred  and  forty-six,  shall  be  removed  from  the  build- 
ing  of  said  Institution,   with    the    consent    of  the    Regents 

1"  United  States  Statutes  at  Large,"  volume  xiv,  page  13. 


The  Institution  and  the  Library  of  Congress   825 

thereof,  to  the  new  fire-proof  extension  of  the  Library  of 
Congress,  upon  completion  of  a  sufficient  portion  thereof  for 
its  accommodation,  and  shall,  while  there  deposited,  be  sub- 
ject to  the  same  regulations  as  the  Library  of  Congress, 
except  as  hereinafter  provided. 

*'The  Smithsonian  Institution  shall  have  the  use  thereof, 
in  like  manner  as  it  is  now  used,  and  the  public  shall  have 
access  thereto  for  purposes  of  consultation. 

"All  the  books,  maps,  and  charts  of  the  Smithsonian  Li- 
brary shall  be  properly  cared  for  and  preserved  in  like  manner 
as  are  those  of  the  Congressional  Library,  from  which  the 
Smithsonian  Library  shall  not  be  removed  except  on  reim- 
bursement by  the  Smithsonian  Institution  to  the  Treasury  of 
the  United  States  of  expenses  incurred  in  binding  and  in 
taking  care  of  the  same,  or  upon  such  terms  and  conditions 
as  shall  be  mutually  agreed  upon  by  Congress  and  the  Re- 
gents of  said  Institution. 

"The  Smithsonian  Institution,  through  its  Secretary,  shall 
have  the  use  of  the  Library  of  Congress,  subject  to  the  same 
regulations  as  Senators  and  Representatives." 

The  removal  of  the  library  to  the  Capitol  was  effected 
during  the  winter  of  1866-67.  It  then  comprised  about 
forty  thousand  volumes,  now  increased  to  more  than  eighty 
thousand  volumes  (about  two  hundred  and  fifty  thousand 
titles),  besides  a  great  assemblage  of  pamphlets  and  unbound 
serials ;  and  it  completely  filled  one  entire  gallery  of  the 
newly  constructed  south  wing  of  the  Congressional  Library, 
and  overflowed  into  another  gallery  below.  The  Smith- 
sonian librarian.  Doctor  Theodore  N.  Gill,  was  transferred 
with  the  library  to  the  Capitol,  and  continued  to  catalogue 
and  superintend  the  collection,  in  the  service  of  Congress, 
until  he  resigned  some  years  later  to  devote  himself  to  scien- 
tific work.  He  was  succeeded  by  Mr.  John  Murdoch,  and 
on  his  resignation,  in  1892,  the  present  incumbent,  Doctor 
Cyrus  Adler,  was  appointed  librarian. 

53 


826  The  Sinithsoiiian  Institution 

The  advantages  confidently  anticipated  from  the  conjunc- 
tion of  the  two  libraries  in  the  Capitol,  although  accompanied 
by  some  serious  drawbacks  hereafter  referred  to,  have  been 
in  great  measure  realized.  The  Smithsonian  collection,  so 
rich  in  the  transactions  and  other  publications  of  scientific 
bodies  throughout  the  world,  formed  a  specially  extensive 
and  invaluable  complement  to  the  already  large  miscellaneous 
Library  of  Congress.  The  benefit  to  scientific  students  and 
to  the  public  of  finding  in  one  central  repository  so  extensive 
a  collection  of  aids  to  research,  without  traveling  to  widely 
separated  localities  to  pursue  their  investigations,  can  hardly 
be  overrated.  Economy  of  time,  convenience  of  readers, 
comprehensiveness  of  authorities,  were  all  united  in  con- 
tributing to  the  objects  aimed  at  in  such  researches.  No 
class  of  men  can  be  more  impressed  than  scholars  with  the 
supreme  value  of  moments.  The  ideal  university  of  modern 
times  is  a  library  of  universal  range,  in  which  the  books  shall 
come  to  the  reader  as  fast  as  wanted,  without  troubling  the 
reader  to  travel  after  the  books.  That  concentration  of  mind 
and  of  pursuit  which  is  the  secret  of  success  in  so  many  fields 
is  signally  furthered  by  bringing  all  aids  to  research  to  one 
common  center. 

That  an  ideal  so  much  to  be  desired  has  not  yet  been 
attained  in  the  government  library  in  Washington  is  due  to 
several  causes  which  may  be  briefly  summarized.  They  all 
concenter  in  one  pregnant  fact  —  utterly  inadequate  space 
within  the  Capitol  for  the  reception  and  arrangement  of  a 
great  comprehensive  library.  Within  two  years  after  the 
completion  of  the  two  library  wings  referred  to,  they  were 
nearly  filled  by  the  accession,  first,  of  the  large  historical 
library  of  Peter  Force,  and,  secondly,  by  the  reception  of  the 
Smithsonian  collection.  Every  step  in  the  internal  economy 
of  the  library  in  the  thirty  years  following  has  been  a  study 


The  Ijisfitittion  mid  the  Library  of  Congress   827 

of  providing  for  an  overflow.  All  available  space  within  the 
library  having  been  exhausted  by  the  introduction  of  movable 
cases  of  shelves,  storage-rooms  in  the  basement  of  the  Capi- 
tol were  next  availed  of  To  add  to  the  embarrassment, 
although  directly  contributing  to  the  enrichment  of  the 
library,  the  copyright  law  was  enacted  in  1870,  by  which 
all  records  of  copyright  were  thenceforth  to  be  concentrated 
in  the  office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  and  two  copies 
of  all  publications  under  that  law  to  be  there  deposited.  This 
provision  has  entailed  an  enormous  increase  of  library  ma- 
terial, consisting  not  only  of  books  and  periodicals,  but  of  a 
great  variety  and  quantity  of  maps  and  works  of  graphic  art, 
and  musical  compositions,  occupying  large  space,  and  pouring 
in  year  by  year  in  a  constantly  increasing  flood.  Thus  the 
very  means  which  most  powerfully  contributes  to  increase 
the  library  also  adds  incalculably  to  the  difficulties  of  its 
accommodation  and  arrangement  in  the  extremely  narrow 
space  provided.  The  evils  of  overcrowding,  and  the  hope- 
lessness of  any  remedy  within  the  walls  of  the  Capitol,  were 
urged  upon  Congress  year  after  year  by  the  librarian,  and  by 
enlicjhtened  members  of  both  Houses  of  Conorress.  In  his 
annual  report  for  1877,  iiistar  omnium,  this  language  was 
used  by  the  librarian : 

"While  it  may  be  said  in  extenuation  that  it  is  no  function 
of  the  Library  of  Congress  to  supply  the  public,  whether 
residents  of  Washington  or  the  scholars  of  the  countr)-,  with 
facilities  for  information,  it  cannot  be  forgotten  that  Congress 
has  itself  invited  such  frequentation  by  the  liberal  policy  of 
accumulating  a  great  library  at  the  seat  of  government,  and 
throwing  open  its  doors  to  all.  It  has  also  taken  in  charge 
the  rich  scientific  library  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  as 
a  probably  permanent  deposit,  with  the  contingent  responsi- 
bility of  making  its  stores  contribute  to  the  diffusion  of  know- 
ledge  among    men.     And    it   would  little  comport  with  the 


828  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

theory  or  the  practice  of  our  popular  institutions  and  form 
of  government  that  any  new  bars  should  be  placed  in  the  path 
of  the  widest  diffusion  of  intelligence.  When  it  is  considered 
that,  from  the  nature  of  the  case,  the  embarrassment  of  pro- 
ducing books  and  information  from  these  accumulated  heaps 
is  constantly  growing;  that  Congress,  by  the  act  of  1870, 
requiring  two  copies  of  every  publication  protected  by  copy- 
right to  be  deposited  in  the  library  of  the  government, 
settled  the  question  of  its  possible  permanent  shelter  in  the 
Capitol  in  the  negative ;  that  this  building,  overcrowded  in  all 
its  departments  so  that  several  committees  have  to  occupy 
the  same  room,  is  crowded  worst  of  all  in  the  library  depart- 
ment, to  which  no  possible  outlet  or  addition  of  room  can  be 
procured ;  that  the  mere  arithmetical  computation  of  the 
growth  of  the  country's  literature  proves  that  space  must  be 
provided  within  the  century  for  a  building  at  least  two  thirds 
the  size  of  the  Capitol ;  that  there  is  no  large  capital  in  Eu- 
rope in  which  the  library  of  the  government  can  be  or  is 
provided  for  under  the  same  roof  with  its  legislature ;  that  in 
our  case,  and  in  ours  alone,  there  is  added  to  the  great  gov- 
ernment library  the  extensive  and  growing  bureau  of  copy- 
rights and  copyright  business  for  the  whole  country  ;  that 
the  attempt  to  get  along  with  this  double  difficulty  has 
already  produced  great  injury  to  the  books,  with  partial  ex- 
clusion from  their  benefits,  and  must  ultimately  curtail  the 
usefulness  of  the  library  to  an  incalculable  degree ;  that  even 
if  the  remedy  authorizing  new  space  to  be  provided  were 
immediately  applied,  some  years  must  elapse  before  the 
requisite  building  accommodations  could  be  complete:  the 
case  becomes  one  of  such  pressing  emergency,  not  to  say 
distress,  that  argument  upon  it  should  be  unnecessary. 
Suffice  it  to  say  that  it  scarcely  becomes  a  government  repre- 
senting a  nation  of  such  wealth,  intelligence,  and  power  to 
treat  the  assembled  stores  of  literature  and  art  of  the  country, 
which  its  own  laws  have  caused  to  be  gathered  at  the  Capitol 
and  thrown  open  to  the  people,  with  such  indignity  as  to 
subject  them  to  injury  and  destruction,  or  to  equally  repre- 
hensible exclusion    from   their  benefits.     Of  the    mode    and 


The  Institution  and  the  Library  of  Congress   829 

manner  of  providing  for  the  care  and  permanent  preservation 
of  this  treasury  of  l^nowledge,  Congress  is  properly  the  sole 
judge ;  but  should  another  session  of  that  body  be  suffered  to 
pass  without  proper  provision  being  in  some  way  made  for 
its  protection,  Congress  will  hardly  be  held  to  discharge  the 
trust  reposed  in  it  as  the  custodian  of  what  President  Jefferson 
called,  with  prophetic  wisdom,  "the  Library  of  the  United 
States." 

The  provision  for  a  library  building,  a  want  so  pressing 
and  so  universally  acknowledged,  was  deferred  from  year  to 
year  by  difficulties  and  dissensions  about  a  site,  about  plans, 
about  architects,  and  about  cost,  until  in  1886  an  act  was 
passed  for  the  construction  of  a  fire-proof  edifice  of  ample 
dimensions,  upon  ground  adjacent  to  the  Capitol.  The  new 
building,  which  is  recognized  as  a  model  of  architectural  and 
artistic  beauty,  and  in  its  interior  arrangements  is  adapted 
to  the  highest  utility  and  facility  of  administration,  was 
completed  for  occupation  in  the  spring  of  1897.  I'""  '^'^^  ^W2\ 
and  long-deferred  result,  Congress  acted  with  praiseworthy 
and  far-sighted  liberality,  and  erected  a  fitting  home  for  the 
nation's  books  in  this  noble  temple  dedicated  to  literature, 
science,  and  art. 

In  the  new  library  edifice  ample  shelf-room  is  provided  for 
the  Smithsonian  Library  collections,  and  a  spacious  room  ad- 
joining the  eastern  book-stack  will  be  placed  at  the  disposal 
of  the  secretary  for  occupancy  as  an  office,  or  record  and 
reception  room. 

In  its  new  and  commodious  quarters  it  is  expected  that 
the  complete  and  thorough  arrangement  of  the  Smithsonian 
books  upon  the  shelves,  allowing  an  adequate  space  for 
expansion,  will  be  followed  by  completion  of  the  catalogue 
and  by  the  binding  for  ready  use  of  all  completed  serials 
and  other  works  in  the  collection.     Thus  the  utility  of  the 

53* 


830  The  Smithsonian  Institution 

Smithsonian  Library  will  be  immeasurably  increased,  every 
volume  being  rendered  immediately  available,  instead  of 
being  piled  in  compulsory  disorder  upon  the  floors,  in  the 
absence,  for  years  past,  of  any  shelves  to  arrange  and  classify 
them.  And  the  conjunction  of  the  great  library  of  reference 
in  the  reading-room  of  the  public  library  adjoining  will 
enable  all  students,  in  whatever  department  of  science,  or 
literature,  or  art,  to  prosecute  their  investigations  with 
every  facility  close  at  hand.  The  Smithsonian  Institution 
will  for  the  first  time  be  enabled  to  secure  for  its  rich  col- 
lections in  scientific  knowledge  a  maximum  benefit  to  the 
world  of  readers  who  will  resort  to  it  for  instruction  in 
years    that    are    to    come. 


APPENDIX 


APPENDIX 

PRINCIPAL  EVENTS   IN   THE   HISTORY   OF  THE 

INSTITUTION 

Compiled  by  William  Jones  Rhees 


1826 

Oct.  2j,        James  Smilhson's  will  made. 

1829 
Jitne  2"/,      Death  of  James  Smilhsoa  in  Genoa,  Italy. 

1835 

July  28,       United  States  Government  advised  that  it  was  entitled  to  bequest  of  Smithson. 
Dec,  ly.       Congress  notified  by  President  Jai  kson  of  the  bequest. 

1836 

July  r,         Act  passed  by  Congress  authorizing  appointment  of  agent  to  prosecute  claim  of 

the  United  States  for  the  legacy. 
July  II,       Richard  Rush  appointed  agent  to  prosecute  the  claim  of  the  United  States  to  the 

bequest  of  Smithson. 
Nov,  14,      Richard  Rush,  as  agent  for  the  United  States,  entered  suit  in  the  British  Court 

of  Chancery  to  obtain  possession  of  the  bequest. 

1837 
Feb.  I,         First  hearing  of  the  suit  before  Court  of  Chancery  in  London. 

1838 

May  g,       Chancery  suit  decided  in  favor  of  the  United  States. 
June [5,        Smithson  bequest  transferred  to  Mr.  Rush. 

Sept.  I,        Smithson's  personal  effects  deposited  with  Collector  of  Port  of  New  York. 
Sept,  I,        Bequest  deposited  in  the  United  States  Mint  in  Philadelphia. 
Dec,  6,         President  Jackson  announced  to  Congress  tiie  receipt  of  the  Smithson  bequest 
and  asked  for  adoption  of  a  plan  to  carry  out  the  intentions  of  Smithson. 

1841 

July  12,       Minerals,  books,  manuscripts,  and  other  articles  forming  part  of  the  Smithson  be- 
quest deposited  in  Patent  Office  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury. 

1846 

Feb.  2S,       Bill  passed  House  of  Representatives  organizing  the  Smithsonian  Institution. 

Aug.  10,      Act  of  organization  of  Smithsonian  Institution  passed  by  Senate. 

Aug.  10,     Act  of  Congress  organizing  the  Smithsonian  Institution  approved  by  President 

Polk. 
Sept.  7,        First  meeting  of  the   Board  of  Regents  held,  at  which  George  M.  Dallas  was 

elected  Chancellor  of  the  Institution. 

833 


Jan. 

28, 

Feb. 

s, 

Feb. 

^S, 

March  ig, 

Apri 

in. 

May 
Sept. 
Dec. 

I, 
9. 

834  TJie  Sinifhsonian  Institution 

Dec.  J,        Joseph  Henry  elected  Secretary  of  the  Institution. 

Dec.  4,         Board  of  Regents  adopted  a  plan  of  organization  for  the  Institution. 

Dec.  2j,       Site  for  the  Smithsonian  building  selected. 

1847 

Jan.  26,  Board  of  Regents  "  requested  the  Secretary  to  nominate  an  assistant  who  shall 
be  librarian."  The  Secretary  nominated  Charles  C.  Jesvett  for  Assistant 
Secretary  acting  as  librarian,  who  was  then  elected. 

Plans  of  Architect  James  Renwick,  of  New  York,  for  the  Smithsonian  building 
adopted. 

Publication  authorized  by  Regents  of"  Hints  on  Public  Architecture,"  by  Robert 
D.  Owen,  a  work  cliiefly  descriptive  of  the  Smithsonian  building. 

Lectures  "On  the  construction  and  use  of  the  Rosse  telescope,"  by  William 
Scoresby,  begun  in  Odd  Fellows'  Hall,  being  the  first  delivered  under  the 
auspices  of  the  Institution. 

Contract  for  construction  of  building  awarded. 

Work  begun  on  laying  out  and  beautifying  the  grounds  (nineteen  acres)  by  plant- 
ing trees  and  shrubs,  and  erection  of  fences. 

Corner-stone  of  the  Smithsonian  building  laid. 

Seal  of  the  Institution,  with  likeness  of  James  Smithson,  adopted. 

Program  of  organization  proposed  by  Secretary  Henry  adopted. 

1848 

Atig.  7,  Collection  of  chemical  and  physical  apparatus  of  Robert  Hare  presented  by  him 
to  the  Institution. 

Aug.  12,  Act  for  the  improvement  and  care  of  the  Smithsonian  grounds  by  the  Govern- 
ment, passed  by  Congress. 

Dec.  7,  "Ancient  Monuments  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,"  the  first  volume  of  the  Smith- 
sonian Contributions  to  Knowledge  publisiied  and  distributed.  It  was  decided 
that  no  copyright  should  be  taken  of  the  publications. 

July  I,  System  of  meteorological  observations  established,  in  connection  with  which  it 
was  proposed  by  Secretary  Henry  to  use  the  magnetic  telegraph  in  the  in- 
vestigation of  atmospherical  phenomena,  and  the  notice  of  approaching  storms 
given  to  distant  observers. 

1849 

March  7,     Vice-President  Millard  Fillmore  elected  Chancellor. 

April  6,  Course  of  four  lectures  on  "  Modern  Athens  "  by  Professor  Koeppen  of  Denmark 
begun.     They  were  delivered  in  Carusi's  Hall. 

April  JO,  East  wing  of  the  building  completed  and  occupied  by  the  lecture-room  and  lab- 
oratory, and  apparatus  rooms. 

April  10,  Library  transferred  to  eastern  range  of  the  Smithsonian  building  from  the  Patent 
Office. 

April  JO,     Course  of  six  lectures  on  "Geology"  by  Edward  Hitchcock  begun;  being  the 
first  given  in  the  building  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution. 
.System  of  international  exclianges  inaugurated. 

May  II,      Reports  on  the  progress  of  science  begun. 

June  2^,      Appropriation  made  for  collections  in  natural  history. 

Aug.  I,  First  meeting  of  the  "  Establishment  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  "  held.  Presi- 
dent Zachary  Taylor  in  the  chair. 

1850 

Jan.  22,  Explorations  under  the  auspices  of  the  Institution,  or  aided  by  its  funds,  insti- 
tuted, especially  in  Oregon,  California,  and  Mexico. 

Jt'h'  J",  Nomination  by  Secretary  Henry  of  Spencer  Fulierton  Daird  as  Assistant  Secre- 
tary in  the  Department  of  Natural  History,  to  take  charge  of  the  Museum  and 
aid  in  the  publications,  etc.,  approved  by  the  Regents. 

Sept.  JO,      Smithsonian  grounds  laid  out  anew,  under  the  direction  of  Andrew  J.  Downing. 

Dec.  ji.  East  and  west  wings  and  ranges  of  the  building  finished,  and  the  lecture-room 
enlarged  in  the  east  wing  so  as  to  accommodate  one  thousand  persons. 

1851 

Jan.     7,      Chief  Justice  Taney  elected  Chancellor. 

Jan.  18,       Memorial  to  Congress  presented  by  the  Regents  asking  permission  to  increase 

the  permanent  Smithsonian  fund  to  $715,000. 
Dec.  JI,       Exterior  of  the  Smithsonian  building,  including  tiie  towers,  completed. 


Events  in  History  of  Institution 


835 


1852 

Feb.  14,       British  Government  admits   free  of  duty,  books,  etc.,  sent  by  the  Smithsonian 

Institution  to  libraries  in  England. 

1853 

Feb.  J,  Magnetic  observatory  on  the  Smithsonian  grounds  authorized  by  the  Board  of 
Regents. 

March  j.  Congress  appropriated  $3000  to  begin  prejiaration  of  a  catalogue  of  its  library 
on  the  Smithsonian  stercotyjie  plan  pro]iosed  by  Charles  C.  Jewett. 

March  12,  Alteration  ordered  in  the  east  wing  of  the  l)uilding  to  convert  it  into  a  residence 
for  the  Secretary. 

March  12,  Resolutions  ado])tcd  by  the  Board  of  Regents  referring  the  subject  of  the  distri- 
bution of  the  income  of  the  Institution  to  a  Select  Committee. 

June  /J",      Distribution  of  duplicate  specimens  to  other  museums  begun. 


1S54 

Jan.  28,      District  of  Columbia  Court  decided  that  the  Board  of  Regents  could  not  be  sued. 

May  20,  Special  committee  of  the  Board  of  Regents  reported.  "The  law  is  declaratory 
and  positive  in  cliarging  the  Secretary  with  the  enumerated  duties,  and  therefore 
invests  him  and  him  alone  with  the  corresjionding  powers.  .  .  .  lie  is  not 
required  to  employ  any  f)ne,  but  is  ])ermitted  to  em|)Ioy  persons  to  assist  him, 
])rovidcd  he  satisfy  the  Board  that  their  services  arc  necessary  as  aids  to  him. 
This  view  of  the  intention  of  Congress  so  clearly  expressed  in  the  law  would 
be  directly  contradicted  by  the  plan  which  has  been  suggested  of  organizing 
the  Institution  definitely  into  several  departments,  placing  at  the  head  of  these 
departments  different  assistants,  establishing  their  relative  positions,  describing 
distinct  duties  for  them,  assigning  certain  shares  of  the  income  to  be  dis- 
bursed by  them,  and  staling  their  authorities,  privileges  and  remedies  for 
the  infringement  of  their  official  rights  or  of  the  interests  entrusted  to  their 
care.  All  this  would  tend  not  to  secure  a  loyal  and  harmonious  cooperation, 
to  a  common  end,  of  the  assistants  with  the  Secretary,  but  to  encourage 
rivalry,  to  invite  collision,  to  engender  hostility,  to  destroy  subordination,  to 
distract  the  operations  of  the  Institution,  to  impair  its  efficiency  and  to  destroy 
its  usefulness." 

Jiilv  S,        Preamble  and  resolution  from  the  Select  Committee  adopted  as  follows: 

"The  Secretary  of  the  Institution  and  of  this  Board  is,  by  the  seventh  section  of 
the  Act  '  to  establish  the  Smithsonian  Institution,'  required  to  discharge  the 
duties  of 'librarian  and  Keeper  of  the  Museum,  having,  with  the  consent  of 
the  Board  of  Regents,  power  to  employ  assistants,  the  better  to  enable  him  to 
discharge  those  duties;  for  a  better  construction  whereof — Be  it  resolved, 
that  whilst  power  is  reserved  in  the  said  section  to  the  Board  of  Regents  to 
remove  both  the  Secretary  and  his  assistants,  in  the  opinion  of  the  Board, 
power,  nevertheless,  remains  with  the  Secretary  to  remove  his  said  assistants." 

December,    Main  portion  of  the  Smithsonian  Building  completed. 


1S55 


Bancroft  library 


Jan.  12, 
Jan.  I  J, 

Jan.   /J, 

Jan.  IS, 

Jan.  /J-, 

Jan.  ij, 


Resolutions  of  the  Select  Committee  adopted,  repealing  the  equal  distribution  of 
the  income  and  providing  that  appropriations  should  be  sjiecific. 

Secretary  Henry,  at  meeting  of  Board  of  Regents,  stated  that  he  had  deemed  it 
his  duty  to  remove  Charles  C.  Jewett  from  the  office  of  Assistant  to  the  Secre- 
tary. 

Rufus  Choate  resigned  his  office  of  Regent,  stating  that  he  had  done  so  because 
of  his  inability  to  acquiesce  in  the  interpretation,  by  a  majority  of  the  Board,  of 
the  Act  of  Congress  organizing  the  Institution. 

Judiciary  committee  of  the  Senate  instructed  to  inquire  and  report  whether  any 
action  of  the  Senate  was  necessary  and  proper  in  regard  to  the  Smithsonian 
Institution. 

The  following  resolutions  were  adopted  by  the  Board  of  Regents  : 

"  Resolved,  That   while  the  Board   regret  the  necessity  of  Mr.  Jcwett's  re- 
moval, they  approve  of  the  act  of  the  Secretary. 

"  Resolved,  That  the  approval  by  the  Board  is  not  deemed  by  them  to  be  es- 
sential to  the  validity  of  the  act  of  the  Secretary  in  so  removing  Mr.  Jewett." 

Mr.  Choate's  letter  of  resignation  was  referred,  in  the  House  of  Representatives, 
to  a  Special  Committee  of  five,  to  inquire  into  the  management  of  the  Institu- 
tion, and  with  power  to  send  for  persons  and  papers. 


836  The  Smithsonian  Institittion 

Jan.  26,  Committee  of  the  House  called  upon  Secretary  Henry  and  on  other  officers 
of  the  Institution  for  a  statement  of  their  acts,  investigated  the  claim  of  an  em- 
ployee for  additional  remuneration  for  services,  etc. 

Fel>.  6,  Unanimous  report  of  the  Senate  Judiciary  Committee  served  to  establish  the 
legality  of  the  action  of  the  Regents,  and  the  policy  of  the  Board  has  since 
been  continued  without  objection,  in  the  same  line  as  that  which  was  originally 
marked  out  l^y  Henry  when  he  accepted  the  secretaryship  of  tlie  Institution 
in  1846. 

Feb.  24,  Board  of  Regents  "resolved  that  all  correspondence  of  the  Institution  shall  be 
conducted  by  tlie  Secretary,  and  no  assistant  or  employee  shall  write  or  receive 
any  official  letter  or  communication  pertaining  to  the  affairs  of  the  Institution, 
except  under  the  authority  and  by  the  direction  of  the  Secretary,  and  all  such 
corresjjondence  shall  be  duly  registered  and  recorded." 

March  j,  Numerous  meetings  of  the  House  Committee  were  held,  and  finally  two  reports 
were  presented,  with  the  testimony  taken. 

March  j,  Act  passed  by  Congress  allowing  all  copyright  publications  to  be  sent  to  the 
Institution  free  of  postage. 

March  j.  Annual  report  for  1854  ordered  by  Congress,  bemg  the  first  to  contain  the  lectures, 
extracts  from  the  correspondence,  and  miscellaneous  papers  in  the  form  of  a 
General  Appendix. 

1856 

March  S,  Free  transportation  of  freight  granted  to  the  Institution  by  the  Mexican  Culf,  Pa- 
cific Mail,  South  American,  and  United  States  Mail  Steamship  Companies,  and 
by  the  Panama  Railroad  Company. 

September,  Monument  erected  in  Smithsonian  Park  to  the  memory  of  Andrew  Jackson 
Downing,  architect  and  landscape  gardener. 

1857 

March  j,  Congress  appropriated  $2000  for  the  transfer  of  the  collections  of  the  Government 
from  the  Patent  Office  to  the  Institution,  and  $15,000  for  the  construction  of 
cases. 

A/arch  j/,  Personal  effects  of  James  Smithson  removed  from  the  Patent  Office  and  de- 
posited in  the  Regents'  room  at  the  Institution. 

185S 

May  79,      Sjiecial  committee  of  the  Board  of  Regents    made  a  report  relative  to  Joseph 

Henry's  connection  with  the  invention  of  the  electro-magnetic  telegraph. 
J/nie  2,       Congress  appropriated  $4000  for  care  of  the  Government  collections,  and  $1000 

for  transfer  from  the  Patent  Office. 
Ai/^^.  8,        Government  collections  were  transferred  from  the  United  States  Patent  Office 

to  the  Institution. 
Daily  weather-map,   from   telegraphic   reports    received    every   morning   at    10 

o'clock,  exhibited  in  the  Smithsonian  building. 

1859 

Jan.  2^,      Free   transportation   granted   to    the  Institution  by  the  North  German    Lloyd 

steamers. 
Feb.  J,         Congress  amended  copyright  law,  and  on  the  recommendation  of  the  Board  of 

Regents  repealed  the  requirement  that  copies  of  all  copyrighted  books,  maps, 

charts,  etc.,  be  sent  to  the  Institution, 

i860 

Feb.  2^,       Free  transportation  of  freight  granted  by  the  Cunard  Steamship  Line  to  England. 
Dec.  ji,       Magnetic  observatory  discontinued,  and  the  instruments  sent  to   Fort  Taylor, 
Key  West,  in  care  of  the  tidal  station  of  the  United  States  Coast  Survey. 

1861 

June  /J,      Balloons  sent  up  from  the  Smithsonian  grounds  by  Thaddeus  S.  C.  Lowe,  to 

test  practicability  of  their  employment  for  military  purposes. 
Oct.  21,        Free  transportation  of  freight  granted  by  the  Hamburg-American  Packet  Company. 


Events  in  History  of  Institution 


837 


1862 

Feb.  28,  Institution  co6[)Lrated  willi  Surgeon-General  of  tlie  United  States  Army,  and 
with  Sanitary  Commission,  in  the  improvement  of  the  health  and  comfort  of  the 
soldiers  during  tlie  civil  war. 

April  /J",  Daily  telegraphic  bulletin  of  the  weather,  which  had  been  discontinued  for  some 
time  on  account  of  the  demands  of  public  business,  partially  resumed. 

June  2,  Series  of  publications  in  (;clavo  called  "  Smithsonian  Miscellaneous  Collections" 
begun. 

July  sy.  Charter  of  the  National  Institute  expired,  and  in  accordance  with  its  act  of  in- 
corporation its  property  was  delivered  by  Secretary  of  the  Interior  to  Smith- 
sonian Institution. 

1863 

March  j.  Congress  having  incorporated  the  National  Academy  of  Sciences,  rooms  were 
furnished  to  it  by  the  Institution  for  its  meetings  and  library. 

1864 

June  II,  Residuary  legacy  of  Smithson,  on  account  of  the  death  of  the  annuitant,  Madame 
La  Batut,  received  by  the  Institution. 

Aug.  I,  Application  made  to  tlie  North  American  Telegraphic  Association,  covering  the 
entire  United  States  and  Canada,  for  free  use  of  its  lines  for  the  scientific  ob- 
jects of  the  Institution,  which  was  subsequently  granted. 

1865 

Jan.  9,        Chief  Justice  Salmon  P.  Chnse  elected  Chancellor. 

Jan.  10,  Act  establishing  the  Institution  amended  by  Congress,  repealing  the  section 
that  required  two  of  the  Regents  to  be  members  of  the  National  Institute  in 
the  city  of  Washington. 

Jan.  24,  Fire  destroyed  the  j^rincipal  part  of  the  contents  of  the  rooms  in  the  upper 
story  of  the  Smithsonian  building  and  the  adjacent  towers,  including  the  per- 
sonal effects  of  Smithson. 

July  I,  Reconstruction  of  the  building  with  fueproof  materials  begun,  in  accordance  with 
the  plans  and  under  the  superintendence  of  Adolf  Cluss,  architect. 

1 866 

April  ^,  Act  passed  by  Congress  transferring  the  custody  of  the  library  of  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution  to  the  Library  of  Congress. 

1867 

Feb.  8,  Act  passed  by  Congress  providing  that  the  residuary  legacy  of  Smithson  should  be 
received  and  added  to  the  Smithson  Fund,  and  allowing  the  Regents  to  increase 
that  fund  in  the  Treasury  of  the  United  States  by  savings,  donations,  and 
otherwise,  to  one  million  dollars. 

March  2,  Act  passed  by  Congress  to  provide  for  fifty  copies  of  all  documents  printed  by 
either  House  of  Congress,  or  by  any  Department  or  Bureau,  to  be  exchanged 
through  the  agency  of  the  Smitlisonian  Institution  for  similar  works  published 
in  foreign  countries,  and  especially  by  foreign  governments. 

1S6S 

Jan.  I,        National  Herbarium  transferred  to  the  Department  of  Agriculture. 
July  2^,      Amendment  to  the  law  relative  to  the  exchange  of  documents  with  foreign  gov- 
ernments passed  by  Congress. 

1869 

July  7,  West  range  of  the  Smithsonian  building,  in  addition  to  the  main  halls,  assigned  to 
the  use  of  the  Museum. 

1S70 

June  I,  Secretary  Henry  visited  Europe  in  behalf  of  the  interests  of  the  Institution,  and 
testified  before  an  Fnglisii  government  Scientific  Commission  regarding  the 
objects  and  methods  of  the  Institution. 

Aug.  8,  Secretary  Henry  represented  the  United  States,  by  appointment  of  President 
Grant,  at  the  international  Commission  invited  by  the  Emperor  of  France  to 


838 


The  Smithsonian  Institntion 


Oct.  20, 


consider  the  best  means  of  multiplying  copies,  for  distribution,  of  the  original 
meter  preserved  in  the  archives  of  the  government  in  Paris. 
Leonard  Case,  of  Cleveland,  Ohio,  contributed  $1200  in  aid  of  publications. 


1871 


Feb. 


o> 


Spencer  F.  Baird,  Assistant  Secretary  of  the  Institution,  appointed  United  States 
Commissioner  of  Fish  and  Fisheries  by  President  Grant. 

March  j.  Appropriation  for  continuing  the  survey  of  the  Colorado  River  of  the  West  by 
John  W.  Powell,  under  direction  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion, made  by  Congress. 

March  /j",  Act  establishing  the  Institution  amended  by  Congress,  by  substituting  the 
"  Governor  of  the  District  of  Columbia  "  for  the  "  Mayor  of  the  City  of  Wash- 
ington," as  one  of  the  Regents  ex  officio  of  the  Institution. 

Nov.  20,  James  Hamilton,  of  Carlisle,  Pennsylvania,  made  a  will  bequeathing  $1000  to  the 
Institution. 

1872 


June  8, 


July  g, 


Jan.  20, 


June  1 8, 


Dec. 
Dec. 


19, 


Law  passed  l)y  Congress  that  "  all  publications  sent  or  received  by  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution,  marked  on  each  package,  '  Smithsonian  exchanges,'  shall 
be  allowed  to  pass  free  in  the  mail." 

Collection  of  minerals,  ores,  and  geological  specimens  which  had  been  formed  by 
Joseph  Wilson,  Commissioner  of  the  General  Land  Office,  embracing  samples 
from  every  State  and  Territory  in  the  Union,  transferred  to  the  Institution  by 
the  Secretary  of  the  Interior. 

1873 

Various  ocean  cable  and  inland  telegraph  companies  granted  the  Institution  the 
privilege  of  tiansmitting  without  charge,  between  Europe  and  America,  an- 
nouncement of  astronomical  discoveries. 

Exchange  of  sets  of  United  States  Government  documents  with  foreign  govern- 
ments begun. 

Justice  Nathan  Clifford  elected  Chancellor. 

Smithsonian  meteorological  work  transferred  to  the  signal  office.  War  Depart- 
ment, under  "the  policy  that  the  Institution  should  devote  its  energies  to  no 
field  of  research  which  can  be  as  well  cultivated  by  other  means." 


1874 

Jan.  I,  Annual  income  and  receipts  of  the  Institution  deposited  with  the  Treasurer  of  the 
United  States,  who  makes  payments  on  checks  signed  by  the  Secretary. 

Jan.  26,  Secretary  authorized  by  Board  of  Regents  to  receive  aid  from  societies  and  in- 
dividuals in  defraying  part  of  the  expense  of  the  exchange  system. 

Feb.  ij,  Paintings,  statuary,  engravings,  and  books  on  art  belongmg  to  the  Institution 
deposited  in  the  Corcoran  Art  Gallery. 

Feb.  24,  Bequest  of  James  Hamilton  of  $1000  deposited  in  United  States  Treasury  to 
credit  of  Smithson  fund. 

March  2^,  Assistant  Secretary  Spencer  F.  Baird  appointed  by  the  President  a  member  of 
the  Government  Board  for  the  Centennial  Exhibition  to  be  held  in  Philadelphia. 

April  27,     Chief  Justice  Waite  elected  Chancellor. 


March  j, 
March  j, 
Nov.   2J, 

July  jr, 
Oct.   iS, 


May 
May 


^3, 

n, 


1875 

Act  passed  by  Congress  extending  the  use  of  the  Library  of  Congress  to  the 
Regents  of  the  Institution. 

Appropriation  by  Congress  to  aid  in  making  an  exhibit  at  the  Centennial  Exhibi- 
tion in  Philadelphia. 

A  series  of  publications  entitled  "  Bulletin  of  the  United  States  National  Mu- 
seum "  begun. 

1876 

Use  of  the  Armory  Building  in  the  Mall  granted  by  Congress  for  temporary 
storage  of  collections  received  from  the  Centennial  Exhibition. 

Medals,  etc.,  awarded  by  the  United  States  Centennial  Commission  to  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution  for  certain  of  its  exhibits  in  the  Exhibition  in  Philadelphia. 

1878 

Death  of  Joseph  Henry,  Secretary  of  the  Institution. 
Spencer  F.  Baird  elected  Secretary. 


Events  in  History  of  Institution 


839 


Jtme  12,    Telephones  introduced. 

Dec.  ij,      East  wing  of  the  Smitlisonian  building  converted  into  offices  and  work-rooms. 

1S79 

Jan.  16,       Memorial  services  in  honor  of  Secretary  Henry  held  in  tlie  U.  S.  Capitol. 

Jan.  24,  Act  passed  by  Congress  authorizing  the  Ciiancellor  of  the  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tution to  appoint  an  acting  Secretary  in  certain  cases. 

Alarch  /j",  Bequest  of  $500  received  from  Doctor  Simeon  Habel  of  New  York. 

March  j.     Congress  ajipropriated  $250,000  for  a  fireproof  building  for  llie  National  Museum. 

March  j,  All  official  mail  matter  sent  from  the  Smithsonian  Institution  allowed  transmission 
free  of  postage  by  Act  of  Congress. 

March  j,  Congress  ordered  "all  the  archives,  records, and  materials  relating  to  the  Indians 
of  North  America,  collected  by  the  Geographical  and  Geological  Survey  of  the 
Rocky  Mountain  Region, turned  over  to  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  that  the 
work  may  be  completed  and  prepared  for  publication  under  its  direction." 

March  j,  Congress  provided  that  books  or  documents  from  the  Smithsonian  Institution 
should  not  be  restricted  to  four  pounds  for  each  package  to  be  sent  through  the 
mails  as  fourth-class  matter. 

March  j,  Congress  ordered  "  all  collections  of  rocks,  minerals,  soils,  fossils,  and  ob- 
jects of  natural  history,  arch;eology  and  ethnology  made  by  the  Coast  and  Inte- 
rior Survey,  the  Geological  Survey,  or  by  any  other  parties  for  the  Government 
of  the  United  States,  when  no  longer  needed  for  investigations  in  progress,  to 
be  deposited  in  the  National  Museum." 

July  J,  Secretary  Baird  designated  John  W.  Powell  to  take  charge  of  the  Ethnological 
work,  as  ])rovided  liy  Congress. 

Aug.  I,       Series  of  publications  entitled  "  Proceedings  of  the  National  Museum  "  begun. 

1880 

June  I,        Congress  ajipropriated  $15,000  for  a  bronze  statue  of  Professor  Joseph  Henry,  by 

W.  W.  Story. 
June  14,      First  report  of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology  ordered  to  be  published  by  Congress. 

1881 

March  4,  Reception  and  ball  in  connection  with  inauguration  of  President  Garfield  held  in 
the  National  Museum  building. 

Sept.  I  to  Sept.  JO,  Smithsonian  Institution  participated  in  the  International  Geographical 
Congress  in  Venice. 

Sept.  75"  to  Oct.  J,  Smithsonian  Institution  participated  in  the  International  Electrical  Con- 
gress in  Paris. 

October,        Smithsonian  National  Museum  Building  occupied. 

1882 

Jan.  4,  Midshipmen  of  the  United  States  Navy  assigned  by  the  Navy  Department  to  the 
temporary  service  of  the  National  Museum. 

Nov.  3,  Smithsonian  Institution  made  a  co-partner  in  the  administration  of  a  beneficiary 
trust  of  a  million  dollars  by  Reverenil  Alexander  G.  Mercer,  of  Newport, 
Rhode  Island,  a  Board  being  constituted  of  the  Presidents  of  Harvard  College, 
and  Vale  College,  and  the  Secretary  of  the  .Smithsonian  Institution,  with  three 
other  individuals,  to  establish  scholarships  in  such  colleges  as  they  may  select 
for  the  education  of  "  such  poor  students  as  have  passed  through  public  schools 
with  the  best  reputation  for  character  and  ability." 

1883 

Jan.  10,      System  of  telegraphic  announcement  of  astronomical  discoveries  inaugurated  by 

the  Institution  in  1S73  transferred  to  Harvard  College  Observatory. 
March  j,     Congress  appropriatetl  $50,000  to  reconstruct  in  a  fire-proof  manner  the  eastern 

portion  of  the  Smithsonian  building. 
April  ig.     Bronze  statue  of  Joseph  Henry  erected  in  the  Smithsonian  grounds  by  order 

of  Congress,  unveiled. 
Alay  I  to  Noi>.  i,  National  Museum  participated  in  International  Fisheries  Exhibit  in  London. 
May  ig,      Washington  relics  transferred  from  Patent  Oftice  to  National  Museum. 
July  I,         Publication  of  the  Bulletin  and  Proceedings  of  the  National  Museum  discontinued 

as  parts  of  the  series  of"  Smithsonian  Sliscellaneous  Collections,"  and  ordered 

to  be  carried  on  independently. 
July  2j,       Electric  lighting  introduced  in  ^luscuni. 


840  The  Smithsonian  Institntion 

1884 

May  13,      Act  passed  by  Congress  to  provide  for  the  appointment  of  an  Acting  Secretary 

of  Smithsonian  Institution. 
Jii/v  V         Franking  privilege  extended  to  all  official  mail  matter  of  Smithsonian  Institution 

by  order  of  Congress. 
St'pt.  2,        Participation  in  the  International  Electrical  Exhibition  in  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Participation  in  the  Louisville,  Kentucky  {August  16-October  2j),  and  Cincinnati, 

Ohio  {September  j-October  4),  and  New  Orleans,  Louisiana  {December  16, 1884, 

{oMayji,  1885)  Expositions. 

1885 

Jan.  21,  Regents  decided  that  "  the  fiscal  year  of  the  Institution  shall  terminate  on 
the  30th  of  June  of  each  year,  and  that  the  annual  meeting  of  the  Board  of 
Regents  shall  be  held  on  the  second  Wednesday  of  January  in  each  year." 

March 3,  By  order  of  Congress,  "The  annual  reports  of  the  Institution  shall  be  hereafter 
printed  at  the  Government  Printing  Office,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  annual 
reports  of  the  Heads  of  Departments  are  now  printed,  for  submission  in  print 
to  the  two  Houses  of  Congress." 

1886 

Au'-^.  J,  Congress  ordered  the  Grant  medals  and  objects  of  value  and  art  to  be  deposited 
in  National  Museum. 

1887 

Jan.  12,  Secretary  Baird  appointed  Samuel  P.  Langley  as  Assistant  Secretary  in  charge 
of  Exchanges,  Publications,  and  Library,  and  G.  Brown  Goode  as  Assistant 
Secretary  in  charge  of  the  National  Museum,  which  appointments  were 
approved  by  the  Board. 

March  j.  Congress  provided  that  the  Secretary  of  State,  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  and 
the  Secretary  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  and  their  successors  in  office,  be 
constituted  a  Commission,  whose  duty  it  shall  be  to  report  to  Congress  the 
character  and  value  of  the  historical  and  other  manuscripts  belonging  to  the 
Government  of  the  United  States,  and  what  method  and  policy  should  be  pur- 
sued in  regard  to  editing  and  publishing  the  same,  or  any  of  them. 

April  J,  New  regulations  made  by  the  Secretary  for  the  library,  and  efforts  begun  to 
compiete  imperfect  sets  of  transactions  of  learned  societies  and  to  increase  the 
number  of  periodicals  in  all  departments  of  knowledge. 

July  7,  "  The  Director  of  the  National  Museum  directed  to  report  annually  to  Congress 
the  progress  of  the  Museum  during  the  year,  and  its  present  condition." 

Aug.  ig.      Death  of  Spencer  F.  Baird,  Secretary  of  the  Institution. 

Aug.  31,     Participation  in  the  Minneapolis  Industrial  Exposition. 

Nov.  18,      Samuel  P.  Langley  elected  Secretary. 

1888 

Jan.  II,  Regents  decided  that  all  estimates  for  appropriations  should  be  sent  direct 
by  the  Secretary  of  tlie  Institution  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  for  trans- 
mission to  Congress. 

Oct.  4,  Disbursing  Officer  was  appointed,  duly  qualified  and  bonded  to  the  acceptance 
of  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  for  the  disbursement  of  all  sums  appropriated 
by  Congress  to  the  Smithsonian  Institution  for  the  National  Museum,  Ex- 
changes, Bureau  of  Ethnology,  Zoological  Park,  and  Astrophysical  Observatory. 

March  27,  Justice  Samuel  F.  Miller  elected  Chancellor //v?  tern. 

July  4  to  Oct.  7,  Participation  in  the  Ohio  Valley  and  Central  States  Exposition  in  Cincinnati, 
Ohio,  and 

July  16-21,  the  Marietta  Exposition,  Marietta,  Ohio. 

Oct.  2,  Congress  ordered  that  the  Secretary  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  should  submit 
at  the  beginning  of  each  session  a  detailed  statement  of  expenditures  of  the  ap- 
propriations of  the  several  bureaus  under  its  direction. 

1889 

Jan.  4,  American  Historical  Association  incorporated  by  Congress  and  ordered  to  report 
annually  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  who  shall  com- 
municate the  whole  or  parts  of  such  reports  to  Congress ;  the  collections, 
manuscrijits,  books,  jiamphlets,  and  other  material  for  history  to  be  deposited 
in  the  Smithsonian  Institution  or  National  Museum. 


Events  in  History  of  histitution  841 

Jan.  g.        Chief  Justice  Melville  W.  Fuller  elected  Chancellor. 
March  2,     National  Zoological  Park  established  by  an  Act  of  Congress. 

1890 

Jan.  8,         Time  of  annual  meeting  ot  Board  of  Regents  changed  to  the  fourth  Wednesday 

in  January. 
March  i,    Astrophysical   Observatory   established  in  a  wooden   edifice   built   at   the   cost 

of  the  Smithsonian   Institution,  on   the   grounds   south    of  the   Smithsonian 

building. 
April  26,     Bequest  of  Jerome    H.    Kidder  of   S5000  and  June  5  a  gift  from   Alexander 

Graham   Bell  of  $5000  for  astro])hysical  research  received. 
April  JO,     National  Zoological   Park  placed   under    the   direction    of  the    Regents   of  the 

Smithsonian  Institution  by  order  of  Congress. 
Aug.  JO,     Congress  appropriated  $25  000  to  make  the  west  wing  of  Smithsonian  building 

fireproof. 

1891 

March  j,     First  appropriation   ($10,000)   made  for  the   maintenance  of  the  Astrophysical 

Observatory  by  Congress. 
Sept.  22,      Gift  of  $200,000  received  from  Thomas  G.  Hodgkins  of  Setanket,  New  York. 

1892 

Oct.  ji,  i8g2,  to  Jan.  ji,  i8gj.  Participation  in  the    Columbian    Historical    Exposition   m 

Madrid. 
Nffv.  2j,      Death  of  Thomas  G.  Hodgkins,  who  left  by  will  additional  gifts  to  the  Institution. 

1893 

Jan.  2J,       New  seal,  designed  by  A.  St.  Gaudeiis,  adopted  by  the  Institution. 

May  I  to  Oct.  ji.  Participation  in  the  World's  Columl)ian  Exposition  in  Chicago. 

June  I,  Study  table  maintained  at  the  Naples  Zoological  Station  for  occupancy  by  a  stu- 
dent in  Biology  designated  by  the  Smithsonian  Institution. 

Oct.  2^,  Received  $42,000  West  Shore  Railroad  four  per  cent  bonds  from  bequest  of 
Thomas  G.  Hodgkins. 

1894 

March  12,  Act  amending  Revised  Statutes,  title  73,  relative  to  constituent  members  of 
the  "  Establishment,"  and  providing  that  the  Institution  may  have  power  to 
receive  money  or  other  property  by  gift,  bequest,  or  devise,  passed  by  Con- 
gress. 

May  ig.      An  additional  sum  of  $8000  received  from  the  Hodgkins  estate. 

July  28,       National  Herbarium  recalled  from  the  Department  of  Agriculture. 

Sept.  12,      Death  of  Robert  vStanton  Avery,  who  bequeathed  his  property  to  the  Institution. 

1895 

Jan.  28,       Hamilton  Fund  increased  to  $2000  by  deposit  of  accrued  interest,  in  the  United 

States  Treasury. 
Aug.  g,        Award  of  prizes  from  the  Hodgkins  Fund  made. 
Sept.  18  to  Dec.  ji.  Participation  in  the  Cotton  States  and  International  Exposition  in  Atlanta, 

Georgia. 
Dec.  2j,        Complete  set  of  the  publications  of  the  Institution  deposited  in  the  Library  of 

Pembroke  College,  Oxford,  the  college  from  which  Smithson  was  graduated. 

1896 

June  18,       President  of  the  United  States  directed  the  application  of  the  Civil  Service  rules 

from  July  I,  1896,  to  all  persons  in  the  Bureaus  under  the  Institution  whose 

salaries  are  paid  out  of  government  ajipropriations. 
July  iS,       Paintinj^s,  engravings,  and  other  art  works,  deposited  in  the  Corcoran  Gallery  ol 

Art  in  1874  and  later,  returned  to  the  Institution  at  the  request  of  the  Regents. 
Sept.   6,       Death  of  G.  Brown  Goode,  Assistant  Secretary  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  in 

charge  of  the  National  Museum. 
Nov.  18,       Bronze  tablet  directed  to  be  placed  on  Smithson's  tomb  by  the  Institution,  and  a 

replica  in  the  English  Church  in  Genoa,  Italy. 


54 


INDEX 


Abljott,  Win.  L.,  337,  338,  341,  346,  356;  explorations 
of,  in  Africa  and  Asin,  480 

Abort,  J.  J.,  309,  352 

Act  of  Congress,  removing  Library  of  Institution  to 
Library  of  Congress,  82<j 

Act  of  incorporation  of  Snnthsonian  Institution,  53,  310 

Adams,  John  Quincy,  36;  bill  jiresented  by,  for  erection 
of  Observatory,  247;  efforts  of,  to  erect  Observatory 
from  Smithsonian  fund,  419;  favors  endowing  Na- 
tional Institute,  ^6;  influence  of,  in  final  organiza- 
tion of  Smithsonian  Institution,  53:  introduces  bill 
in  Congress  for  National  Observatory,  36 ;  member 
of  committee  on  final  organization  of  Smithsonian 
Institution,  51  ;  objections  to  his  plan,  36;  jjroposes 
establishment  of  astronomical  observatory  through 
Smithson  becpiest,  33,  34,  49;  reports  in  favor  of  ac- 
cepting the  Smithson  bequest,  26,  27,  28  ;  secures 
repeal  of  bill  in  Congress  for  investing  Smithsonian 
fund  in  State  stocks,  36  ;  views  of,  on  union  of  Smith- 
sonian Institution  with  National  Institute,  42 

Adams,  Robert,  Jr.,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institution, 
64,  80 

Adler,  Cyrus,  on  Section  of  Oriental  Antiquities  and 
Religious  Ceremonials,  National  Museum,  358,  359 

Advisory  Committee,  Executive  Committee  becomes, 

63 

Aerodynamics,  Experiments  in,  by  S.  P.  Langlcy,  224 

Agassiz,  Louis,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institution,  64, 
75,  80,  165 ;  on  Smithsonian  Contributions  to 
Knowledge,  494 ;  opposition  of,  to  the  theory  of 
evolution,  150,  178 

Agricultural  School,  its  establishment  through  Smith- 
son  bequest,  favored  by  Agricultural  School  of  Ken- 
tucky, 35 

.\itken,  John,  on  Phenomena  connected  with  Cloud 
Condensation,  553 

Albany  Academy,  experiments  on  striking  signals  on 
a  bell  at  a  distance  at,  126 

Albatross,  steamer,  cruises  of,  186;  work  of,  325 

Alexander,  Annie,  mother  of  Joseph  Henry,  117 

Alexander,  Barton  S.,  257 

Alexander,  Stephen,  brother  of  Mrs.  Henry,  121;  on 
Harmonies  of  the  Solar  System,  587 ;  photographs 
solar  eclipses  of  1854-1860,  573 

Allen,  Harrison,  336;  eulogy  of  Baird  by,  197-199 

Allen,  Horatio,  362 

Allen,  J.  A.,  336;  acknowledgment  of  aid  received 
by  Hayden  Survey  from  Explorations  by  the  Insti- 
tution, 468,  469  ;  on  value  of  explorations  of  Institu- 
tion to  Hayden  Survey,  468,  469 

Altitudes,  data  concerning,  compiled  by  the  Smithso- 
nian Institution,  784 

American  Historical  .Association,  publications  of,  500 

American  Museum  of  Arts,  destruction  of,  303 

Ammonia-Cobalt  bases,  investigation  of,  by  Wolcott 
Gibbs  and  F.  A.  Genth,  616 

Ampere,  Andre  M.,  122,  133 

Amphibians,  publications  by  the  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion on,  739 

Anderson,  Wm.,  on  Molecular  Structure  of  Matter,  553 

Andrioni,  Count,  tour  of,  with  Smithson,  10 

Angell,  James  Burrill,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion, 65,  81 

.\nnual  Scientific  Convention  proposed,  44 

Anthropological   collections   of  Institution,  354,   746, 

770-773 

Anthropology,  bibliography  of,  by  O.  T.  Mason,  766 

Appropriations  for  maintenance  of  collections  in  Smith- 
sonian Institution,  322 

Arago,  Fran(,-ois,  17,  12:!,  141;  The  History  of  My 
Youth,  539 

Archaeology,  American,  remarkable  discoveries  in, 
3S7:  of  Appalachian  Mountains  and  -Atlantic  Slope, 
publications  on,  by  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  747  ; 
of  Central  Region,  publications  on,  by  the  Smith- 


sonian Institution,  749;  of  Mexico  and  Central 
America,  publications  on,  by  the  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tution, 752 ;  of  Rocky  Mountains  and  Pacific  Slope, 
publications  on,  by  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  748: 
of  United  States,  375;  publications  on,  by  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution,  747-757;  of  West  Indies,  publica- 
tions on,  by  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  754 

Army  Medical  iJcpartment,  meteorological  observa- 
tions by,  648 

Arthur,  Chester  Alan,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion, 81 

Astor,  William  Backhouse,  Regent,  Smithsonian  In- 
stitution, 81 

Astronomical  discoveries,  announcement  of,  by  Smith- 
sonian Institution,  600;  Astronomical  Journal,  pub- 
lication of,  606;  a.stronomical  observations  in  the 
Arctic  Seas,  595  ;  astronomical  subjects,  short  papers 
on,   published   by  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  608 

Astronomy  and  Astrophysics,  bibliographies  relating 
to,   606 ;    annual  reports  on   the  progress  of,   610 

Astronomy,  beginning  of  the  new,  535;  methods  of  the 
new  420;  observatories  in  foreign  countries  for  the 
new,  421 

Astronomy,  The  New,  treatise  by  S.  P.  Langley,  233 

Astrophysical  Observatory,  262 ;  appropriation  for 
maintenance  of,  425 ;  description  of  plan  of,  438; 
ground  plan  of,  437;  small  building  erected  in 
Smithsonian  Park  for,  426 ;  unsuitable  position  of, 
426,  442 ;   work  of,  427-429 

Atwater,  Caleb,  474 

Audubon,  J.  J.,  163,  164,  167,  338 

Auerbach,  F.,  on  the  Absolute  Measurement  of  Hard- 
ness, 558 

Avanzani,  Giuseppe,  225 

Avery,  Lydia  S.,  245 

Avery,  Robert  Stanton,  bequest  of,  245;  biographical 
sketch  of,  245 :  bequeaths  library  to  Smithsonian 
Institution,  298 

Babbage,  Charles,  on  Constants  of  Nature  and  Art,  618 

Bache,  Alexander  I).,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion, 47,  62,  65,  81,  141  ;  assists  in  preparing  Re- 
port on  Plan  of  Organization,  57:  eulogy  of  Henry 
by,  71,  144;  eulogy  of  Senator  Pearce  by,  67;  first 
President  of  National  Academy  of  Science,  152; 
presents  collection  to  Smithsonian  Library,  298 ; 
publishes  Observations  on  Magnetism,  53 

Bacon,  Lord,  148 

Badger,  George  Eximund,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tution, 64,  82 

Bailey,  J.  \V.,  on  Microscopical  Examinations  of 
Soundings,  632 ;  work  on  Cryptogams  for  Smith- 
sonian Institution,  702 

Bailey,  W.  S.,  348 

Baird,  Samuel,  father  of  Spencer  FuUerton  Baird,  158 

Baird,  Spencer  F"ullerton,  Secretary  of  the  Smithso- 
nian Institution,  162,  329,  338,  360;  acceptance 
of  office  of  Assistant  Secretary  of  Smithsonian 
Institution  by,  167;  activities  of,  in  connection  with 
Smithsonian  Institution,  168;  animals  named  for, 
193  ;  appointed  Commissioner  of  Fish  and  Fisheries, 
185  ;  biological  survey  of  waters  of  United  States  by, 
186:  biological  work  of,  as  presented  by  J-  S.  Hil- 
lings, 176,  177;  calmness  and  self-control  of,  200; 
collecting  expeditions  of,  165;  connection  of,  with 
explorations  of  the  Institution,  464,  465;  connection 
of,  with  first  International  Fisherj-  Exhibition,  188; 
connection  of,  with  Ptihlk  Lfiigi'r  and  firm  of 
Harper  and  Brothers,  184  ;  contribution  of,  to  North 
American  Archaeology,  175;  correspondence  of,  with 
officers  of  Hudson  Bay  Company,  181;  date  and 
placeof  birth  of,  162;  date  of  election  of,  as  Secretary 
of  Smithsonian  Institution,  i^i :  degree  of  I.L.  D. 
conferred  on,  by  Ilarvanl  University,  192;  designs 
steamers  Fish   Hawk  and  Altatross,  186;    devcl. 


"^3 


844 


Index 


opment  of  natural  history  collections  by,  183  ;  dis- 
tribution of  second  volume,  Contributions  to  Know- 
ledge, by,  182;  early  companions  and  correspondents 
of,  163 ;  economy  of,  in  erecting  National  Mu- 
seum building,  191 ;  election  of,  to  professorship  in 
Dickinson  College,  165 ;  first  meeting  of  Henry 
with,  167;  friendship  of,  with  Audubon,  163;  gen- 
ealogical tree  prepared  by,  158;  genealogy  of, 
157;  gives  his  library  to  National  Museum,  290; 
gives  zoological  collection  to  Institution,  314;  grad- 
uation of,  162;  honor  paid  to  portrait  of,  188;  hon- 
ors bestowed  on,  by  foreign  countries,  192  ;  honorary 
member  of  many  foreign  societies,  192;  influence  of 
ancestors  on  character  of,  162  ;  influence  of,  on  Ameri- 
can natural  history,  180;  introduction  of  laboratory 
practice  and  field  exploration  uito  schools  by,  165  ; 
journal  of,  200 ;  long  term  of  service  of,  58  ;  marriage 
of,  i6t  ;  memorandum  from  note-book  of,  on  height 
and  weight  of  himself,  164;  nationality  of  ancestors  of, 
158;  new  method  in  ichthyological  work  by,  173; 
number  of  published  writings  of,  168  ;  on  mammals, 
171 ;  on  mammals  and  birds  of  America,  in  Pacific 
Railroad  Reports,  715  ;  on  meteorological  observers, 
666;  organizes  corps  of  meteorological  observers, 
182  ;  Pacific  Railroad  Survey  reports  of,  171 ;  prepa- 
ration of  synonymy  of  North  American  birds  by,  164  ; 
prize  awarded  to,  188;  remarks  on  international  ex- 
changes by,  407;  school  life  of,  162;  scientific  edito- 
rial work  of,  184  ;  special  work  of,  in  connection  with 
Smithsonian  Institution,  232  ;  specimens  prepared  by, 
163;  studies  after  graduation,  163;  system  of  inter- 
national exchanges  organized  by,  182;  transfer  of  pri- 
vate collections  to  the  National  Museum  by,  167; 
translation  of  Iconographic  Cyclopedia  by,  166;  trib- 
ute to  character  of,  by  Harrison  Allen,  197-199;  trib- 
ute to  character  of,  by  John  S.  Newberrj',  194-197 ; 
varied  ability  of,  157;  walking  excursions  of,  164; 
work  as  Commissioner  of  Fisheries,  173;  work  during 
Civil  War,  184:  work  in  classifying  reptiles,  172; 
work  in  North  American  herpetology,  172 

Baird,  village  of,  named  for  Professor  Baird,  192 

Baird,  Wm.,  163 

Bairdian  Period,  169 

Bairdian  School  of  Ornithologists,  170 

Baker,  Marcus,  356 

Ball,  Sir  Robert,  011  Atoms  and  Sunbeams,  553;  on 
Wanderings  of  the  North  Pole,  550 

Bancroft,  George,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institution, 
65,  82 

Barker,  George  F.,  comments  on  Connection  of  Op- 
tics with  Electricity,  150;  on  Progress  in  Chemistiy, 
622 ;    on  Progress  in  Physics,  558 

Barlow,  Peter,  122 

Barnard,  J.  G.,  on  Problems  of  Rotary  Motion,  pre- 
sented by  the  Gyroscope,  the  Precession  of  the  Equi- 
noxes, and  the  Pendulum,  548,  634 

Barnard,  F.  A.  P.,  on  Undulatory  Theory  of  Light, 

534 
Bartlett,  John  R.,  466 
Bartlett,  W.  H.  C.,  photographs  solar  eclipse  of  1854, 

^573  .  . 

Bartram,  John,  meteorological  observations  by,  647 

Hatut(dela),  Baron  Eunice.    See  Henry  Huiigcr/ord 

Batut  (de  la),  Madame,  claim  on  Smithson  estate  re- 
turned at  death  of,  31 ;   mother  of  Hungerford,  25 

Bean,  Tarleton  H.,  356,366;  assists  in  Smithsonian 
exhibits  at  Centennial  Exhibition,  326 

Beck,  Lewis  C,  on  Application  of  Chemistry  to  Agri- 
culture, 612 

Beck,  Senator  James  B.,  favors  National  Zoological 
Park,  449 

Becker,  George  F.,  347;  tables  of  atomic  weights  by, 

557 

Beckwith,  E.  G.,  4C6 

Bccquerel,  A.  E.,432;  on  Preservation  of  Copper  and 
Iron  in  Salt  Water,556 

Behr  (von),  F.  F.  M.,  President  of  the  German  Fish- 
ery Union,  7&8 

Belfragc,  G.  W.,  345 

Bell,  Alexander  tiraham,  biographical  notice  of,  240 ; 
gift  of,  to  Astrophysical  Observatory,  423  ;  gift  of,  to 
Smithson  fund,  239 

Ben  dire,  Charles,  340,  366 

Bequest  of  James  Smithson,  amount  of,  235 

Berlepsch,  Count  (von),  339 

I'erlin  Fishery  Mxhibition,  effect  on  National  Mu- 
seum, 330;  report  of  juries  of,  188 


Bernadou,  J.  B.,  356;  explorations  of,  in  Korea,  473 

Berret,  James  Gabriel,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion, 65,  82 

Berrien,  John  McPherson,  Regent,  Smithsonian  In- 
stitution, 64,  83,  208 

Bessels,  Emil,  astronomical  observations  on  Hall's  Ex- 
pedition, made  by,  596 

Beutenmiiller,  William,  346 

Beyer,  G.,  345 

Biographies  of  Individuals,  list  of,  795 

Bibliographies  of  Astronomy,  798 ;  of  Botany,  799 ; 
of  Chemistry,  799  ;  of  Indian  Languages,  published 
by  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology,  380;  of  Natu- 
ral History,  800;  of  Oriental  Literature,  802;  of  Or- 
nithology, 800 ;  of  Physics,  802  ;  of  Science,  797 ; 
of  Scientific  Periodicals,  746;  of  the  United  States 
Natural  Museum,  797;  of  Vulcanology  and  Seismol- 
ogy, 803  ;  of  Zoology,  803 

Biddle,  James,  sword  presented  to,  in  section  of  His- 
tory, 360 

Bigelow,  Frank  H.,  on  the  Solar  Corona  Discussed  by 
Spherical  Harmonics,  575 

Bill,  Coiigessional,  for  the  erection  of  observatory, 
prepared  by  J.  Quincy  Adams,  247;  appropriating 
the  mall  for  use  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  248  ; 
for  Astrophysical  Observatory,  481;  giving  charac- 
terization of  the  building  of  Smithsonian  Institution, 
248  ;  to  appoint  Commission  on  Naiional  Zoological 
Park,  449;  to  erect  observatory  from  Smithsonian 
fund,  419 ;  to  establish  library,  known  as  "  the  library 
plan,"  269 

Billings,  J.  S.,  comparison  of  Louis  Agassiz  and  S.  F. 
Baird,  178,  179  ;  estimate  of  Baird's  work  in  biology, 
by,  176,  177 

Binney,  Amos,  164 

Biiiney,  W.  (j.,  343 

Biographical  memoirs  in  Smithsonian  Reports,  559 ; 
notices  of  the  Regents  of  the  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion, by  William  Jones  Rhees,  80-114 

Birds,  list  of  species  of,  by  Baird,  sent  out  by  Smith- 
sonian Institution,  169 

Birds  of  North  America,  by  S.  F.  Baird,  i6g;  pub- 
lications by  the  Smithsonian  Institution  on,  741-743 

Blake,  Wm.  P.,  assists  in  Smithsonian  exhibits  in 
Centennial  Exhibition,  327 

Bland,  Thomas,  343 

Boas,  Franz,  356 

Boehnier,  Geo.  H.,  412 

Bollman,  C.  H.,  346 

Bolograph,  use  of,  218 

Bolometer,  basis  of  action  of,  217;  description  of  ap- 
paratus employed  in  new  method  of  using,  436;  in- 
vention of,  by  Langley,  432  ;  method  ot  use  of,  in 
determining  heat-Unes  in  spectrum,  433 ;  new  method 
of  using,  435;  result  of  work  of,  442 

Bolton,  H.  Carrington,  on  Bibliography  of  Chemistry, 
626;   on  Chemistry,  622 

Booth,  James  C. ,  on  Recent  Improvements  in  the 
Chemical  Arts,  613 

Booth,    Newton,    Regent,    Smithsonian     Institution, 

65,  83 

Botanical,  papers,  miscellaneous,  published  by  Institu- 
tion, 70s 

Botanical  science,  services  rendered  to,  by  Institu- 
tion, 697 ;   work  in  Institution,  beginning  of,  698 

Boucard,  A.,  338 

Bourke,  John  Cj.,  356 

Bowen,  Sayles  Jenks,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tution, 65,  83 

Boys,  C.  J.,  on  Electric  Spark  Photographs  of  Flying 
Bullets,  558;  on  Quartz  Fibers,  558 

Brady,  J.  F.,  346 

Bransfoid,  J.  F.,  356 

Breckinridge,  John  Cabell,  Regent,  Smithsonian  In- 
stitution, 64,  84 

Breckinridge,  William  Campbell  Preston,  Regent, 
Smithsonian  Institution,  64,  84 

Breese,  Sidney,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institution, 
62,  6_s,  84 

Breguet,  Antoine,  240 

Brewer,  Thomas  M.,  163 

Brewster,  Sir  David,  141  ;  remarks  on  Henrj-  by,  122 

Brockhaus,  Konversations-Lcxicon  of,  166 

Brown,  Rev.  Frederick,  genealogist  of  the  Hungerford 
family,  9 

Bruce,  Minor  W.,  456 

Brj'an,  F.  T.,  467 


Index 


845 


Buchanan,  Senator  James,  views  ol,  on  distribution  of 
Smithson  Fund,  268 

liuUetin  of  the  National  Museum,  366,  499 

Hansen,  Kobeit,  421 

liureau  of  American  Kthnolog-y,  470;  Bibliography  of 
Indian  Languages  by,  380  :  I'.ulletins  of,  380  ;  classifi- 
cation of  work  of,  37s  ;  collections  transferred  to  Na- 
tional Museum  by,  394;  Contributions  of,  380;  Gil- 
man  on  evolution  of,  812  ;  manuscript  collections  of, 
395  ;  methods  of  research  of,  371  ;  origin  of,  369,  471 ; 
primary  plan  of,  371  ;  publications  of,  395,  499 

Bureau  of  Astronomical  Telegraphy  transferred  to 
Harvard  University,  601 

Burgess,  Edward,  345 

Burt,  Charles,  makes  a  bust  of  Smithson,  17 

Busch,  A.  L.,  daguerreotypes  solar  eclipse  of  1851, 
573 

Butterworth,  Benjamin,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion, 65,  84 

Calhoun,  Senator  John  C,  antagonizes  acceptance  of 
the  Smithson  bequest,  26 

Campbell,  R.  D.,  466 

Cannon,  Joseph  G.,  425 

Caoutchouc  and  Gutta  Pcrcha,  paper  on,  in  Smithso- 
nian Report  for  1864,  556 

Carpenter,  William  B.,  on  the  Application  of  the 
Principle  of  the  Conservation  of  Force  to  Physiol- 
ogy, 148 

Casa  Grande,  ruins  of,  384 

Cass,  Lewis,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institution,  65,  85 

Cassin,  John,  163,  169 

Cataloguing  scientific  literiture,  influence  of  Institu- 
tion in  work  of,  818 

Catalogue,  plan  for  a  general,  by  C.  C.  Jewett,  787 

Catliu  Gallery  purchased  by  Institution,  766 

Cavendish,  H.,  intimate  friend  of  Smithson,  11,  15 

Cayley,  Sir  George,  225 

Cazin,  A.,  on  Recent  Progress  in  Relation  to  the  The- 
ory of  Heat,  534 

Centennial  Exliibition  of  1876,  effect  of,  on  National 
Museum,  325 

Ceramics,  Indian,  results  of  study  of  Smithsonian  col- 
lections of,  769 

Chace,  George  J.,  on  Chemistry  applied  to  the  Arts, 

Challenger,  H.  M.  S.,  186 

Chamberlain,  L.  T.,  Rev.  and  Mrs.,  343 

Chancellor  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  5i 

Chandler,  S.  C,  cipher-code  for  astronomical  tele- 
grams, 600 

Chanler,  Wm.  Astor,  346 

Channing,  F.  W.,  lecture  on  the  Fire  Alarm  Telegraph 
by,  530 

ChaniUe,  Octave,  224 ;  on  the  contributions  of  Langley 
to  Aerodynamics,  225-226 

Chapin,  Stephen,  President  of  Columbian  University, 
suggestion  of,  as  to  organization  of  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tution, 32 

Chaplain,  J.  C,  245 

Charlton,  Robert  Milledge,  Regent,  Smithsonian  In- 
stitution, 64,  85 

Chase,  Salmon  Portland,  Regent,  Smithsonian  In- 
stitution, 65,  85 

Chatelain,  Heli,  356 

Chauvenet,  William,  202 

Chemical  papers  in  Smithsonian  Reports,  list  of,  628- 

^30  .... 

Chemistry,  lectures  on,  at  Smithsonian  Institution,  615 

Chester,  H.  C  ,  assists  on  Smithsonian  exhibits  at  Cen- 
tennial Exhibition,  326 

Choate,  Rufus,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institution,  47, 
62,  64,  85,  248;  advocates  formation  of  library,  266; 
influence  of,in  final  organization  of  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tution, 56 ;  presents  bill  for  public  library  in  Smith- 
sonian Institution,  50;  promotes  library  and  biblio- 
graphical work,  78  ;  recommends  appropriation  by 
Congress  for  National  Institute,  46;  secures  adop- 
tion of  library  bill  in  Senate,  269 

Cipher  codes  for  astronomical  telegrams,  600 

Clark,  A.  Howard,  on  Section  of  Historical  Collec- 
tions, National  Museum,  359-361 

Clark,  Henry  J.,  on  Lucemariae,  729 

Clarke,  Alvan,  204 

Clarke,  Edward,  advisory  architect  for  National  Mu- 
seum, 320 

Clarke,  F.  W.,  criticism  of  Smithson's  writings  by,  14  ; 


on  Atomic  Weight.s,  621;  on  Chemistry,  622 ;  on 
Constants  of  Nature,  557,  623;  on  Specific  Giavilies, 
6ig 

Cleaveland,  Parker,  honorary  member  of  Smithso- 
nian Institution,  60 

Clemson,  Thomas,  on  Water  and  on  Nitrogen,  615 

Clerk  Maxwell,  J.  C,  generalizations  in  electrical 
science  by,  129;  his  theory  of  light  a  variation  of 
that  of  Henry,  149:  paper  on  electricity  by,  re- 
printed in  .Smithsonian  Report,  532 

Cliflford,  Nathan,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institution,  64, 
86 

Climate  of  North  American  Continent,  material  on, 
668 

Cluss  &  Schuize,  architects  for  National  Musciim,  329 

Clymer,  Hiester,  Reg-int,  Smithsonian  Institution,  64, 
86 

Coffin,  James  H.,  on  Meteorological  Observations  by 
the  Smithsonian  Institution  in  connection  with  Patent 
Office,  662  ;  on  the  Orbit  and  Phenomena  of  a  Me- 
teoric Fire-ball,  589 ;  remarks  on  solar  eclipses  of 
nineteenth  century,  573 

Cogswell,  Joseph,  on  Jewett's  catalogue  plan,  278 

Colcock,  William  Ferguson,  Regent,  Smithsonian 
Institution,  64,  86 

Cole,  George  WaLson,  remarks  on  Jewett's  catalogue 
plan,  280 

Colfax,  Schuyler,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institution,  65, 

Collections,  government,  final  transfer  of,  to  Smithsonian 
Institution,  321 ;  made  by  Smithsonian  Institution, 
value  in  i860,  315;  made  by  U.  S.  Fish  Commis- 
sion, v.alue  of,  325;  of  Exploring  Expedition,  trans- 
fer of,  to  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  317;  of  models 
and  natural  products  in  the  Patent  Office,  304  ;  policy 
of  the  Institution  relating  to  treatment  of,  317-319 

College  of  New  Jersey,  Henry  elected  Professor  in, 
120 

Comet-orbits,  researches  of  J.  S.  Hubbard  on,  588; 
work  done  by  Ormond  Stone  on,  589 

Comets,  award  of  premiums  for  discovery  of,  588 

Congress,  acceptance  of  the  Smithson  bequest  by,  28; 
act  of,  for  final  organization  of  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion, 38;  acts  of,  on  international  exchanges,  409: 
announcement  of  the  Smithson  bequest  to,  26  ;  delib- 
erations of  the  twenty-eighth,  on  Smithson  bequest, 
49;  discussion  in,  as  to  acceptance  of  Smithson  be- 
quest, 26;  formulation  of  final  act  of  incorporation 
for  Smithsonian  Institution  by  the  twenty-ninth,  51 ; 
reports    of   Board    of  Regents   to,  62 

Congress,  Library  of,  new  building  for,  829;  accom- 
modations for  Smithsonian  Library  in,  829 

Constants  of  Nature,  list  of  works  on,  793 

Contributions  to  American  Ethnology,  368,  369,  395, 

499 

Conway,  Moncure  D.,  incident  of  field  explora- 
tion with  Raird  related  by,  166 

Cooke,  Henry  David,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion, 65,  87    ' 

Cooke,  Josiah  P.,  on  Oxygen  and  Zinc,  Carbon,  etc., 
615 

Cooke,  Sir  William  Fothergill,  associate  of  Sir  Charles 
Wheatstone,  136,  137 

Cooper,  J.  E.,  457  •         ,0    -  . 

Cooper,  Thomas,  suggestion  on  organization  of  Smith- 
sonian Institution,  32 

Cope,  E.  D.,  172  ;  on  Bone  Cave  in  .^nguilla,  691 ;  on 
Paleozoic  Fishes,  691 

Copp,  John  Brenton,  361 

Copp(5e,  Henry,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institution,  64, 
87;  memorial  record  of  General  M.  C.  Meigs  by,  76  ; 
on  resolutions  in  memor>- of  James  C.  Welling,  76; 
remarks  by  General  Joseph  Wheeler  on  resolutions 
at  death  of,  77 ;  resolutions  on  death  of,  by  Senator 
John  B.  Henderson.  77 

Coquillet,  P.  W.,  346 

Corcoran  -Art  Gallerj-,  transfer  of  art  objects  to,  324 

Corcoran,  W.  W.,  324 

Corporation  of  City  of  Washington  presents  memorial 
concerning  Smithson  bequest,  36 

Correspondence,  system  of,  in  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion, 807 

Cory,  C.  B.,  33g 

Cones.  Elliott,  characterization  of  Bairdian  School  of 
ornithologists  by,  170,  336,  469;  on  Bairdian  Period 
in  ornithology,  169 

Couch,  D.  N.,  181 


54* 


846 


Index 


Court  of  Chancery,  decree  of,  giving  Smithson  be- 
quest to  the  United  States,  30 

Coville,  F.  v.,  on  Department  of  Botany,  National 
Museum,  350,  351 

Cox,  Samuel  Sullivan,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion,  63,  87  ;    report  of  committee  on  death  of,  75 

Craig,  Benjamin  F.,  work  in  Smithsonian  chemical 
laboratory  by,  617 

Crawford,  Thomas,  361 

Crittenden,  Senator,  John  J.,  views  of,  on  formation 
of  library;,  267 

Cross,  Whitman,  347,  348,  352 

Culbertson,  Thaddeus,  explorations  by,  463 

Culin,  Stewart,  356 

Cullom,  Shelby  Morse,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion, 65,  S8 

Curtin,  Jeremiah,  370 

Cashing,  Frank  Hamilton,  370,  386,  387,  388;  assists 
on  Smithsonian  exhibits  at  Centennial  Exposition, 
327 

Custine,  Comte  de,  360 

Cutter,  Charles  A.,  remarks  of,  on  Jewett's  catalogue 
plan,  279 

Cyclopaedia  of  Indian  Tribes,  395 

Dall,  Wm.  H.,  170,  343,  35^,  356;  account  of  corre- 
spondence of  Professor  Baird  with  the  officers  of  the 
Hudson  Bay  Company,  iSi  ;  on  Department  of 
Mollusks,  National  Museum,  342-344 ;  on  Miocene 
Faunse,  683  ;  surveys  of,  182 

Dallas,  George  Mifflin,  Chancellor  and  Regent,  Smith- 
sonian Institution,  64,  62,  88 ;  delivers  address  at 
laying  corner-stone  of  Smithsonian  Institution,  256; 
endorses  the  election  of  Henry  as  Secretary  of  Smith- 
sonian Institution,  141 

Dana,  James  Dwight,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion, 64,  88,  163,  164 

Darwin,  Charles,  150 

Davenport,  Thomas,  experiments  with  Henry  mag- 
nets, 139  ;  makes  engine  to  run  on  circular  track,  139 

Davis,  C.  H.,  translation  of  Gauss's  Theoria  Motus 
Corporum  Coelestium  by,  566 

Davis,  David,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institution,  65,  88 

Davis,  Garrett,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institution,  64,  89 

Davis,  Henry  Winter,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion, 64,  89 

Davis,  Jefferson,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institution,  64, 
89 ;  favors  acceptance  of  the  Smithson  bequest,  26  ; 
on  Committee  on  final  organization  of  Smithsonian 
Institution,  51  ;  secures  return  of  money  lost  in  State 
bonds,  78,  483 

Davis,  John,  influence  in  final  organization  of  Smith- 
sonian Institution,  55 

Dayton,  William  Lewis,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion, 64,  8g 

Dean,  George  W.,  longitude  observations  made  by,  599 

Deane,  James,  on  Fossil  Foot-prints  in  Connecticut 
Valley,  693 

Decorative  Art  among  American  Indians,  investiga- 
tions by  W.  H.  Holmes  on,  382 

Deep  Sea  Fishes  of  the  North  Atlantic  Basin,  499 

Deering,  Nathaniel  Cobb,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tution, C5,  90 

Delafield,  Richard,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institution, 
65,   90,  261 

Delano,  Columbus,  honorary  member  of  Smithsonian 
Institution,  60 

Delaunay,  Charles,  on  Velocity  of  Light,  535 

De  St.  Fond,  F,,  tour  of,  with  Smithson,  10 

Devens,  Charles,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institution,  90 

Devonshire,  Duke  of,  406 

Dewar,  James,  lecture  on  Magnetic  Properties  ol 
Liquefied  Oxygen,  531 

Dewey,  Frederic  P.,  chemical  work  for  the  Institu- 
tion, 621 

Dickinson,  Henry  Louis,  half-brother  of  Smithson,  22 

Dolphin,  Baird's,  193 

Domestic  wares,  collections  of  native,  386 

Donaldson,  Thomas,  assists  on  Smithson  exhibits  at 
Centennial  Exhibition,  327 

Dorsey,  J.  Owen,  370,  381 

Douglas,  James,  352 

Douglass,  Stephen  Arnold,  Regent,  Smithsonian  In- 
stitution, 65,  91 

Downes,  John,  prepares  tables  ol  occultations,  576 

Downing,  Andrew  J.,  design  of,  for  planting  the  Mall, 
263  ;  vase  erected  to  memory  of,  263 


Draper,   Henry,    on   construction   01  a   silvered-glass 

telescope,  603 
Draper,  John  W.,  432 
Dresden  Royal  Library,  gifts  of,  to  Institution  Library, 

295 

Drummonds,  Messrs.,  of  Channg  Cross,  bankers  to 
Smithson,  19 

Duchemin,  Emile,  225 

Dunglison,  Robley,  Professor  of  University  of  Virginia, 
plan  of,  for  the  organization  of  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion, 32 

Duponceau,  Peter  S.,  481 ;  reasons  for  change  of  name 
of  National  Institute,  44 

Dupreez,  F.,  on  Atmospheric  Electricity,  532 

Easter  Island,  collection  from,  755 

Edmunds,  George  Franklin,  Regent,  Smithsonian  In- 
stitution, 64,  91 ;  introduces  bill  for  National  Zo- 
ological Park,  449 

Ehrenberg,  Christian  G. ,  work  of,  translated  by  Baird, 
164 

Electricity,  discoveries  of  Michael  Faraday  in,  527; 
discoveries  of  Henry  in,  527 

EUet,  Charles,  462 

Elliott,  J.  D.,  360 

Elsdale,  Lieut.-Col.  H.,  on  Aerial  Navigation  as  studied 
by  Langley,  224 

Emery,  Matthew  Gault,  Regent,  .Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion, 65,  91 

Emory,  W.  H.,  466 

Emory,  William  H.,  181 

Emmons,  George  T.,  356 

Emmons,  S.  F.,  347 

Emperor  Frederick  does  honor  to  Baird  in  Berlin, 
i8q 

Endlich,  Frederic  M.,  work  of,  in  Smithsonian  chemical 
laboratory,  620 

English,  Wm.  Hayden,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion, 65,  91 ;  remarks  in  Congress  on  value  of  Smith- 
sonian Contributions  to  Knowledge,  493 

Espy,  James  P.,  Memoirs  on  Meteorology,  by,  when 
published,  496;  pleads  for  the  establishment  of  a 
meteorological  bureau  through  Smithson  bequest, 
35  ;  work  in  meteorology  by,  649 

"Establishment"  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution, 
changes  in  membership  of,  60;  duties  of,  59;  hon- 
orary members  of,  60;  meetings  of,  60;  statutory 
members  of,  59 

Ethnographic  collections  in  the  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion, 765 

Ethnology  of  Thibet,  by  W.  W.  Rockhill,  480 

Evans,  French  S.,  256 

Evans,  George,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institution,  62- 
64,  92 

Evans,  John,  465 

Everett,  Edward,  273  ;  on  Jewett's  catalogue  plan,  278 

Exchange  bureaus,  international,  411 

Exchange  of  books,  by  Royal  Library  of  France,  398; 
by  United  States  Government,  398,  406-408;  efforts 
of  Alexandre  Vattemare  to  promote,  398 

Exchange  office  of  Smithsonian  Institution,  clerical 
work  of,  417 

Exchange  of  publications  by  American  Philosophical 
Society  and  American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences, 

397 
Exchange  of  specimens  by  the  National  Museum,  364 
Exchanges,  History  of  the  Smithsonian,  397 
Exchange    system   of    the    Smithsonian    Institution, 
agencies  of,   in    Europe,    404 ;   appreciation   of,  by 
American    Academy  of     Arts   and   Sciences,    405 ; 
appropriations  of  Congress  for,  413;  co-operation  01 
Royal  Society  of  London  in,  400,  401  ;  cost  of  413 ; 
description  of,  by  Henry,  397,  406 ;  distribution  of 
Government  publications  through,  405;  influence  of 
Poinsett  in   inaugurating,    55  ;     methods   of,    414  ; 
records  of,  417;  statement  of  Baird  regarding,  408  ; 
statistics  of,  416,  417 
Exchange  systems,  early  efforts  to  establish,  398 ;  in- 
ternational conferences  relative  to,  410 
Executive  Committee  becomes  Advisory  Committee, 
63;  duties  of,  63;  number  of  meetings  held  by,  63; 
residence  of  members  of,  63 
Exhibition  work  of  National  Museum,  332 
Expedition,  to  Africa,  National  Museurii  sends  a  nat- 
uralist with,  480;  to  Alaska  and  Siberia  to  establish 
telegraph,  476  ;  to  Commander  Islands,  under  Leon- 
hard  Stejneger,  479 


Index 


847 


Experiments  at  Albany  Academy,  important  connec- 
tion of,  with  history  of  the  telegraph,  126;  on  trans- 
mission of  signals,  date  of,  126 

Exploration  of  California,  by  E.  Samuels,  remarks  of 
Henry  on,  475;  of  mounds  of  Wisconsin,  473;  of 
northern  South  America,  479 

Explorations  by  the  Smithsonian  Institution  in  British 
America  and  Alaska,  475,477;  cited  in  plan  of  or- 
ganization of  Institution,  461 ;  connection  of,  with 
Government  surveys,  4C0;  in  liritish  Honduras,  478  ; 
in  Korea,  475  ;  in  Mongolia  and  Thibet,  479,  480 ;  in 
Texas,  462;  ui  the  West,  478;  in  Yucatan,  478;  of  im- 
portance to  pakontology,  462;  varied  character  of,  459 

Exploring  Expeditions,  aid  to  geology  and  mineralogy 
by,  6^0-643 

Extinction  of  animals,  446 

Fahie,  J.  J.,  136  ... 

Faraday,  Michael,  141  ;  discovers  magneto-electnc  in- 
duction, 127  ;  first  to  print  the  discovery,  128 ;  influ- 
ence of  discoveries  of  Henry  on,  124 

Farmer,  Moses  E. ,  530 

Farnsworth,  John  Franklin,  Regent,  Smithsonian  In- 
stitution, 65,  92 

Felton,  Cornelius  Conway,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tution, 64,  92;  on  foreign  appreciation  of  Smithso- 
nian Contributions  to  Knowledge,  492 

Fenckncr,  Governor  of  Greenland,  356 

Ferry,  Thomas  White,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion, 65,  92 

Fessenden,  William  Pitt,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tution, 64,  93 

Fewkes,  J.  Walter,  356,  370,  386,  388,  395 

Fillmore,    Millard,    Regent,  Smithsonian    Institution, 

^.63.  93 

Fire  m  Smithsonian  building,  results  of,  323 

Fish  Commission.  See  United  States  Fish  Commis- 
sion 

Fish  Hawk,  steamer,  cruises  of;  designed  by  Baird, 
186 

Fish,  Nicholas,  410 

Fisher,  Wm.  J.,  356 

Fishery  Industries  of  the  United  States,  Report  of  loth 
Census  on,  174 

Fishes,  publications  by  the  Smithsonian  Institution  on, 

736-739 
Fitch,  Asa,  345 

Fitch,  Graham  Newell,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion, 65,  93 
Fitz,  Henry,  constructs  refracting  telescope  for  use  in 

Chile,  504 
Fitzall,  John,  sers'ant  to  Smithson,  19 

Flcischmann,  Charles  L.,  Royal  School  of  Agriculture, 
Bavaria,  favors  establishment  of  experimental  farms 
through  Smithsonian  bequest,  35 

Fleming,  J.  \.,  tribute  of,  to  discoveries  of  Henry,  131 

Flint,  J.  Sl.,  on  collection  of  cinchona  products,  Na- 
tional Museum,  363 

Floras,  exotic,  papers  on,  published  by  Institution,  705 

Fliigel,  Felix,  agent  in  Leipsic  for  Smithsonian  ex- 
changes, 404 

Folsom,  Charles,  on  Jewett's  catalogue  plan,  278 

Foreman,  Edward,  assists  on  Smithsonian  exhibits  at 
Centennial  Exhibition,  327;  construction  of  meteor- 
ological map  by,  657 

Fossil  Flora  of  United  States,  Smithsonian  publica- 
tions on  the,  679 

Fossils,  collections  of,  in  Smithsonian  Institution,  694, 
696 

Foster,  John  W. ,  465 

Foster,  La  Fayette  Sabine,  Regent,  Smithsonian  In- 
stitution, 64,  93 

Fox,  G.  V. ,  gift  of  works  to  Smithsonian  Library  by,  296 

Fox,  William  J.,  346 

Francis,  Joseph,  360 

Franklin,  I'.enjamin,  134 

Frederick  II.,  zoiilogical  collection  of,  443 

Fremont,  John  C,  iSi,  350 

French,  Benjamin  B.,256 

Fuller,  Melville  Weston,  Regent  and  Chancellor, 
Smithsonian  Institution,  65,  94 

G.abb,  Will i.am  M.,  856 

G.tUatin,   Albert,   Honorary  Member  of  Smithsonian 

Institution,  Co,  373,  461 
Galvanic  Current,  tmnsmission  of,  without  loss  offeree, 

125 


Garfield,  James  Abram,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion, 65,  94  ;  efforts  of,  to  increase  number  of  copies 
of  Smithsonian  Reports,  484  ;  his  services  recorded 
by  Chancellor  Waite,  73  ;  his  tribute  to  Henry,  73  ; 
speaks  on  the  death  of  Chief  Justice  Chase,  72 

Garttell,  Lucius  Jeremiah,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tution, 64,  94 

Gatschet,  Albert  S.,  370,  381 

Gauss,  Carl  F.,  138 

Geographical  publications,  issued  by  Smithsonian  In- 
stitution, 783 

Geography,  knowledge  of,  advanced  by  Smithsonian 
Institution,  773 

Geography  of  Africa,  Smithsonian  connection  with 
exploration  of,  781 

Geography  of  Asia,  Smithsonian  aid  given  to  study  of, 

779 

Geography  of  North  America,  expeditions  increasing 
knowledge  of,  775 

Geology  and  ^Iineralogy,  aid  from  exploring  expedi- 
tion to,  640-643  ;  lectures  on,  under  auspices  of  Insti- 
tution, 645;  Reports  of  Progress  in,  published  in 
.Smithsonian  Reports,  637;  reprints  in  Smithsonian 
Reports  on,  638-640 ;  short  papers  on,  published  in 
Smithsonian  Reports,  635 

German  Fishery  Union,  circuLir  issued  by,  in  memory 
of  Baird,  189,  190,  191 

Germany,  Emperor  oC  360 

Gibbes,  Robert  W.,  on  Mososauru.s,  686 

Gibbs,  George,  356 

Gibbs,  Wolcott,  on  Platinum  Metals,  618 

Gibson,  Randall  Lee,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institution, 

^4.  95  ,  ^     . 

Gilbert,  Davies,  President  of  Royal  Society,  eulogy  on 
Smithson  by,  15 

Giles,  William  E.,  482 

Gill,  Theodore,  librarian  of  Smithsonian  Institution, 
289;  extract  from  biographical  sketch  of  Goode, 
by,  508  ... 

Gilliss,  J.  M.,  356,  467;  astronomical  expedition  to 
Chile  by,  593 ;  reports  solar  eclipses  of  1858  and 
i8co,  573 

Gilman,  Charles,  256 

Gilman,  Daniel  Coit,  on  work  of  Henry  and  Baird, 
805 ;  on  retirement  of  Charles  C.  Jewett,  284  ;  on 
system  of  correspondence  in  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion, 807 

Gir.ird,  Charles,  assistant  to  Baird  in  classifying  rep- 
tiles, 172;  on  ichthyology,  714 

Girard  College  Magnetic  Observations,  by  A.  D. 
B.achc,  published  in  Contributions  to  Knowledge,  531 

Glover,   Townend,  346 

Godman,  F.  D.,  339 

Goode,  George  Brown,  ancestry  of,  501  :  appointed 
assistant  secretary  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution, 
503;  Catalogue  of  the  Fishes  of  the  IScrmudas, 
510;  catalogues  of  collections  by  Institution  in  Ex- 
hibitions, 727  ;  college  life  of,  502  ;  connection  of,  with 
American  Historical  Association,  and  Southern  His- 
torical Society,  505  ;  connection  of,  with  U.  S.  Fish 
Commission,  503  ;  dateof  birth  and  death  of,  501;  de- 
grees conferred  on,  506  ;  domestic  hfe  of,  515  ;  expo- 
sition work  of,  515:  honors  received  for  exposition 
work  of,  504  ;  ichthyological  work  of,  511 ;  interest  of, 
in  general  natural  historj',  514  :  investigation  of  .'\m- 
erican  fisheries  for  the  Tenth  Census  by,  511 ;  note  on 
royal  descent  of  Smithson  by,  2  ;  on  American  Fishes, 
512;  personal  characteristics  of,  506;  personal  qual- 
ities of,  remarks  of  Langley  and  Gill  on.  5 1 5  ;  proposed 
work  in  ichthyology  of,  514;  recognition  of  early 
American  scientists  by,  505 ;  special  adaptation  of, 
to  museum  work,  508  ;  work  at  Wesleyaii  University 
by,  502;  work  in  bibliography  by,  514. 
Gould,  A.  A.,  342 

Gould,  Benjamin  A.,  history  of  discovery  of  Neptune, 
580;    Memoirs   on   Transatlantic    Longitude,   596; 
sends  out  time  signals,  212 
Government  Explorations,  list  of,  prior  to  1856,  465, 

467 
Graham,  J.  D.,   iSi,  466 

Grammar  of  the  Mutsun  language,  extract  from  pre- 
face of,  497 
Grant,  Ulysses  S.,  360 

Gravity-work,  in  Smithsonian  Institution,  554 
Gray,  Asa,  Regent,  Smithsoni.in  Institution,  64,  95, 
150,  273;  botanical  work  of,  for  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion, 698  ;  letter  of,  on  Smithsonian  exch.inge  of  publi- 


848 


Index 


cations,  405  ;  011  life  of  Henry  at  Princeton,  120,  121  ; 
report  of  committee  of  Regents  on  death  of,  75 

Gray,  George,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institution,  65,  95 

Gray,  Thomas,  physical  papers  by,  in  Smithsonian 
Report,  1896,  546 

Grayson,  A.  J.,  337 

Great  Britain,  facsimiles  of  national  manuscripts  of,  pre- 
sented to  Smithsonian  Library,  297 

Gregory,  Rev.  George,  influence  of,  on  Henry,  119 

Gunnison,  J.  W.,  466 

Guyot,  Arnold,  meteorological  work  of,  in  connection 
with  Smithsonian  Institution,  655  ;  on  Advantages  of 
the  Metric  System  in  Scientific  Investigation,  544 

Habel,  Simeon,  bequest  of,  237 ;  biographical  sketch 
of,  237 ;  on  the  Sculptures  of  the  Santa  Lucia  Cos- 
umalwhuapa,  237 

Hague,  Arnold,  348 

Haldeman,  Stephen  S.,  163,  164 

Halderman,  J.  A.,  357 

Hale,  Edward  Everett,  on  Jewett's  catalogue  plan,  279 

Hall,  Charles  F.,  357;  Expedition  aided  by  Smith- 
sonian Institution,  595 

Halliwell,  J.  O.,  gifts  to  Smithsonian  Library  by,  295 

Hallock,  William,  on  Flow  of  Solids,  554 

Hamilton  College  equatorial  telescope,  601 

Hamilton,  James,  bequest  of,  236 

Hamlin,  Hannibal,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institution, 
64,  95;  on  publication  of  Smithsonian  Report,  485 

Hancock,  Winfield  S-,  360 

Hare,  Robert,  141 ;  Honorary  Member  of  Smithsonian 
Institution,  60;  gift  of  physical  apparatus  by,  617  ;  on 
explosiveness  of  niter,  612 

Harkness,  William,  on  Progress  of  Science  as  Exem- 
plified in  the  Art  of  Weighing  and  Measuring,  545 

Harvey,  Wm.  H.,  on  Marine  Algte,  703 

Hawes,  Geo.  W.,  347,  352 

Hawley,  Gideon,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institution,  62, 

63.  96 

Hayden,  F.  V.,  357,  468  ;  collections  of,  682  ;  surveys 
under,  182 

Hayes,  I.  I.,  357  :  Expedition,  aided  by  Smithsonian 
Institution,  595 

Hazleton,  Gerry  Whiting,  Regent,  Smithsonian  In- 
stitution, 65,  96 

Heck's  Bilder-Atlas,  166 

Helmholtz  (von),  H.  L.  F.,  126;  paper  on  electricity  by, 
reprinted  in  Smithsonian  Report  for  1873,  532 

Henderson,  John  Brooks,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tution, 65,  96 ;  resolutions  of,  on  death  of  Henry  Cop- 
pee,  77 

Hendricks,  Thomas  Andrews,  Regent,  Smithsonian 
Institution,  65,  96 

Henry,  Joseph,  Secretary  of  the  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion, 261,  291,  362  ;  account  of  life  of,  in  Princeton, 
by  Asa  Gray,  120,  121 ;  address  of,  on  The  Im- 
provement of  Mechanical  Arts,  145;  address  of,  on 
Thoughts  on  Education,  146 ;  address  of,  to  National 
Academy  of  Sciences,  154 ;  adds  one  thousand  dol- 
lars to  the  Smithson  Fund,  236 :  an  English  authority 
on  discoveiies  in  electro-magnetism  of,  137;  annual 
reports  of,  to  Board  of  Regents  of  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tution, 145;  application  of  magnet  to  the  separation 
of  magnetic  iron  from  other  substances  by,  139  ;  ap- 
pointed Professor  of  Mathematics  in  the  Albany 
Academy,  120;  approval  of  theory  of  evolution  by, 
150;  capacity  of,  for  work,  119;  changes  during  life 
of,  115;  circular  of,  on  lightning  rods,  532;  circu- 
lar of,  relative  to  earthquakes,  547 ;  connection  of 
American  science  with  life  of,  115  ;  connection  of,  with 
invention  of  the  electric  telegraph,  525  ;  connection  of, 
with  mathematical  work,  567;  construction  of  electro- 
magnetic engine  by,  128;  construction  of  first  elec- 
tro-magnetic motor  by,  138;  contributions  of,  to  me- 
teorology, 130;  contributions  of,  to  physics,  522; 
credit  due  to,  in  construction  of  electro-magnetic 
telegraph,  133,  134;  daily  weather  map  due  to,  146; 
date  of  birth  of,  1 17  ;  date  ofelection  as  Secretary  58; 
date  ofelection  as  Secretary  of  the  Smithsonian  In- 
stitution, 141:  discoveries  by,  in  connection  with 
the  Ley  den  jar,  129;  discoveries  by,  on  connection 
of  electricity  with  magnets,  122,  123  ;  discovers  mag- 
neto-electric inducticm,  127  ;  early  childhood  of,  117; 
elected  Professor  of  Natural  Philosophy  in  the  Col- 
lege of  New  Jersey,  120;  election  of,  as  Secretary 
of  Smithsonian  Institution,  141  ;  eulogy  of,  on  Alex- 
ander Dallas  Bache,  71,  72;  experiments  of,  on  illu- 


minantsfor  lighthouses,  151 ;  extracts  from  note-books 
of,  on  meteorology,  145,  146;  father's  name,  117; 
greatness  of,  shown  in  philosophical  comprehen- 
sion of  Nature,  130;  home-life  of,  153;  import- 
ance of  discoveries  of,  in  electro-magnetism,  123; 
Investigations  relative  to  Illuminating  Material, 
557;  later  studies  of,  in  induction,  1 29  ;  Lectures  on 
Experimental  Philosophy,  Astronomy,  and  Chem- 
istry, 119;  letter  of,  to  Asa  Gray  on  the  theory  of 
evolution,  150  ;  letter  of,  to  Joseph  Patterson,  on  ex- 
istence of  a  Creator,  155;  letter  of,  to  Rev.  S.  B. 
Dod,  on  the  first  actual  line  of  telegraph,  135;  liter- 
ary tastes  of,  as  a  boy,  117,  118  ;  long  term  of  service, 
58;  marriage  of,  121  ;  memberof  Lighthouse  Board, 
151;  memorial  service  for,  156;  mode  of  testing 
building  materials  by,  555;  monument  to,  156; 
mother's  name,  117;  name  of,  given  to  the  Unit  of 
Inductive  Resistance, 126;  On  Acoustics  Applied  to 
Public  Buildings,  538 ;  on  aeronautic  machinery, 
550;  on  aid  rendered  by  the  government  to  explora- 
tions by  Institution,  478;  on  correlation  of  physical, 
chemical,  and  vital  forces,  147;  on  desirabihty  of 
forming  a  government  meteorological  system,  676; 
on  exchange  of  Smithsonian  publications,  400,  401 ; 
on  expenditure  of  Smithsonian  fund  for  inter- 
national exchanges,  406,  407 ;  on  explorations  by 
Thaddeus  Culbertson,  462 ;  on  Instructions  for  Me- 
teorological Observers,  147 ;  on  Jewett's  plan  for 
furnishing  catalogues  to  individual  libraries,  277 ; 
on  lightning-rods,  130;  on  meteorology,  650;  on 
phenomena  of  light  and  heat,  130;  on  physical  ob- 
servatory, 556  ;  on  publication  of  Smithsonian  Con- 
tributions to  Knowledge,  490 ;  on  signaling  during 
Civil  War,  152;  on  Smitlisonian  Meteorological 
System,  674;  on  the  theory  of  the  Smithsonian  Re- 
port, 485 ;  on  transfer  of  linguistic  manuscripts  to 
John  W.  Powell,  471;  on  transfer  of  Smithsonian 
library  to  library  of  Congress,  286,  287;  on  transfer 
of  Smithsonian  meteorological  work  to  Weather 
Bureau.  677 ;  on  weather  maps,  658  ;  on  work  of  bib- 
liography in  Smithsonian  Institution,  785  ;  on  work 
of  tj.  S.  Fish  Commission,  469;  opposition  of,  to  use 
of  Smithson  Fund  for  local  expenditures,  143  ;  orig- 
inates public  fish-culture,  187;  oscillating  machine  of, 
139;  papers  of,  in  Smithsonian  Publications,  555; 
period  of  experimental  work  of,  122;  plan  of,  for 
utilizing  power  of  quantity  magnet  through  agency 
of  intensity  magnet,  135;  plan  of  organization  pre- 
sented to  Board  of  Regents  of  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion by,  142;  Port  Henry,  N.  Y.,  named  in  honor 
of,  139;  possibilities  of  the  rotary  motor  as  foreseen 
by,  139  ;  President  of  Philosophical  Society  of  Wash- 
ington, 153;  production  of  mechanical  power  by  elec- 
tro-magnetism by,  138  ;  professes  to  be  a  discoverer, 
not  an  inventor,  132;  publishes  paper  in  American 
Journal  of  Science,  120;  refusal  of,  to  engage  in 
controversies  on  the  beginnings  of  the  telegraph,  131; 
remarks  of,  before  American  Association,  145;  re- 
marks of,  on  services  of  William  W.  Seaton,  69,  70; 
remarks  on  discovery  of  transmission  of  galvanic  cur- 
rent by,  125  :  reports  of  1850-1851  by,  concerning 
care  of  government  collections,  311,  312  ;  reports  of, 
on  character  of  Smithsonian  library,  291  ;  researches 
of,  on  fog-signaling,  151 ;  residence  of,  in  Smithsonian 
building,  261 ;  results  of  the  policy  of,  143;  sacrifice 
of,  in  abandoning  investigation  for  administration, 
144;  school-life  of,  120;  second  President  of  National 
Academy  of  Science,  152;  sends  circular  letter  to 
foreign  governments  on  international  exchanges, 
409  ;  service  of,  as  first  Secretary  of  tlie  Institution, 
527;  similarity  of  opinions  of,  with  Michael  Faraday 
and  J.  Clerk  Maxwell  and  H.  Hertz,  shown  by 
W.  H.  Preece,  149;  special  work  of,  in  connection 
with  Smithsonian  Institution,  232 ;  statement  of,  in 
fifth  report  concerning  Baird's  qualification  for  As- 
sistant Secretary  of  Smithsonian  Institution,  166; 
statement  of,  on  use  of  two  batteries  and  two  mag- 
nets, 124;  statue  of,  date  of  unveiling,  263  ;  statue  of, 
in  National  Library,  156:  statue  of,  in  Smithsonian 
grounds,  263 ;  studies  in  electiicity  of,  122;  success 
of,  as  an  administrator,  115  ;  syllabus  of  a  course  of 
lectures  in  physics  by,  555;  tablet  to  memory  of, 
121  ;  taste  for  books  aroused  in,  ii8;  teacher  in  Al- 
bany Academy  122;  testimony  of,  in  Supreme  Court, 
132  :  tribute  of,  to  Rev.  (jeorge  Gregory,  119;  use  by, 
of  the  earth  for  a  return  circuit,  134;  views  of,  on 
importance  of  a  National  Museum,  313  ;  work  of,  at 


Index 


849 


Albany   Academy,  523;    work   of,   for  Government 
of  United  States  in  testing  building  materials,  and  on 
new  process    for  procuring  alcohol,   151;  work   of, 
on  meteorology  in  connection  with  agriculture,  146 
Henry  and  the  Royal  Society,  work  in  bibliography, 

789  .  .  . 

Henry,  Mary  A.,  gives  date  of  experiments  in  Albany 
Academy  in  transmission  of  signals,  126 

Henry,  William,  father  of  Joseph  Heniy,  117 

Henshaw,  Henry  W.,  370 

Herndon,  William  L. ,  357 

Herschel,  Sir  John,  223 

Hertz,  Heiiirich,  148;  experiments  of,  150 

Hewitt,  J.  N.  B.,  370 

Hilgard,  Eugene  W. ,  on  carbon  disulphide,  616;  on 
Geology  of  Lower  Louisiana,  634;  on  prevention  of 
counterfeiiing  bank  notes,   616 

Hilgard,  J.  C,  on  Tides  and  Tidal  Action,  548 

Hill,  Benjamin  Harvey,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion, 64,  97 

Hill,  Nathaniel  Peter,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion, 97 

Hillebrand,  W.  F.,  352 

HiUiard,  Henry  Washington,  Regent,  Smithsonian 
Institution,  62,  64,  78,  97 

Hints  on  Pubhc  Architecture,  by  Robert  Dale  Owen, 
first  publication  of  the  Institution,  496 

Hitchcock,  Edward,  on  Surface  Geology,  632 

Hitchcock,  Romyn,  357 

Hitt,  Robert  Roberts,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion, 3,  97 

Hoar,  Ebenezer  Rock  wood,  Regent,  Smithsonian  In- 
stitution, 64,  98 

Hoar,  George  Frisbie,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institution, 
64,  98 

Hodge,  Frederick  Webb,  370 

Hodgkins  fund  prizes,  papers  submitted  for,  623-626 

Hodgkins  medal  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  245 

Hodgkins,  Thomas  George,  bequest  of,  to  Smithson 
fund,  241 ;  biographical  sketch  of,  241 

Hoffman,  W.  J.,  357,  370,  381;  on  Indian  jugglery, 
388 

Holmes,  Wm.  H.,  370,  385,  395;  on  costume  among 
American  Indians,  385 

Holmgren,  F.,  on  Color  Blindness  in  its  Relations  to 
Accidents  by  Kail  and  Sea,  535 

Hornaday,  Wm.  T.,  446 

Hornblower,  Josiah,  361 

Horsford,  Eben  N.,  lectures  on  Munitions  of  War  by, 
618 

Hough,  Franklin  H.,  250;  on  Periodical  Phenomena 
in  Plants  and  Animals,  663,  664 

Hough,  William  Jarvis,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion, 51,  62,  63,  98 

House  of  Representatives  shows  generous  apprecia- 
tion of  Smithson  bequest,  26 

Howard,  L.  O.,  on  Department  of  Insects,  National 
Museum,  344-346 

Hoy,  Philo  R.,  163 

Hubbard,  Gardiner  Greene,  Regent,  Smithsonian  In- 
stitution, 65,  98 

Huggins  on  Results  of  Spectrum  Analysis  Applied  to 
the  Heavenly  Bodies,  535 

Hungerford.  Henry  James,  nephew  of  Smithson  and 
principal  legatee,  19,  20,  25;  place  and  date  of  death 
of,  25 ;  title  of,  25 

Hungerfords  of  Studley,  ancestors  of  Smithson's 
mother,  i 

Hunt,  T.  Sterry,  on  relation  of  Chemistry  to  Geolog>', 

615  

Hunter,  Henry  C,  assists  J.  M.  Gilhss  m  expedition 

to  Chile,  594 
Huxley,  Thomas  H.,  406;  Jubilee  Year  Address  by, 

558;    remarks  of,   on  Fish-culture  in  America  and 

Great  Britain,  1S8 
Hyatt,  Alpheus,  on  Genesis  of  the  Arietidae,  685 
Hydrography  of  the  Ohio  River,  treatise  on,  published 

by  Institution,  462 
Hypsometric    Map    of    United  States,   prepared   by 

Charles  A.  Schott,  784 

Ilarregui  (y)  Salazar,  Governor  of  Yucatan,  478 
Immediate   Exchange  of  the  Official   Journals,    Par- 
liamentary Annals  and  Documents,  provision  for  a 
convention  to  consider  the,  411 
Indexes  to  Chemical  Literature  published  by  Institu- 
tion, 623 


Indian  Lingubtic  Collections,  plan  by  Wm.  W.  Turner 
for,  379 

Indians,  American,  beliefs  among,  392  ;  ceremonials 
of,  394 ;  classification  of,  by  Bureau  of  Ethnol- 
ogy. 373.  374.  376 ;  classification  of  linguistic  char- 
acters of,  377  ;  collection  of  vocabularies  of,  by  the 
Smithsonian  Institution,  757;  collections  relating 
to,  made  by  J.  W.  Powell,  394 ;  costume  among, 
385;  games  of,  388;  habitations  among,  584;  handi- 
craft among,  385  ;  hieroglyphic  system  of,  383  ;  idea 
of  property  right  among,  392;  investigation  of,  372; 
laws  of  marriage  among,  391 ;  quarrying  and  min- 
ing among,  387 ;  sign-language  among,  381  ;  social 
organizations  among,  388;  stocks,  table  of,  of  North 
American,  J77;  symbols  of  belief  among,  393  ;  syn- 
opsis of,  by  Gallatin,  379 ;  system  of  trioal  laws 
among,  390;   tribal  society  among,  389 

Induction,  discovery  of,  by  Michael  Faraday,  526;  dis- 
covery of,  by  Henry,  526 ;  magneto-electric,  date  of 
discovery  of,  127 

Ingalls,  John  James,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institution, 

,  65,  99 

IngersoU,  Joseph  R.,  47,  269 

Insects,  publications  by  the  Smithsonian  Institution, 
on,  730-732 

International  Congress  of  Electricians,  name  of  Henry 
given  to  unit  of  inductive  resistance  by,  126 

International  Exchange  Conferences  at  Brussels,  410 

International  Exchange  of  Official  Documents,  Scien- 
tific and  Literary  Publications,  provisions  of  con- 
vention for,  411 

International  Exchanges,  23;  J.  S.  Billings  on,  819; 
D.  C.  (;ilnian  on,  8oq 

International  Fishery  Exhibition  of  Berlin,  288 

International  Geographical  Congress,  in  Paris,  plan 
of,  for  international  exchanges,  409,  410 

Introductions  to  North  American  Ethnology,  395,  499 

Invertebrate  Animals,  Smithsonian  publications  on, 
681-686,  728 

Invertebrate  Paleontology,  list  of  memoirs  on,  692 

Irving,  Washington,  Honorary  Member  of  Smithso- 
nian Institution,  60 

Ives,  Joseph  C,  expedition  of,  180 

Jackson,  Andrew,  361 

Jackson,  Charles  T.,  465 

Jackson,  T.  C,  349 

Janssen,  J.,  421 

Jardin  des  Plantes,  origin  of,  444 

Jefferson,  Thomas,  360 

Jeffreys,  J.  Gwyn,  343 

Jenkins,  Timothy,  member  of  committee  on  final  or- 
ganization of  Smithsonian  Institution,  61 

Jenney,  W.  P.,  352 

Jewett,  Charles  C.,  becomes  Superintendent  of  Boston 
Public  Library,  284 ;  biographical  sketch  of,  274, 
275;  library  work  of,  816;  method  proposed  by,  for 
securing  complete  catalogue  of  all  libraries  in  LJnited 
States,  276:  Notices  of  Public  Libraries  of  the  U.  S. 
of  America  by,  277  ;  on  apian  for  a  general  catalogue, 
787 ;  on  the  construction  of  catalogues  of  libraries, 
278  ;  plan  of,  for  Smithsonian  Library,  272  ;  retire- 
ment of,  from  the  Institution,  283 

Jillson,  Joseph,  357 

Joad,  George,  351 

Johnson,  Andrew,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institution, 
64,  99,  483 

Johnson,  Samuel  W.,  on  Agricultural  Chemistrj',  615 

Johnson,  Walter  R.,  pleads  use  of  Smithsonian  be- 
quest in  fostering  researches  in  physical  science,  35 

Johnston,  Joseph  Eggleston,""  Regent,  Smithsonian 
Institution,  64,  90 

Johnston,  William  Preston,  Regent,  Smithsonian  In- 
stitution, 64,  100 

Joessel,  J.  G,,  225 

Joule.  James  P.,  148,  gives  priority  to  Henry  in  con- 
struction of  electro-magnetic  engines,  138 

Jouy,  P.  L.,  357;  work  in  Korea  of,  479 

Judd,  Orange,  515 

Kalb,  Baron  de,  361 

Kane,  Elisha  Kent,  467  ;    observations  on  terrestrial 

magnetism  by,  530 ;  on  Tidal  Observations  in  the 

Arctic  Seas,  548 
Keate,  Luniley  Hungerford,  brother  of  Elizabeth  Keate 

Macie,  8 


850 


Index 


Keate,  Penelope,  grandmother  of  Smithson,  will  of,  8 

Kelvin,  Lord,  on  Boscovich's  Theorj-,  553 

Kennicott,  Robert,  339,  357,  475,  476;  snrvey  by,  182 

Kidder,  Jerome  Henry,  340;  bequest  of,  237,  424; 
biographical  sketch  of,  237 

King,  Clarence,  347;  on  Age  of  the  Earth,  550;  su--- 
vey  under,  182 

King,  C.  B.,  collection  of  engravings  presented  to 
Institution  by,  298 

King,  Henry,  curator  in  charge  of  Exploring  Expedi- 
tion Collections,  306 

King,  William  Rufus,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institution, 
64,  100 

Kirchhoff,  G.  R.,  219,  421 

Kirtland,  Jared  P.,  163 

Koehler,  S.  R.,  on  Section  of  Graphic  Arts,  National 
Museum,  363 

Kumlien,  Ludwig,  357;  explorations  of,  182 

Kummer,  Ernst  E.,  225 

Kung,  Prince,  360 

Laboulaye,  Edouard  R.  L.,  403 

Lacoe,  R.  D.,  353 

Lamansky's  curve,  illustration  of,  431 

Langley,   John    W.,    on   early    studies   of    Secretary 

Langley  in  astronomy,  204 
Langley,  Samuel  Pierpont,  Secretary  of  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution,  58;  accompanieseclipseexpedition 
to  Spain,  214;  administrative  work  of,  at  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution,  230-231 ;  aerodome  constructed 
by,  227;  ancestors  of,  206  ;  becomes  Assistant  at  the 
Observatory  in  Cambridge,  202 ;  becomes  Assistant 
Professor  of  Mathematics  in  U.  S.  Naval  Academy 
at  Annapolis,  202  ;  becomes  Director  of  Allegheny 
Observatory,  203  ;  builds  a  telescope,  201 ;  character- 
istics of,  210 ;  connection  of,  with  scientific  societies, 
233  ;  contributions  of,  to  science,  233  ;  data  and  place 
of  birth  of,  201 ;  degrees  conferred  upon,  233 ;  early  de- 
velopment of  mechanical  taste  by,  205  ;  early  interest 
of,  in  question  of  flight,  205  ;  expedition  of,  to  Mount 
Whitney,  221  ;  First  Assistant  Secretary  of  Smith- 
sonian Institution,  203  ;  first  contribution  to  science 
by,  214;  founder  of  Smithsonian  Asttophysical  Ob- 
servatory and  National  Zoological  Park,  232  ;  in- 
augurates system  of  time  signals  for  Pennsylvania 
railroads,  212-213;  increase  in  funds  in  Smithsonian 
Institution  under  administration  of,  232  ;  invents  the 
bolometer,  217;  measurements  upon  the  light  of  the 
glow-worm,  150;  measures  of  the  energy  of  light 
with  bolometer,  223 ;  medals  received  by,  234 ;  ob- 
servations at  Mount  Etna  by,  221;  observations  on 
solar  eclipse  at  Pike's  Peak  by,  220;  observations 
upon  the  spectrum  of  the  fire-fly  by,  223;  on  Lunar 
Photography,  577 ;  on  Selective  Absorption  of  the 
Solar  Rays  by  the  Earth's  Atmosphere,  220 ;  on  The 
Internal  Work  of  the  Wind,  552;  on  The  Minute 
Structure  of  the  Solar  Photosphere,  215;  origin  of 
"time  service"  systems  by,  212;  practice  of,  as  an 
architect,  201;  rapid  progress  of,  in  astronomical 
studies,  202  ;  reminiscences  of  boyhood  of,  203 ;  re- 
searches of,  on  the  solar  atmosphere,  214;  researches 
of,  on  temperature  of  the  moon  with  bolometer, 
223;  results  obtained  in  use  of  bolometer  and  holo- 
graph, 218,  223  ;  school  life  of,  201  ;  special  work  of, 
in  connection  with  Smithsonian  Institution,  232  ; 
studies  of,  on  disk  of  the  sun,  214  ;  study  of  sun- 
spots  by,  214;  study  of  the  distribution  of  heat  by, 
with  thermopile,  215;  study  of  the  physics  of  the 
atmosphere  and  conditions  of  artificial  flight  by,  223  ; 
succeeds  Baird  as  Secretary  of  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion, 203  ;  work  of,  at  Allegheny  Observatory,  211 

Lapham,  I.  A.,  474 

Latimer,  Geo.,  357 

Lawrence,  Abbott,  of  Boston,  signs  circular  of  invita- 
tion to  found  the  National  Institute,  47 

Lawrence,  George  N.,  163,  169 

Lea,  Isaac,  343,  351 

Le  Conte,  John,  164 

Le  Conte,  Joseph,  on  flying-machines,  226 

Lefroy,  John  Henry,  gives  collection  to  Smithsonian 
Library,  297 

Leidy,  Joseph,  163 ;  on  Extinct  Sloth  Tribe  of  North 
America,  088;  on  Extinct  Species  of  American  Ox, 
686  ;  on  Flora  and  Fauna  within  Living  Animals, 
704 ;  on  Fossil  Reptiles,  690 

Leigh,  Senator  Benjamin  W.,  favors  acceptance  of  the 
Smithson  becpicst,  26 


Lenox,  Walter,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institution,  65, 
100 

Lepsius,  Carl  Richard,  gifts  of,  to  the  Institution  Li- 
brary, 295 

Lewis,  James,  343        ..      . 

Librarian  of  Smithsonian  Institution,  date  of  appoint- 
ment of  first,  274 

Librarians,  first  conference  of,  281 

Librarians,  resolutions  passed  by  first  convention  of, 
282 

Libraries,  public,  of  United  States,  growth  of,  818 

Library  catalogues,  plan  of  printing,  by  stereotyped 
titles,  proposed  by  Jewett,  277 ;  cause  of  failure  of, 
2S0 

Library  of  Congress,  catalogue  of,  begun  on  Jewett's 
plan,  280 

Library  of  Smithsonian  Institution,  transferred  to  Con- 
gressional Library,  817,  825;  of  office  of  Smithsonian 
Institution,  299;  policy  toward  formation  of,  810; 
Secretary's,  Smithsonian  Institution,  299 

Library  work  of  C.  C.  Jewett,  J.  S.  Billings  on,  816 

Life  Histories  of  North  American  Birds,  published 
by  National  Museum,  499 

Light,  cheapest  form  of,  researches  on,  442 

Lilienthal,  Otto,  226 ;  on  Practical  Experiments  in 
Soaring,  553  ;  on  Problems  in  Flying,  553 

Lincoln,  Abraham,  companionship  of,  with  Henry,  152 

Linell,  M.  L.,  345 

Linguistic  Collections  of  Indian  tribes  in  Bureau  of 
Ethnology,  extent  of,  380;  plan  extended,  to  include 
sign-language,  etc.,  380 

Linguistics,  publications  on,  by  Institution,  497,  7s8,  762 

Lining,  John,  first  meteorological  observations  in  United 
States,  647 

Linn,  Senator  Lewis  F.,  promotes  interests  of  National 
Institution,  41 

List  of  Foreign  Correspondents  of  the  Smithsonian 
Institution,  by  Geo.  H.  Boehmer,  418 

Livermore,  George,  on  Jewett's  catalogue  plan,  279 

Locke,  John,  invents  chronograph,  529 

Lockhart,  James,  339 

Lockyer,  Joseph  Norman,  219 

Lodge,  Henry  Cabot,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion, 64,  100 

Lodge,  Oliver,  on  Henry's  discoveries  in  connection 
with  the  Leyden  Jar,  129;  on  Modem  Theory  of 
Light,  536  ... 

Loew,  Oscar,  work  in  Smithsonian  chemical  labora- 
tory, 620 

Longifellow,  Henry  Wadsworth,  273 

Longitude   calculations  by  Coast   Survey  campaign, 

598 
Longitude,  campaign  in,  made  by  George  W.  Dean, 

599 
Longitude,  transatlantic,  determinations  by  American 

astronomers,  596 

Longstreet,  Augustus  B.,  Honorary  Member  of  Smith- 
sonian Institution,  60 

Loomis,  Elias,  on  The  Aurora,  532 ;  work  in  meteor- 
ology by,  649 

Lovering,  Joseph,  remarks  on  Henry  by,  148  ;  on 
Michelson's  researches  in  optics,  536 

Lowell,  James  R.,  story  of  Percy  at  Concord,  5 

Lubbock,  Sir  John,  406 

Lunar  Photography,  work  of  the  Institution  in  con- 
nection with  Lick  Observatory,  578 

McCall,  G.  A.,  181 

McClellan,  George  B.,  expeditions  of,  180;  makes  col- 
lection of  reptiles,  181 

McClelland,  Robert,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institution, 
65,  101 

McCrary,  George  Washington,  Regent,  Smithsonian 
Institution,  65,  loi 

McGraw,  Doctor,  instructor  of  Professor  Baird,  162 

Mcjilton,  J.  N.,  Grand  chaplain,  256 

McKay,  Charles  L.,  357 

McKenzie,  A.,  339 

McLeod,  M.,  339 

McPherson,  Edward,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion, 64,  lOI 

MacFarlane,  Robert,  339,    357 

Mac  Rae,  Archibald,  assists  Gilliss  in  Chile,  594 

Macie,  Elizabeth  Keate,  mother  of  James  Smithson,  i 

Macie,  James,  i 

Macie,  James  Lewis,  early  name  of  James  Smithson,  i  ; 
entered  at  Pembroke  College,  O.xford,  8 


Index 


851 


Maclean,  John,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institution,  64, 

lOI 

Magnet,  intensity,  creator  of,  125;  quantity,  125.;  quan- 
tity, of  Sturgeon,  125;  quantity,  perfected  by  Henry, 
124 ;  quantity,  plan  of  Henry  for  using  at  great  dis- 
tances, 135 

Magnetic  Induction,  lectures  by  J.  A.  Ewing  on,  re- 
printed in  Smithsonian  Report,  531 

Magnetic  Observatory,  removal  from  the  Institution, 

Magneto-electric  Induction,  date  of  discovery  of,  127 
Magneto-electricity,  connection  of  Michael   Faraday 

and  Henry  in  disco ver>'  of,  128  ;  date  of  discovery 

of,  126 
Magowan,  D.  J.,  on   modes  of  keeping  time  known 

among  the  Chinese,  544 
Magruder,  William  Bean,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tution, 65,  102 
Mallery,  Garrick,  370,  381 ;  memoirs  of,  on  Rictogra- 

phy,  382 
Mallet,  Robert,  On   the   Observation   of  Earthquake 

Phenomena,  547 
Mammals,  collections  of,   in   National   Museum,  336, 

337;  publications  by  the  Smithsonian  Institution  on, 

743 

Marcy,  R.  B.,  180,  466,  467 

Marey,  E.  J.,  lectures  of,  on  flight  in  animal  kingdom, 
551 ;  on  "  Le  vol  des  oiseaux,"  225 

Mariette,  Bey,  gives  facsimiles  of  Egyptian  papyri  to 
Smithsonian  Library,  297 

Marsh,  George  Perkins,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion, 64,  102  :  arguments  in  favor  of  the  library  plan. 
269 ;  collection  of  engravings  of,  purchased  by  the 
Institution,  298 ;  collection  of  engravings  of,  trans- 
ferred to  Library  of  Congress,  324 ;  connection  of, 
with  Baird,  166;  member  of  c'immittce  on  final  or- 
ganization of  Smithsonian  Insiitulion,  51;  offers 
amendments  having  important  influence  on  organi- 
zation of  Smithsonian  Institution,  50 

Marshall,  J.  W.,  349 

Mary,  George,  345 

Mascart,  M.,  name  of  Henry  for  unit  of  induction  pro- 
posed by,  127  :  on  The  Age  of  Electricity,  533 

Mason,  James  Murray,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion, 64,  102 

Mason,  Orme,  on  Solution,  553 

Mason,  Otis  T.,  on  Department  of  Ethnology,  Na- 
tional Museum,  355-358  :  on  characteristics  of  Dr. 
Goode,  507 ;  on  Comparative  Technology,  768 

Mathematical  Science,  progress  of,  in  last  half-century. 

Mathematical  work  of  Smithsonian  Institution,  char- 
acter of,  563 

Matteucci  C,  on  Earth  Currents,  532 

Matthews,  Washington,  357 

Maury,  John  Walker,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion, 64,  102 

Ma.xey,  Samuel  Bell,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institution, 
64,  103 

Meacham,  James,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institution,  64, 
103 

Mearns,  Edgar  A.,  336 

Meech,  L.  W. ,  memoirs  by,  533 

Meigs,  Josiah,  early  collection  ol  meteorological  data 
by,  648 

Meigs,  ISIontgomcry  C-,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion, 65,  103,  329;  member  of  E.xecutive  Committee 
of  Smithsonian  Institution,  76 ;  memorial  record  by 
Henry  Coppee,  76 

Melsheimer,  f.  E.,  163.  164 

ISIendenhall,  T.  C,  on  FundamentalUnits  of  Measure, 
545;  on  "The  Henrj',"  533 

Merrill,  George  P.,  on  Department  of  Geology,  Na- 
tional Museum,  347-350;  work  of,  in  Smithsonian 
chemical  laboratory,   621 

Meske,  O.,  345 

Meteoric  Fire  Ball,  account  of  a,  589 

Meteorites,  work  of  the  Institution  on,  591 

Meteorological  investigations,  special,  carried  on  by 
Institution,  668;  in  connection  with  Patent  Office, 
661 

Meteorological  memoirs  and  monographs  in  Smithso- 
nian publications,  671 

Meteorological  observations  in  Arctic  regions,  reduced 
by  Charles  A.  Schott,  671;  list  of  papers  on,  671; 
loss  of  appropriations  for,  672;  origin  of  American, 
647 


Meteorological  publications  of  the  Institution,  543-546 

Meteorological  records  of  Institution,  transferred  to 
Weather  Bureau  by  Langlcy,  678 

Meteorological  tables  by  Arnold  Guyot,  670 

Meteorological  work,  three  classes  of  observers  m, 
653 ;  aid  from  newspapers,  telegraph  reports,  659 ; 
of  Smithsonian  Institution,  an  aid  to  agriculture, 
661  ;  use  of  telegraph  by  Henry  in,  656 

Mexican  Boundary  Commission,  350 

Mexican  Boundary  Surveys,  180 

Michelson,  A.  A.,  on  the  Applicatinn  of  Interference 
Methods  to  Spectroscopic  Measurements,  J36 

Miller,  Samuel  Freeman,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tution, 65,  103 

Mills,  Robert,  assistant  architect  of  Smithsonian  build- 
ing, 256 

MindcleflT,  Cosmos,  385 

Mindeleff,  Victor,  370,  386 

Mitchell,  Maria,  recognition  of  work  of,  by  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution,  588 

Mitsukuri,  K.,  346 

Mohun,  R.  Dorsey,  357,  457 

Mollusks,  publications  oy  the  Smithsonian  Institution 

on>  733.  736 

Mooney,  James,  356,  370,  388,  395 

Moore,  H.  C.,  457 

Morgan,  Lewis  H  ,  on  Cons.anguinity  and  Affinity  of 
the  Human  Family,  763;  on  American  Houses  and 
House-life,  385 

Morin,  A.,  on  Warming  and  Ventilating  Occupied 
Buildings,  557 

Morlcy,  Edward  W.,  on  Densities  of  Oxygen  and  Hy- 
drogen and  the  Ratio  of  their  Atomic  Weights,  554 ; 
physico-chemical  investigations  by,  627 

Morocco,  Emperor  of,  360 

Morrill,  Justin  Smith.  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion, 64,  104;  favors  Zoological  Park,  449 

Morris,  John  G.,  163,  164 

Morrison,  H.  K.,  345 

Morrison  of  Greenock,  Scotland,  132 

Morse,  S.  F.  B.,  362 

Morton,  Henry,  deposits  Ramsden  dividing  engine 
in  National  Museum,  546 

Morton,  Levi  Parsons,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion, 64,  104 

Motor,  electro-magnetic,  construction  of  first,  139,  159 

Mounds  of  Wisconsin,  exploration  of,  by  American 
Antiquarian    Society,  remarks   of  Henry    on,  473, 

474 
Miiller,  J.,  on  Principles  of  the   Mechanical  Theory 

of  Heat,  534;  on  Recent  Progress  in  Physics,  530: 

reports  on  Galvanism  and  Electricity,  published  in 

Smithsonian  Report,  530 
Museums  of  the  Future,  by  G.  Brown  Goode,  503 
Myriapods,  Charles  Har\-ey  BoUman  on,  732 


Napier,  John,  226 

National  Academy  of  Sciences,  establishment  of,  152; 

National  Herbarium,  transfer  of,  to  Agricultural  De- 
partment, 708 ;  work  of  Institution  on,  707 

National  Institute,  appropriations  lost,  48;  attempts 
by,  to  secure  Smithson  legacy,  41 :  bill  of  incorpora- 
tion of,  305  :  bill  to  incorporate  and  unite  with  Smith- 
sonian Institution,  41,  43;  bills  to  give  management 
of  Smithsonian  foundation  to,  41;  cause  of  decline 
of,  according  to  Goode,  310;  change  of  name  to,  44; 
collections  of,  deposited  in  Smithsonian  Institution, 
305 ;  collections  of,  reports  of  committee  in  1842, 
307;  constitution  of.  37;  date  of  organization  of,  39; 
dissolved,  305;  division  of.  into  classes,  52;  first 
meeting  of,  under  new  name.  45;  gradual  decjine  of, 
48 ;  incorporated.  43  ;  influence  of,  on  organization 
of  Smithsonian  Institution,  49 ;  influence  of.  on 
science,  49;  John  Tyler's  endorsement  ^^i,  46;  library 
of,  presented  to  Institution,  295;  members  and  offi- 
cers of,  37;  memorial  to  Congress,  recommending 
appropriation  for,  48;  memorializes  Congress,  45;  or- 
ganization of,  305;  plan  for,  by  Joel  Bariow.  304; 
Senator  Rufus  Choate  recommends  an  appropriaiion 
by  Congress  for,  45 ;  sends  out  circulars  to  secure 
funds,  45;  system  of  exchange  of  specimens  by,  44 

National  Library,  development  of,  due  to  Rufus  Choate, 

56 
National  Museum  Building  Commission,  329^ 
National  Museum,  building  pro^^ded  for,  by  Congress, 

329 


852 


Index 


National  Museum,  collections  of,  in  mineralogy  and  ge- 
ology, 643;  connection  of,  with  Institution,  early  his- 
tory of,  717-722;  date  of  erection  of  building  for, 
329;  design  of  building  for,  329;  development  of, 
commensurate  with  activities  of  the  Government, 
333;  development  of,  under  Goode,  330,331;  dis- 
tribution of  specimens  by,  364 ;  double  origin  of, 
183;  exchange  of  specimens  by,  364;  exhibition  work 
of,  332;  functions  of,  335;  Gilman  on  formation 
of,  810;  influence  of,  331  ;  nucleus  of,  in  Institute 
Collections,  306;  nucleus  of,  in  Patent-Office  build- 
ing, 306;  papers  relating  to  geological  collections 
in,  637;  publications  of,  365-366,  498;  synopsis  of 
collections  of,  336-364;  working  plan  of,  300 
National  Museum  Library,  gift  by  Baird  to,  290 
National  Zoological  Park,  buildings  in,  452;  collections 
made  in  Yellowstone  Park  for,  455  ;  date  of  formation 
of,  450;  development  of,  451  ;  difficulty  of  procur- 
ing specimens  for,  454;  gifts  of  animals  to,  453; 
material  derived  from  death  of  animals  in,  457;  origi- 
nal number  of  animals  in,  453;  popular  interest  in, 
455;  restrictions  by  Committee  on  Appropriations 
upon,  453;  salubrity  of  conditions  of,  456;  selection  of 
site  for,  448 ;  site  of,  transferred  to  Regents  of  Smith- 
sonian Institution,  450 
Natural  Cabinet  of  Curiosities,  attempt  to  join  it  with 

Smithsonian  Institution,  51 
Naval  Observatory,  first  site  of,  248 ;  site  of  second, 

248 
Needle-telegraph,  forms  of,  133 
Nelson,  E.  W.,  355,  357;  explorations  of,  182 
Neptune,  computations  on  the  orbit  of,  579 
Newberry,  John  S.,  163;  eulogy  of  Baird,   194-197 
Newcomb,  Simon,  investigations  of  orbit  of  Neptune 
by,    580;    on   General    Integrals   of  Planetary  Mo- 
tion, 593;  on  Investigation  of  the  Orbit  of  Uranus, 

Newton,  H.  A.,  on  metric  tables,  544;  preparation  of 
metric  tables  by,  567;  work  on  star-maps  by,  591 

Newton,  Sir  Isaac,  156,  226 

Niles,  Senator,  John  Tvl.,  views  on  formation  of  library, 
268 

North  American  Birds,  History  of,  by  S.  F.  Baird, 
T.  M.  Brewer,  and  R.  Ridgwaj^,  170  ;  Review  of,  171 

North  Pacific  Exploring  Expedition,  350 

Northumberland,  Duke  of,  presents  library  to  Institu- 
tion, 295 

Northumberland,  Hugh  Smithson  becomes  first  Duke 
of,  I 

Ober,  F.  A.,  337 

Occultations  visible  in  the  United  States  and  elsewhere, 

List  of,  576 
Oceanic  Ichthyology,  by  Goode  and  T.  H.  Bean,  341, 

509 
Oersted,  Hans  Christian,  133 

Office  Libraiy  of  the  Institution,  299 

Ohm,  George  S.,  confirmation  by  Henry  of  mathe- 
matical theory  of,  125 ;  formula  of,  adopted  by  Sir 
Charles  Wheatstone,  137 

Olmstead,  Frederick  L.,  451 

Order  of  St.  Olaf,  Baird  made  Knight  of,  192 

Organization  Committee,  resolution  of,  concerning 
character  of  Secretary  of  Smithsonian  Institution,  57 

Organization  of  Smithsonian  Institution,  how  attained, 
57  ;  plans  of,  similarity  of  National  and  Smithsonian 
Institutions,  51 ;  suggestions  offered  as  to,  32 

Owen,  David  Dale,  465 

Owen,  Robert  Dale,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institution, 
62,  65,  104,  250,  269;  activities  of,  78;  adoption  of 
bill  of,  for  erection  of  Smithsonian  building,  248; 
chairman  of  building  committee,  78,  253;  chairman 
of  organization  committee,  57;  denounces  use  made 
of  Girard  fund,  250;  introduces  bill  in  Congress, 
on  publications,  482;  Irish  elk  described  by,  354; 
member  first  Board  of  Regents,  57  ;  on  Hints  on 
Public  Architecture,  253;  on  style  of  building 
desired  for  Smithsonian  Institution,  250;  prepares 
final  act  of  incorporation  for  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion, 57  ;  reports  final  bill  for  incorporation  of  Smith- 
sonian Institution,  51;  secures  passage  of  Organiza- 
tion Act,  78 

Pacific  Railroad  surveys,  180,  350 
Page,  James  Page,  256 
Page,  T.  I.,  467 


Paleontology,  explorations  aiding,  462 

Palmer,  Edward,  357 

Palmieri  on  electro-magnetic  seismograph,  547 

Panizzi,  Sir  Anthony,  on  first  conference  of  librarians, 
282 

Parke,  J.  G.,  466 

Parker,  Peter,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institution,  65, 
104,  329;  resolutions  at  his  resignation,  74 

Patent  office  destroyed  by  fire  in  1836,  303 

Patterson,  Joseph,  154 

Patterson,  James  WilUs,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tution, 64,  105 

Paul,  G.  R.,  360 

Paulding,  James  K.,  306 

Pearce,  James  Alfred,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion, 64,  105  :  eulogy  of,  by  A.  D.  Bache,  67  ;  ideas 
of,  on  formation  of  library,  267 ;  remarks  of,  on  the 
death  of  Richard  Rush,  65 

Peary,  Mrs.  R.  E.,  456 

Peirce,  Benjamin,  273;  aid  from  Institution  in  distn- 
buting  treatise  on  Analytical  Mechanics  by,  566 

Pendulum  Observations  at  Smithsonian  Institution,  606 

Penfield  Iron  Works,  use  of  Henry's  system  for  separa- 
tion of  iron  from  other  substances  at,  139 

Pennsylvania  Gazette,  178S,  contains  suggestion  for 
a  National  Museum,  304 

Pennybacker,  Isaac  Samuels,  Regent,  Smithsonian  In- 
stitution, 62,  64,  105 

Penrose,  R.  A.  F.,  348 

Percy,  Dorothy,  half-sister  of  Smithson,  leaves  him  a 
legacy,  22 

Percy,  Elizabeth,  wife  of  Hugh  Smithson,  i 

Percy,  Lord,  command  of  camp  at  Boston,  6,  7 ;  at 
Concord,  5 

Perry,  Commodore,  M.  C,  356,  357,  467 

Perturbations  of  Planets,  Tables  for  Determining,  pub- 
lished by  Institution,  592 

Pettigrew,  James  Beel,  on  the  Various  Modes  of 
Flight,  551  ,.,.,. 

Phelps,  William  Walter,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion, 64,  105 

Phelps,  S.  I..,  assists  Gilliss  in  expedition  to  Chile,  594 

Philadelphia  Museum  receives  first  collections  of 
United  States  Exploring  Expedition,  306 

Phillips,  J.  S.,  226 

Photography,  index  to  the  literature  of,  by  Alfred 
Tuckerman,  608 

Physical  sciences,  development  of,  during  last  half- 
century,  519 ;  promoted  by  Institution  through 
Henry,  519 

Physics,  papers  on,  published  in  Smithsonian  Reports, 

546-554 

Pickering,  Charles,  163;  appointed  curator  by  Library 
Committee  of  Congress,  309  ;  on  Egyptian  Archae- 
ology, 757 

Pilling,  J.  W.,  370 

Plateau,  J.,  on  Liquid  Films  and  Figures  of  Equilibrium 
in  Liquid  Masses,  553 

Poggendorff,  J.  G  ,  on  The  Use  of  the  Galvanometer, 
as  a  Measuring  Instrument,  532 

Poincare,  M.,  on  Light  and  Electricity,  533 

Poinsett,  Joel  R.,  address  of,  on  Objects  and  Aims  of 
the  National  Institute,  40;  attempts  of,  to  secure 
Smithsonian  legacy  for  National  Institute,  38,  39; 
efforts  of,  to  secure  U.  S.  Exploring  Expedition 
Collections,  306  ;  influence  of,  on  final  organization  of 
Smithsonian  Institution,  55 

Poland,  Luke  Potter,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institution, 
64,  106 

Poole,  Wm.  F.,  remarks  on  Professor  Jewett's  cata- 
logue plan,  279 

Pope,  Franklin  L.,  on  testimony  of  Henry  in  case  of 
Morse  sv^f.  O'Reilly,  132;  writes  of  the  possibilities  of 
the  rotary  motor  as  foreseen  by  Henry,  139 

Pope,  J.,  466 

Port  Henry,  named  in  honor  of  Joseph  Henry,  139 

Porter,  Noah,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institution,  64, 
106,  264;  points  out  relation  between  Henry's  early 
life  and  later  career,  118 

Powell,  Baden,  on  State  of  Knowledge  of  Radiant 
Heat,  534 

Powell,  J.  W.,  355,  357,  381 ;  connection  of,  with  U.  S. 
Geological  Survey,  369  ;  explorations  in  Colorado 
by,  367  ;  explorations  of  Colorado  River  by,  642 ; 
survey  by,  182 

Powers,  Stephen,  357 

Precipitation,  tables  of,  by  Lorin  Blodgett,  669 


Index 


853 


Preece,  W.  H.,  points  out  the  connections  of  the  early 
opinions  of  Henry,  140 

Preston,  William  Campbell,  Regent,  Smithsonian  In- 
stitution, 42,  47,  64,  106;  antagonizes  acceptance  of 
the  Smithson  bequest,  j5  ;  promotes  interests  of  Na- 
tional Institute,  41,  42 

Priestley,  J.  R.,  gives  instruments  used  in  discovery 
of  oxygen,  618 

Priestley,  Airs.,  presents  chemical  apparatus  used  in 
discovery  of  oxygen,  622 

Princeton  University,  tablet  erected  to  Henry  at,  121. 
See  College  of  New  Jersey 

Principles  of  Museum  Administration,  by  G.  Brown 
Goode,  503 

Proceedings,  of  National  Museum,  365 ;  character 
of,  498 

Pruyn,  John  Van  Schaick  Lansing,  Regent,  Smithso- 
nian Institution,  63,  107 

Public  I'ish-culture,  definition  of,  188 

Publications  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  extent  01 
distribution  of,  500 

Pueblo  Area,  collections  from,  in  the  Smithsonian  In- 
stitution, 765 

Pumpelly,  Raphael,  349;  on  Geological  Researches  in 
China,  Mongolia,  and  Japan,  634 

Quadrupeds  of  North  America,  Audubon  on,  167 

Radiant  Energy,  Light,  and  Heat,  papers  on,  published 
by  the  Institution,  533-537 

Rahts,  Johannes,  work  on  comet-orbits  by,  589 

Ralph,  William  L.,  338,  340 

Rainsdcn  Dividing  Engine,  paper  by  J.  Elfreth  Wat- 
kins  on,  546 

Ramsey,  William,  on  Solutions,  553 

Rau,  Charles,  assists  on  Smithsonian  exhibits  at  Cen- 
tennial Exhibition,  327;  on  Archa;ological  Collections 
of  the  U.  S.  Museum,  755  ;  on  Indian  Potteiy,  768  ; 
on   Prehistoric    Fishing   in   Europe    and   America, 

Raveret-Wattel,  M.,  on  care  for  fisheries  in  America, 
188 

Ray,  P.  H..  357 

Rayleigh,  Lord,  150 

Reading-room  of  the  Institution,  contents  of,  300 

Record  of  Progress,  appendix  to  Smithsonian  Re- 
port, 184 

Records  of  Progress  in  Science,  list  of  topics  in,  792 

Redfield,  William  C,  work  in  meteorology,  649 

Regents,  Board  of,  adopts  plan  for  library,  270;  an- 
nual meetings  of,  when  held,  62  ;  authority  given 
by  Hough  bill,  51 ;  citizens  of  Washington  mem- 
bers of,  65;  Congressional  members  of,  60;  date  of 
first  meeting  of,  58  ;  duty  of,  60  ;  executive  committee 
of,  62  ;  executive  officer  of,  61 ;  Ex-officio  members  of, 
6c;  first  meeting  of,  6.';  first  treasurer  of,  69;  how 
constituted,  60 ;  Journal  of  Proceedings  of,  66 ; 
mayors  of  Washington  formerly  members  of,  65  ; 
members  of,  60;  number  of  meetings  held  by,  62  ;  on 
character  of  library  for  Smithsonian  Institution,  270, 
271;  persons  present  at  first  meeting  of,  62  ;  presiding 
officer  of,  61 ;  record  of,  62  ;  reports  to  Congress  of,  62; 
resolution  of,  requesting  Henry  to  continue  his  re- 
searches in  physics,  144;  resident  members  of,  60; 
resolution  passed  at  election  of  Henry  as  Secretary 
of  Smithsonian  Institution  by,  141 ;  roll  of,  66;  state- 
ments of  Henry  to,  in  reference  to  beginnings  of  the 
telegraph,  131  ;  lime  and  place  of  appointment  of, 
53  ;   total  number  of  names  on  roll  of,  63 

Regents  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  biographical 
notices  of,  by  William  Jones  Rhees,  80-114  ;  list  of, 
63-66  ;  longest  in  service,  66 

Regents,  term,  when  and  by  whom  suggested,  52 

Reid,  John,  339 

Reis,  Johann  Philipp,  362 

Ren  wick,  James,  Jr.,  architect  of  the  Smithsonian 
building,  251 

Reports  of  Progress  begun  on  Smithsonian  Report  for 
1880,  4S7,  557 

Reports  of  the  National  Museum,  contents  of,  498 

Reports  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  value  of,  in 
aiding  mathematical  science,  568 

Reptiles,  publication  by  the  Smithsonian  Institution 
on,  740 

Results  of  Meteorological  Observations  made  under 
the  Direction  of  the  U.  S.  Patent  Office  and  the 
Smithsonian  Institution,  where  published,  496 


Review  of  American  Birds,  by  Baird,  169 

Reynolds,  H.  L.,  370 

Rhees,  William  Jones,  Biographical  Notices  of  the 
Regents  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  80-114;  "i 
transfer  of  exploring  expedition  collections  to  Smith- 
sonian Institution,  317;   work  in  bibliography,  791 

Rhett,  Senator  Robert  B  ,  on  printing  Smithsonian 
Report,  483 

Ridgway,  Robert,  170 

Riley,  C.  V.,  344,  345 

Ringgold,  Cadwalader,  350,  467 

Ripley,  E.  W.,  360 

Ritchie,  John,  cipher-code  for  astronomical  telegrams, 
600 

Rives,  Senator,  William  C,  47;  views  on  formation 
of  library,  267 

Robbins,  Senator,  Asher,  defeats  plan  for  establish- 
ment of  an  observatory  through  Smithson  bequest, 
56 ;  favors  establishment  of  a  university  through 
Smithson  bequest,  34 

Rockliill,  W.  W.,  357;  his  Diary  of  a  Journey  through 
Moui^olia  and  Tibet,  480,  497 ;  explorations  in 
Mongolia  and  Tibet,  479 

Rock  wood,  C.  G,,  Jr.,  on  volcanology  and  seismology, 
548 

Rodgers,  John,  Jr.,  350,  357,  467 

Rodgers,  John,  .Sr. ,  360 

Rogers,  Fairman,  lectures  on  "  Roads  and   Bridges," 

555 
Rogers,   Joseph   A.,   on   Correction  of  Sextants  for 

errors,  602 
Ross,  B.  K.,  339,  357 
Rosse,  Lord,  223 
Royal  Society  of  London,  cooperation  of  Smithsonian 

Institution  in  cataloguing  scientific  literature,  818 
Ruckcr,  Arthur  W,  address  on  Terrestrial  Magnetism, 

533 

Rumford,  Count,  217 

Runkle,  J.  S.,  prepares  tables  on  Perturbations  of 
Planets,  592 

Rush,  Richard,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institution,  62, 
64,  107;  agent  to  prosecute  Smithson  claim,  rea- 
sons for  his  success,  29;  influence  of,  in  final  or- 
ganization of  Smithsonian  Institution,  56;  letter  of, 
concerning  erection  of  Smithsonian  building  by,  247; 
proposes  plan  for  organization  of  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tution, 33  ;  remarks  of  Senator  James  Alfred  Pearce 
on  death  of,  67;  submits  paper  favoring  National 
Institute,  47 

Sabine,  Sir  Edward,  on  exchange  of  publications,  401- 
403  ;  on  magnetic  storms,  531 ;  on  Jewett's  cata- 
logue plan,  279 

Safford,  W.  E.,  357 

Sailly,  Henry  HonoriS,  servant  to  Smithson,  19 

St.  (.Jaudens,  Augustus,  designs  tablet  commemora- 
tive of  Henry,  121 

Salva,  Francisco,  of  Barcelona,  132 

Salverda,  Doctor  J.  G.  W.  Fijnje  Von,  224 

Salvin,  Osbert,  339 

Samson,  George  W.,  357 

Samuels,  E.,  474 

Sargent,  Aaron  Augustus,  Regent,  Smithsonian  In- 
stitution, 65,  107 

Sartorius,  C,  337 

Say,  Thomas,  on  Marine  Invertebrates,  728 

Sayers,  J.  I).,  426 

Schaeffer,  George  C,  work  in  chemical  laboratory  of 
Institution,  616 

Schilling,  Baron,  133 

Schoolcraft,  Henry  R.,  presents  books  to  Smithsonian 
Library,  298 

Schott,  Arthur,  478 

Schott,  Charles  A.,  discussion  of  E.  K.  Kane's  expe- 
dition by,  59s:  work  in  terrestrial  magnetism  by, 
566 

Schuchert,  Charles,  on  Department  of  Paleontology, 
National  Museum,  352-354 

Schuster,  Arthur,  on  Atmospheric  Electricitj-,  533 

Scientific  Collections,  the  first,  belonging  to  the  Gov- 
emnient,   304 

Scientific  Memoirs,  published  by  the  Institution,  49^ 

Scientific  Writings  of  Henry,  published  by  the  Insti- 
tution, 522 

Sclater,  Philip  Ludey,  339  ;  bibliography  of,  by 
Goode,  514 

Scott,  Winfield,  makes  collections  of  reptiles,  181 


854 


Index 


Seaton,  William  Winston,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tution, 62,  65,  107,  254;  remarks  of  Henry  on  ser- 
vices of,  69 

Secchi,  P'ather,  astrophysical  work  of,  529  ;  on  Electri- 
cal Rheometry,  529 

Secretarj',  acting,  of  Smithsonian  Institution,  how 
chosen,   61 

Secretary  of  Smithsonian  Institution,  assistants  of,  how 
appointed,  61  ;  duties  of,  61;  significance  of  name,  61 

Secretary's  Ubrary,  Smithsonian  Institution,  299 

Seely,  F.  A.,  on  Time-keeping  in  Greece  and  Rome, 

544 

Self-induction,  date  of  discovery  of,  126 

Senate  Committee  on  Judiciary  reports  in  favor  of  ac- 
cepting the  Smithson  bequest,  26 ;  discusses  the 
Smithson  bequest,  26 

Serials,  check-list  of,  published  by  Institution,  791 

Shea,  John  G. ,  editor  of  The  Library  of  American  Lin- 
guistics, 497 

Shepherd,  Alexander  Roby,  Regent,  Smithsonian  In- 
stitution, 65,  108 

Sherman,  John,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institution,  65, 
108 

Sherman,  William  Tecumseh,  Regent,  Smithsonian 
Institution,  65,  108,  329 

Shoemaker,  Paul,  357 

Silhman,  Benjamin,  141;  Honorary  Member  of  Smith- 
sonian Institution,  60 

Silliman,  Benjamin,  Jr.,  lectures  on  Earth,  Air,  Fire, 
and  Water,  614 

Simpson,  Charles  T.,  on  Fossil  Unionidse,  685 

Sims,  Alexander  D.,  member  of  committee  on  final 
organization  of  Smithsonian  Institution,  51 

Singleton,  Otho  Robards,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tution,   64,  108 

Smith,  Herbert  H.,  346 

Smith,  John  B.,  345 

Smith,  J.  Lawrence,  lectures  on  chemistiy,  614 

Smithson  Almanac,  plans  for  printing  of,  481 

Smithson  bequest,  acceptance  of,  by  Congress,  28  ;  an- 
nouncement to  Congress  of,  26  ;  appreciation  shown 
by  House  of  Representatives,  26 ;  bill  concerning, 
with  Museum  clause,  passes  the  Senate,  50;  bill  to 
prosecute  claim  for,  passed  by  Congress,  28;  decree 
of  Court  of  Chancery  concerning,  30;  deliberations 
of  twenty-eighth  Congress  on,  49 ;  discussion  by 
Committee  on  Judiciary  on,  26  ;  how  invested, 
31  ;  knowledge  of,  received  in  this  country,  25 ; 
probable  source  of,  8;  proposed  applications  of,  32-36; 
total  amount  of,  31 

Smithson  estate,  claims  to,  25 ;  securities  obtained  by 
Richard  Rush  deposited  in  Bank  of  England,  30; 
securities  transferred  to  U.  S.  Mint,  30 

Smithson,  half-brother  of,  fought  at  Lexington,  5 

Smithson,  Hugh,  succeeds  to  title  of  Baronet,  4;  be- 
comes Duke  of  Northumberland  and  takes  name  of 
Percy,  i ;  death  of  father  of,  7  ;  epitaph  in  West- 
minster Abbey,  7 ;  life  at  Alnwick  Castle,  4-5 ; 
story  of  his  courtship,  2 

Smithson,  James,  admitted  Fellow  of  the  Royal  So- 
ciety, 11;  applies  to  the  Crown  to  change  name  — 
time  first  used,  12;  as  a  chemist,  611 ;  born  in  France, 
9;  burial-place  of,  22;  bust  of,  17;  cabinet  of  min- 
erals of,  305;  contemporary  portrait  of,  10;  date  and 
place  of  death  of,  22 ;  date  of  birth  of,  7 ;  date  of| 
matriculation  of,  in  Pembroke  College,  9;  description 
of  himself  in  his  final  will,  i  ;  early  name  of,  i  ;  ed- 
ucation in  England,  9 ;  geological  tour  of,  10 ;  im- 
portant fact  relative  to  change  of  name  of,  8 ;  industry 
of,  16;  lodgings  in  Beutinck  Street,  11;  mother  of, 
inherits  the  property  of  the  Hungerfords  of  Studley, 
8;  motives  for  making  the  United  States  his  residu- 
ary legatee,  22  ;  overthrows  Abbe  Haiiy's  opinion  on 
calamines,  12;  Pembroke  College  record  of  birth  of, 
7;  prepares  first  scientific  paper,  11;  published  pa- 
pers of,  13  ;  residence  of,  in  Paris,  17  ;  royal  descent 
of,  2  ;  son  of  first  Duke  of  Northumberland,  3 ; 
story  of  his  mother's  marriage,  1 ;  takes  degree  i>f 
Master  of  Arts,  4:  traditions  of  College  life  of,  10; 
visits  Fiance,  expresses  sentiments  favoring  Jacobin- 
ism, 11-12;  will  of,  19;  will  of,  proved  in  Prerogative 
Court  of  Canterbury,  22 

Smithson  Langdale,  father  of  Hugh  Smithson,  3 

Smithsonian  almanac  proposed,  49,  481 

Smithsonian  Astrophysical  Observatoi-y  founded  by 
Langley,  232 

Siniths(jnian  building,  260;    annex  of,  261;  architect 


of,  251 ;  ceremonies  connected  with  laying  of  corner- 
stone of,  255;  chemical  laboratory,  establishment  of, 
614;  committee  on,  253,  254;  committee  on  recon- 
struction of,  261  ;  cost  of  construction  of,  254  ;  cost 
of  reconstruction  of,  261  ;  date  of  a  fire  in,  261 ;  date 
of  laying  of  the  corner-stone,  255  ;  date  of  location 
of,  255  ;  date  of  occupancy  of,  256  ;  date  of  re-occu- 
pancy of,  261 ;  design  of,  252;  loss  from  fire  in,  260; 
objections  to  site  of,  249 ;  original  plan  of  interior 
arrangements,  258,  259 ;  reconstruction  of,  261 ;  re- 
port of  building  committee,  257;  site  of,  248;  size 
of,  252  ;  stone  used  in  construction  of,  254  ;  style  of 
architecture  of,  252 

Smithsonian  Contributions  to  Knowledge,  320,  488 ; 
contents  of,  494;  first  distribution  of,  416;  Henry's 
plan  of,  4S9  ;  origin  of,  488 ;  policy  on  question  of 
copyrighting,  492 

Smithsonian  fimd,  bequest  of  James  Hamilton,  236; 
bequest  of  Simeon  Habel  to,  237;  bill  in  Congress 
for  investing,  in  State  stocks  repealed,  36 ;  earliest 
addition  to,  235;  gift  of  A.  G.  Bell  to,  239;  gifts 
of  Thomas  George  Hodgkins  to,  241 ;  repeal  of  bill 
for  investing,  in  State  stocks,  36 

Smithsonian  grounds,  date  of  planting,  262;  original 
plan  of  planting  of,  replaced,  263 

Smithsonian  Institution,  act  of  incorporation  of,  date 
of>  53>  31° ''  Acting  Secretary  of,  how  chosen,  61 ;  ac- 
tivities of,  23 ;  advantages  of  close  connection  of,  with 
the  Government,  7c);  aid  given  to  governmental  bu- 
reaus by,  564  ;  aids  in  disseminating  abstract  scientific 
works  by,  567  ;  appropriations  for  maintenance  of 
collections  in,  322 ;  assistants  of  Secretary  of,  how 
appointed,  61  ;  chancellor  of,  61  ;  committee  of,  on 
Hamilton  College  equatorial  telescope,  601  ;  connec- 
tion of,  with  scientific  discoveries,  519;  cooperative 
spirit  of  Secretaries  of,  D.  C.  Gilman  on,  813;  dis- 
astrous fire  at,  16  ;  Establishment  of,  59  ;  first  trans- 
mission of  documents  by,  183;  governing  principle 
of,  521 ;  manager  of,  term  changed  to  regent  of,  52  ; 
motive  of  creation  of,  2;  officers  of,  61;  present 
amount  of  fund  of,  235  ;  promotes  physical  science 
by  stimulating  original  research,  by  distribution  of  its 
pubhcations,  528 ;  proposition  to  purchase  the  City 
Hall  as  site  for,  250 ;  relation  of,  to  scientific  ex- 
ploration, 179;  resolution  of  committee  concerning 
character  of  Secretary  of,  57  ;  Secretary  of,  duties 
of,  61  ;   significance  of  name  of  secretary  of,  61 

Smithsonian  Library,  character  of,  expressed  in  report 
of  Board  of  Regents,  270,  271 ;  commencement  of, 
271 ;  copyright  system  of,  285  ;  early  date  of  proposal 
for,  265  ;  gifts  to,  294-298  ;  Henry  on  the  organization 
of,  272;  increase  of,  from  1887-1894,  294;  increase 
of,  under  Jewett's  care,  285;  most  important  idea 
of,  273  ;  periodical  literature  in,  301,302;  policy  of 
Langley  in  regard  to,  291 ;  present  character  of,  291  ; 
publications  received  by,  294  ;  Jewett's  plan  for.  272  ; 
special  aim  of,  301 ;  transfer  of,  to  Library  of  Con- 
gress, 286 

Smithsonian  Miscellaneous  Collections,  495 

Smithsonian  publications,  4S1  ;  first,  496;  Gilman  on, 
809,  810;  plan  of  R.  D.  Owen  for,  482;  special,  496; 
use  of,  in  increasing  library,  302 

Smithsonian  Report,  482;  appendices  to,  486;  distn- 
bution  of,  483;  epitome  of  contents  of,  486-88; 
Henry  on  the  theory  of,  485  ;  plan  of  the  first,  482  ; 
plan  of  the  second,  483 ;  size  and  cost,  484 ;  value 
of,  stated  by  Senator  Hamlin,  485 

Smithsonian  Tables,  issued  by  Institution,  794 

Societe  d'Acclimatation  de  France,  Baird  receives  gold 
medal  from,  192 

Solar  eclipse  of  1851,  daguerreotype  0^573;  of  1854, 
experiments  on,  by  Institution,  573;  of  1858,  report 
of,  in  Contributions,  573;  of  i860,  observations  by 
Smithsonian  Institution,  573;  of  1889,  photographs 
of,  by  p.  P.  Todd,  574 

Solar  eclipses,  work  of  Institution  in  connection  with, 
573;  of  nineteenth  century,  map  of,  573 

Somatology,  publications  on,  by  Institution,  767 

Somerset,  Charles,  Duke  of,  i 

Sonntag,  August,  on  Observations  on  Terrestrial  Mag- 
netism in  IVtexico,  531 

Sound,  audibility  of,  discussion  by  Henry  and  John 
Tyndall,  541;  audibility  of,  summary  of  experiments 
by  Henry,  in  connection  with  U.  S.  Lighthouse 
Board,  541  ;   papers  on,  published  by  the  Institution, 

.  537-54^. 
Spnrk-i,  Jared,  273 


Index 


855 


Special  Bulletins,  of  the  National  Museum,  366 
Special  Publications  of  Siiiitlisonian  Institution,  496 
Species,  named  for  military  heroes,  181 
Specimens,  distribution  of,  in  first  twenty  years  by  In- 
stitution, 321 
Spcctro-bolometer,  di;scription  of  working  of,  439,  441 
Spectrum,  as  known  to  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  441  ;  increase 

of  knowledge  of,  by  use  of  bolometer,  441 
Spencer,  Jolin  C,  Secretary  of  Treasury,  47 
Spofford,  A.  R.,  report  of,  on  J.  H.  Lefroy  collection  in 
Smithsonian  Library,  297  ;  on  Smithsonian  Library, 
293,   294 ;   remarks  of,   on  international  exchanges, 
407 ;  report  of,  to  Congress  on  necessity  for  new  li- 
brary building,  827 
Sijuier,  E.  G.,  on  anlitiuities  of  New  York,  4'>2 
Squier,   K.  G.,  and    l>avis,   E.   H.,  474;   on   Ancient 

Monuments  of  Mississippi  Valley,  398,  461 
.Stansbury,  Howard,  expeditions  of,  iSo 
Stanton,  Benjamin,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institution, 

65,  109,  26^ 
Star-maps,  ciiculalion  of,  by  the  Institution,  591 
Stearns,  Robert  E.  C,  343 
Steinheil,  C.  A.,  credit  given  to,  in  the  use  of  the  earth 

for  a  return  circuit,  134,  135 
Slcjneger,   Lconhard,   470;    characterization   of  Bair- 
dian  School  of  Ornithofiigy,  170;   on   I  )cpartnieiit  of 
Reptiles  and  Batrachians,  National  .Museum,  341 
Stephens,  Alexander  Hamilton,  Regent,  Smithsonian 

Institution,  64,  109 
Stevens,  I.  I.,  466 
Stevens,  John  M.,  361 

Stevenson,  Adlai  Rwing,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion,  109 
Stevenson,  James,  386,  388 

Stevenson,  John  White,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion, 64,  log 
Stevenson,  NIrs.  James,  370,  386 

Stimpson,  William,  342;     work  on   zoological  collec- 
tions, 721 
Stokes,  Sir  Geo.  G.,  on  the  Luminiferous  Ether,  537 
Stone,  Ormond,  work  done  by,  on  comet-oibits,  589 
Stoney,  G.  M.,  357 

Storm-warning,  development  of,  by  Institution,  660 
"  Stourbridge  Lion,"  362 
Stroud,  Mary,  352 
Stuart,   David,   Regent,  Smithsonian   Institution,   65, 

no 
Sturgeon,  William,  122;  construction  of  first  rotary  motor 
by,  138  ;   estimate  of,  on  discoveries  of  Henry,  124; 
gives  priority  to  Henrj'  in  construction  of  electro- 
magnetic engines,  138;    power  of  quantity  magnet 
of,  125 
Sumichrast,  K.,  337 
Sun,  effects  of  the,  on  life,  429;  determination  ol  power 

of  light  and  heat  of,  by  Langley,  233 
Supreme  Court,  case  of  Morse  vs.  O'Reilly  in,  132 
Surveys,  government,  collections  made  by,  aided  by 
Smithsonian  Institution,  314:  West  of  tlie  One  Hun- 
dredth Meridian,  aid  of  Institution  to,  599 
Swan,  James  G.,  355,  357;  on  Indians  of  the  North- 
west coast,  763 
SystcmsofConsanguinity  and  the  Affinity  of  the  Human 

Family,  by  Lewis  H.  Morgan,  390 

Tables  of  Weights  and  Measures,  544 

Tablets  erected  in  memory  of  Sniithson,  22 

Taney,  Roger  Brooke,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion, 62,  64,  no 

Tapir,  Baird's,  193 

Tappan,  Benjamin,  248;  defeats  aspiration  of  National 
Institute,  56;  presents  bill  for  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion, 50;  views  of,  on  formation  of  library,  260,  269 

Tassin,  Wirt,  on  Department  of  Minerals,  National 
Museum,  351,  352 

Taunt,  E.  H.,  358 

Taylor,  Ezra  B.,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institution,  65, 
no 

Taylor,  F.  W. ,  work  in  Smithsonian  chemical  labora- 
tory, 620;  last  official  chemist  to  the  Institution,  620 

Taylor,  Wm.  B.,  description  by,  of  researches  carried 
on  by  Henry  at  Princeton,  129  ;  Historical  Sketch  of 
Henry's  Relation  to  the  Telegraph  by,  559 ;  Kinetic 
Theories  of  Gravitation  by,  554;  on  Nature  and  Ori- 
gin of  Force.  554;  paperon  acoustics  by,  538;  remarks 
on  importance  of  the  intensity  magnet  by,  124 

Taylor,  Zachary,  Chairman  of  first  meeting  of  the  Es- 
tablishment, 60 


Telegraph,  connection  of  Henry  with  the  invention  of, 
525;  form  of,  used  by  Henry,  133;  history  of  the 
invention  of,  531 

Telegraph,  electro-magnetic,  first  use  of,  133;  credit 
due  to  Henry  in  construction  of,  134 

Telephone,  discovery  of,  announcement  of,  153 

Temperature  Tables,  668 

Thaw,  William,  213;  maintained  observatory  at  Pitts- 
burg, 422 

Theoria  Motus  Corporum  Coelestium,  by  C.  F.  Gauss, 
translation  aided  by  the  Institution,  591 

Thomas,  Cyrus,  370:  on  Indian  hieroglyphics,  383 

Thomas,  G    H.,  on  the  Mountain  Sheep,  181 

Thomson,  Sir  William,  148,  240 

Thomson,  Wm.  M.,  358 

Thomp'-on,  S.  P.,  on  Kocnig's  researches  on  The  Phy- 
sical Basis  of  Musical  Harmony  and  Timbre,  543 

Time  Service,  income  from,  gives  means  for  original 
research,  213 

Time  signals,  first  use  of,  in  America,  212 ;  service  of, 
in  Great  Britain,  212 

Tisdell,  W.  P.,  358 

Todd,  D.  P.,  on  ancient  eclipses,  574 

Torrey,  John,  163;  on  botany  of  California,  4'''2 

Totten,  Joseph  Gilbert,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion, 62,  65,  no,  254 

Tower  Menagerie,  origin  of,  444 

Towers,  John  Thomas,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion, 65,  III 

Transits,  American  Method  of  observing,  529 

Tree,  Lambert,  410 

Trenchard,  S.  D.,  360 

Triboaillct,  Victor,  de  St.  Amand,  133 

Trumbull,  John,  360 

Trumbull,  Lyman,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institution, 
65,  III  •       I  • 

Tubingen,  University  of,  gift  from,  to  Institution  Li- 
brary, 296 

Tunzelmann,  G.  W.  de,  account  of  H.  Hertz's  re- 
searches in  Smithsonian  Report,  1889  by,  532 

Turner,  Lucien  RL,  358;  explorations  of,  182 

Turner,  William  W.,  plan  of,  for  Indian  linguistic  col- 
lections, 379 

Tyler,  John,  President,  endorses  National  Institute,  46 

Tyndall,  John,  on  Radiation,  534 

United  States  and  Mexican  Boundary  Survey,  work 
of  Institution  in  connection  with.  715 

United  States  Coast  and  Cleodetic  Survey,  research 
in  terrestrial  magnetism,  566 

United  States  Exploring  Expedition,  collections  de- 
posited in  National  Institute,  306;  complications  in 
the  control  of  the  collections  of,  308,  309 :  suggestion 
relative  to,  report  of,  496 ;  transfer  of  collections  of, 
to  Smithsonian  Institution,  317 

United  States  Fish  Commission,  establishment  of,  325; 
explorations  of,  connection  of  Institution  with,  469; 
summer  stations  of,  186 

United  States  Geographical  and  Geological  Survey  of 
the  Rocky  Mountain  Region,  367 

United  States  Geological  Survey  aided  by  Smithsonian 
Institution,  565  :  first  Director  of,  369 ;  formation  of, 
717  :  union  of  four  bureaus  in,  369 

United  States  Lighthouse  Board,  Henry's  researches 
in  sound  in  connection  with,  540 

United  States  National  Museum.  See  National  Mu- 
seum . 

United  States  Naval  (Observatory,  help  obtained  from 
Smithsonian  Institution,  564 

United  States  Weather  Bureau  aided  by  Smithsonian 
Institution,  565:  formation  of,  676:  receives  the 
manuscripts  relating  to  meteorology,  29S 

Vail,  Aaron,  sends  information  of  the  Smithson  be- 
quest, 25 

Van  Braam,  M.,  360 

Van  Buren,  Martin,  President,  message  of,  concerning 
Smithson  legacv,  31 

Van  Geersdale,  Father  J.,  on  the  Infra-red  Spectrum 
and  Bolometer,  219 

Van  Vliet,  Stewart,  181 

Vasey,  George,  350 

Vattem.are,  Alexander,  originates  system  ol  interna- 
tional exchauc'-s  of  books,  55  ;  result  of  eflorts  of,  in 
exchanges  with  French  Government,  408;  system 
of  exchanges  by,  398 

Vatterville,  Baron  de,  410 


856 


Index 


Vaughan,  Samuel,  360 

Vertebrate  paleontology,  Smithsonian  publications  on, 

686 
Vertebrates,    Smithsonian   collection   of,  described   by 

Baird  in  1856,  320 
Virginia  Cousins,  by  G.  Brown  Goode,  tos 
Volk,  Leonard  W.,  361 

Volta  Bureau,  founding  of,  by  A.  G.  Bell,  241 
Volta  Prize  received  by  A.  G.  Bell,  240 

Wade,  Benjamin  Franklin,  Regent,  Smithsonian  In- 
stitution, 65,  III 

Waite,  Morrison  Renwick,  Regent  and  Chancellor, 
Smithsonian  Institution, 65,  in  ;  addressof,  at  unveil- 
ing of  Henry  statue,  263 ;  resolutions  of  Regents 
on  death  of,  74 

Walcott,  Charles  D.,  353  ;  on  Cambrian  and  pre-Cam- 
brian  Faunae,  683 

Walker,  Robert  J.,  Senator,  47;  director  of  National 
Institute,  46;  promotes  interests  of  National  Insti- 
tute, 41 

Walker,  Sears  C,  observation  of,  on  orbit  of  Neptune, 
579;  tabulation  of  Leverrier  co-efficients  in  perturba- 
tions of  planets  by,  592;    work  on  longitude  by,  596 

Wallach,  Richard,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institution,  65, 
112,  261 

Ward,  Lester  F.,  351 

Warner,  Hiram,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institution,  64, 
112 

Warren,  G.  K.,  467 

Washington,  George,  359,  360 

Watkins,  J.  E.,  on  Sections  of  Transportation,  Engi- 
neering, Naval  Architecture,  and  Physical  Appa- 
ratus in  National  Museum,  361,  362 

Watson,  Sereno,  botanical  work  of,  for  Smithsonian  In- 
stitution, 700 

Watt,  James,  361 

Wayland,  Francis,  suggestion  of,  on  organization  of 
Smithsonian  Institution,  32 

Weather  map,  description  of,  in  Smithsonian  Report, 
658  ;  issued  by  Smithsonian  Institution,  568 

Weber,  William  E. ,  133 

Weinbeck,  L.,  work  of,  on  lunar  photography,  577 

Weller,  J.  B.,  4C6 

Welling,  James  Clarke,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion, 65,  112;  remarks  of  Henry  Coppee  on  resolu- 
tion by,  76;  remarks  of,  on  election  of  Henry  as 
Secretary  of  Smithsonian  Institution,  141;  tribute  to 
memory  of,  by  Secretary  Langley,  77 

Wenham,  F.  H.,  on  aerial  locomotion,  551 

Wesley  &  Son,  London  agency  for  Smithsonian  ex- 
changes, 404 

Wetherill,  Charles  M.,  work  in  Smithsonian  chemical 
laboratory  by,  617 

Wheatstone,  Sir  Charles,  claims  of,  in  electric  discov- 
eries visited  by  Henry  and  A.  D.  Bache,  1 36  ;  admits 
priority  of  Henry  in  discoveries  concerning  electro- 
magnets, 137;  the  first  to  bring  the  telegraph  into 
commercial  use,  136 


Wheeler,  George  M.,  358  ;   survey  under,  182 

Wheeler,  Joseph,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institution,  64, 
112 

Wheeler,  William  Almon,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tution, 63,  J 13 

Whipple,  A.  W.,  358,  466 

White,  Andrew  Dickson,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion, 64,  113 

Whitney,  J.  D.,  465 

Whittlesey,  Charles,  on  Glacial  Drift,  633 ;  on  Fluctu- 
ations of  Level  in  North  American  Lakes,  548,  633 

Wildman,  Rouncevelle,  358 

Wilkes,  Charles,  306;  Exploring  Expedition,  180,  350, 
358 ;  gatlierings  of,  form  nucleus  of  National  Mu- 
seum, 183 

Williams,  George  H.,  348 

Williams,  Talcott,  358 

Williamson,  S.  R.,  466 

Williston,  S.  W.,  345 

Wilmot,  David,  committee  on  final  organization  of 
Smithsonian  Institution,  51 

Wilsing,  J.,  on  Density  of  the  Earth,  554 

Wilson,  Henry,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institution,  64, 
113 

Wilson,  Thomas,  on  Department  of  Prehistoric  Anthro- 
pology, National  Museum,  354 

Wilson,  William  Lyne,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion, 64,  66,  113 

Wind,  on  Internal  Work  of,  by  Langley,  224 

Winlock,  Joseph,  202 

Winthrop,  John,  meteorological  observer,  647 

Withers,  Robert  Enoch,  Regent,  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion, 64,  114 

Woodbury,  Levi,  Senator,  Second  President  of  Na- 
tional Institution,  38 ;  favors  National  Institute  re- 
ceiving Smithsonian  trust,  46 ;  remarks  on  charter 
of  National  Institute,  43 

Woods  Hole,  marine  biological  laboratory  at,  187 

Woodward,  R.  S.,  on  Mathematical  Theories  of  the 
Earth,  550 

Woolsey,  Theodore  Dwight,  Regent,  Smithsonian  In- 
stitution, 64,  114 

Word,  H.  C,  Jr.,  on  Fresh-water  Algse,  704 

Wright,  Charles,  works  of,  in  botany  for  Smithsonian 
Institution,  699 

Wurtz,  Henry,  lectures  on  gunpowder  by,  618 

Zirkel,  Ferdinand,  347 

Zoological  collections,  origin  of,  443 

Zoological  Garden,  advantages  of  a,  448 ;  of  Cincin- 
nati, 445 ;  of  Europe  surpass  those  of  New  World, 
444;  of  Philadelphia,  445;  of  United  States,  recent 
origin  of,  444.    See  National  Zoological  Park. 

Zoological  Park  of  New  York  City,  458 

Zoology,  collections  in,  for  the  Smithsonian  Institution, 
from  governmentexplorations,  71?  ;  collections  in,  for 
the  Smithsonian  Institution  from  railroad  surveys, 
713  ;  publications  on,  by  Institution,  722 


